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Communication

Automatic_curb_sender

The automatic curb sender was a kind of telegraph key, invented by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin for sending messages on a submarine communications cable, as the well-known Wheatstone transmitter sends them on a land line. In both instruments, the signals are sent by means of a perforated ribbon of paper but the cable sender was the more complicated, because the cable signals are formed by both positive and negative currents, and not merely by a single current, whether positive or negative. Moreover, to curb the prolongation of the signals due to electromagnetic induction, each signal was made by two opposite currents in succession: a positive followed by a negative, or a negative followed by a positive. The aftercurrent had the effect of "curbing" its precursor. For some time, it was the only instrument delicate enough to receive the signals transmitted through a long cable. This self-acting cable key was brought out in 1876, and tried on the lines of the Eastern Telegraph Company.

Communication

Biocommunication_(science)

In the study of the biological sciences, biocommunication is any specific type of communication within (intraspecific) or between (interspecific) species of plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and microorganisms. Communication means sign-mediated interactions following three levels of rules (syntactic, pragmatic and semantic). Signs in most cases are chemical molecules (semiochemicals), but also tactile, or as in animals also visual and auditive. Biocommunication of animals may include vocalizations (as between competing bird species), or pheromone production (as between various species of insects), chemical signals between plants and animals (as in tannin production used by vascular plants to warn away insects), and chemically mediated communication between plants and within plants. Biocommunication of fungi demonstrates that mycelia communication integrates interspecific sign-mediated interactions between fungal organisms, soil bacteria and plant root cells without which plant nutrition could not be organized. Biocommunication of Ciliates identifies the various levels and motifs of communication in these unicellular eukaryotes. Biocommunication of Archaea represents key levels of sign-mediated interactions in the evolutionarily oldest akaryotes. Biocommunication of phages demonstrates that the most abundant living agents on this planet coordinate and organize by sign-mediated interactions. Biocommunication is the essential tool to coordinate behavior of various cell types of immune systems. Biocommunication theory may be considered to be a branch of biosemiotics. Whereas biosemiotics studies the production and interpretation of signs and codes, biocommunication theory investigates concrete interactions mediated by signs. Accordingly, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects of biocommunication processes are distinguished. Biocommunication specific to animals (animal communication) is considered a branch of zoosemiotics. The semiotic study of molecular genetics, can be considered a study of biocommunication at its most basic level.Interpreting stimuli from the environment is an essential part of life for any organism. Abiotic things that an organism must interpret include climate (weather, temperature, rainfall), geology (rocks, soil type), and geography (location of vegetation communities, exposure to elements, location of food and water sources relative to shelter sites).Birds, for example, migrate using cues such as the approaching weather or seasonal day length cues. Birds also migrate from areas of low or decreasing resources to areas of high or increasing resources, most commonly food or nesting locations. Birds that nest in the Northern Hemisphere tend to migrate north in the spring due to the increase in insect population, budding plants and the abundance of nesting locations. During the winter birds will migrate south to not only escape the cold, but find a sustainable food source. Some plants will bloom and attempt to reproduce when they sense days getting shorter. If they cannot fertilize before the seasons change and they die then they do not pass on their genes. Their ability to recognize a change in abiotic factors allow them to ensure reproduction. Trans-organismic communication is when organisms of different species interact. In biology the relationships formed between different species is known as symbiosis. These relationships come in two main forms - mutualistic and parasitic. Mutualistic relationships are when both species benefit from their interactions. For example, pilot fish gather around sharks, rays, and sea turtles to eat various parasites from the surface of the larger organism. The fish obtain food from following the sharks, and the sharks receive a cleaning in return.Parasitic relationships are where one organism benefits off of the other organism at a cost. For example, in order for mistletoe to grow it must leach water and nutrients from a tree or shrub. Communication between species is not limited to securing sustenance. Many flowers rely on bees to spread their pollen and facilitate floral reproduction. To allow this, many flowers evolved bright, attractive petals and sweet nectar to attract bees. In a 2010 study, researchers at the University of Buenos Aires examined a possible relationship between fluorescence and attraction. The study concluded that reflected light was much more important in pollinator attraction than fluorescence. Communicating with other species allows organisms to form relationships that are advantageous in survival, and all of these relationships are all based on some form of trans-organismic communication. Inter-organismic communication is communication between organisms of the same species (conspecifics). Inter-organismic communication includes human speech, which is key to maintaining social structures.Dolphins communicate with one another in a number of ways by creating sounds, making physical contact with one another and through the use of body language. Dolphins communicate vocally through clicking sounds and pitches of whistling specific to only one individual. The whistling helps communicate the individual's location to other dolphins. For example, if a mother loses sight of her offspring, or when two familiar individuals cannot find each other, their individual pitches help navigate back into a group. Body language can be used to indicate numerous things such as a nearby predator, to indicate to others that food has been found, and to demonstrate their level of attractiveness in order to find a mating partner, and even more. However, mammals such as dolphins and humans are not alone communicating within their own species. Peacocks can fan their feathers in order to communicate a territorial warning. Bees can tell other bees when they have found nectar by performing a dance when they return to the hive. Deer may flick their tails to warn others in their trail that danger is approaching. Intra-organismic communication is not solely the passage of information within an organism, but also concrete interaction between and within cells of an organism, mediated by signs. This could be on a cellular and molecular level. An organism's ability to interpret its own biotic information is extremely important. If the organism is injured, falls ill, or must respond to danger, it needs to be able to process that physiological information and adjust its behavior.For example, when the human body starts to overheat, specialized glands release sweat, which absorbs the heat and then evaporates. This communication is imperative to survival in many species including plant life. Plants lack a central nervous system so they rely on a decentralized system of chemical messengers. This allows them to grow in response to factors such as wind, light and plant architecture. Using these chemical messengers, they can react to the environment and assess the best growth pattern. Essentially, plants grow to optimize their metabolic efficiency. Humans also rely on chemical messengers for survival. Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is a hormone that is secreted during times of great stress. It binds to receptors on the surface of cells and activates a pathway that alters the structure of glucose. This causes a rapid increase in blood sugar. Adrenaline also activates the central nervous system increasing heart rate and breathing rate. This prepares the muscles for the body's natural fight-or-flight response. Organisms rely on many different means of intra-organismic communication. Whether it is through neural connections, chemical messengers, or hormones, these all evolved to respond to threats, maintain homeostasis and ensure self preservation. Given the complexity and range of biological organisms and the further complexity within the neural organization of any particular animal organism, a variety of biocommunication languages exists.A hierarchy of biocommunication languages in animals has been proposed by Subhash Kak: these languages, in order of increasing generality, are associative, re-organizational, and quantum. The three types of formal languages of the Chomsky hierarchy map into the associative language class, although context-free languages as proposed by Chomsky do not exist in real life interactions.

Communication

China_Internet_Network_Information_Center

The China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC; 中国互联网络信息中心) is a public institution affiliated with the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. Founded on 3 June 1997 and based in Zhongguancun, Beijing, the center manages the country code top-level domain name of the People's Republic of China, namely the .cn domain name. CNNIC is responsible for operating and administering China’s domain name registry. CNNIC manages both the ".cn" country code top level domain and the Chinese domain name system (internationalized domain names that contain Chinese characters). As of April 2017, the total number of Chinese domain names was about 21 million.As of January 2017, CNNIC only opened the CN domain to registered businesses, required supporting documentations for domain registration such as business license or personal ID, and suspended overseas registrars even for domestic registrants. CNNIC denied that it mandated existing personal domain names to be transferred to businesses. Trend Micro suggested this move was still not enough to stop modern security threats from the .cn domain. CNNIC allocates Internet Protocol (IP) addresses and AS Numbers to domestic ISPs and users. CNNIC is a National Internet Registry (NIR) acknowledged by the Asia-Pacific Network Information Center (APNIC). In late 2004 CNNIC launched an “IP Allocation Alliance” which simplified the procedures for obtaining IP addresses.CNNIC is responsible for the creation and maintenance of the state top-level network catalog database. This database provides information on Internet users, web addresses, domain names, and AS numbers.CNNIC conducts technical research and undertakes state technical projects based on its administrative and practical network technology experience.CNNIC has conducted, and continues to conduct, surveys of Internet information resources. CNNIC maintains statistics on topics such as Internet bandwidth in China, Domain Name registrations, and Internet Development in China.As the national Network Information Center (NIC), CNNIC maintains cooperative relationships with other International Internet Communities, and works closely with NICs of other countries.CNNIC serves as the Secretariat of the Internet Society of China’s Internet Policy and Resource Committee. The Policy and Resource committee is in charge of tasks such as providing policy and legislation oriented suggestions to promote the growth of China’s internet, facilitating the development and application of Internet resources and relevant technologies, and actively participating in the research work of domestic Internet development and administration policies.In July 2008, a broad alliance of Chinese online commerce stakeholders, including CNNIC, all major Chinese commercial banks and web hosting companies, founded the Anti-Phishing Alliance of China (APAC) in order to tackle phishing activities that abuse .cn sub-domain names. CNNIC also functions as the secretariat of APAC.In 2015, Google discovered that CNNIC had issued an intermediate CA certificate to an Egypt-based firm that used CNNIC's keys to impersonate Google domains. Google responded by removing CNNIC's root certificate from the certificate store in Google Chrome and all of Google's products.Mozilla responded to the incident, stating that "The Mozilla CA team believes that CNNIC’s actions amount to egregious behaviour, and the violations of policy are greater in severity than those in previous incidents. CNNIC’s decision to violate their own Certification Practice Statement is especially serious, and raises concerns that go beyond the immediate scope of the misissued intermediate certificate. After public discussion... we are planning to change Firefox’s certificate validation code such that it refuses to trust any certificate issued by a CNNIC root with a notBefore date on or after 1 April 2015."

Communication

Environmental_communication

Environmental communication is "the dissemination of information and the implementation of communication practices that are related to the environment. In the beginning, environmental communication was a narrow area of communication; however, nowadays, it is a broad field that includes research and practices regarding how different actors (e.g., institutions, states, people) interact with regard to topics related to the environment and how cultural products influence society toward environmental issues". Environmental communication also includes human interactions with the environment. This includes a wide range of possible interactions, from interpersonal communication and virtual communities to participatory decision-making and environmental media coverage. From the perspective of practice, Alexander Flor defines environmental communication as the application of communication approaches, principles, strategies, and techniques to environmental management and protection. Environmental Communication, breaking off from traditional rhetorical theory, emerged in the United States around the 1980s. Researchers began studying environmental communication as a stand-alone theory because of the way environmental activists used images and wording to persuade their public's. Since then, environmental communication theory has reached multiple milestones including the creation of the journal of environmental communication in 2007.As an academic field, environmental communication emerged from interdisciplinary work involving communication, environmental studies, environmental science, risk analysis and management, sociology, and political ecology.In his 2004 textbook, Alexander Flor considers environmental communication to be a significant element in the environmental sciences, which he believes to be transdisciplinary. He begins his textbook on environmental communication with a declarative statement: "Environmentalism as we know it today began with environmental communication. The environmental movement was ignited by a spark from a writer’s pen, or more specifically and accurately, Rachel Carson’s typewriter." According to Flor, environmental communication has six essentials: knowledge of ecological laws; sensitivity to the cultural dimension; ability to network effectively; efficiency in using media for social agenda setting; appreciation and practice of environmental ethics; and conflict resolution, mediation and arbitration. In an earlier book published in 1993, Flor and colleague Ely Gomez explore the development of an environmental communication curriculum from the perspectives of practitioners from the government, the private sector, and the academe. The role of Environmental Communication in education and academia is centered around goals through pedagogy. These are aimed at trying to increase ecological wakefulness, support a variety of practice-based ways of learning and building a relationship of being environmental change advocates. In general, Environmental skepticism is an increasing challenge for environmental rhetoric. The technological breakthroughs empowered by the appearance of the Internet are also contributing to environmental problems. Air pollution, acid rain, global warming, and the reduction of natural sources are also an outcome of online technologies. Netcraft argued that in the world, there are 7,290,968 web-facing computers, 214,036,874 unique domain names, and 1,838,596,056 websites leading to significant power consumption. Therefore, notions such as “Green Websites” have emerged for helping to tackle this issue. “Green Websites” is “associated with the climate-friendly policies and aims to improve the natural habitat of Earth. Renewable sources, the use of black color, and the highlight of the environmental news are some of the easiest and cheapest ways to contribute positively to climate issues”. The aforementioned term is under the umbrella of “Green Computing,” which is aiming to limit the carbon footprints, energy consumption and benefit the computing performance. Information and Communications technology aka ICT, has an obsessive amount of environment impacts through different types of disposal of devices and equipment that have been portrayed to give off harmful gasses and Bluetooth waves into the atmosphere that increase the carbon emissions. This has also shown that the technology has been used to minimize energy use, society always wants new technology no matter if it affects the environment good or not, but ICT has been cutting back and putting out better technology for our environment while still being able to communicate through society. Environmental communication is also a type of symbolic action that serves two functions: Environmental human communication is pragmatic because it helps individuals and organizations to accomplish goals and do things through communication. Examples include educating, alerting, persuading, and collaborating. Environmental human communication is constitutive because it helps shape human understanding of environmental issues, themselves, and nature. Examples include values, attitudes, and ideologies regarding nature and environmental issues.In the book Pragmatic Environmentalism: Towards a Rhetoric of Eco-Justice, environmental philosopher Shane Ralston criticizes Cox's pragmatic function of environmental communication for being too shallow and instrumental, recommending instead a deeper account borrowed from Pragmatism: "[A]n even better way to move beyond a conception of pragmatic rhetoric as shallow instrumentalism and deepen the meaning of pragmatic[...] is to look instead to philosophical pragmatism’s other rich resources, for instance, to its fallibilism, experimentalism, and meliorism." Environmental nature communication occurs when plants actually communicate within ecosystems: "A plant injured on one leaf by a nibbling insect can alert its other leaves to begin anticipatory defense responses." Furthermore, "plant biologists have discovered that when a leaf gets eaten, it warns other leaves by using some of the same signals as animals". The biologists are "starting to unravel a long-standing mystery about how different parts of a plant communicate with one another." All beings are connected by the Systems Theory, which submits that one of the three critical functions of living systems is the exchange of information with its environment and with other living systems (the other two being the exchange of materials and the exchange of energy). Flor extends this argument, saying: "All living systems, from the simplest to the most complex, are equipped to perform these critical functions. They are called critical because they are necessary for the survival of the living system. Communication is nothing more than the exchange of information. Hence, at its broadest sense, environmental communication is necessary for the survival of every living system, be it an organism, an ecosystem, or (even) a social system." Environmental Communication plays an integral role in sustainability science. By taking knowledge and putting it into action. Since Environmental Communication is focused on everyday practices of speaking and collaborating, it has a deep understanding in the public discussion of environmental policy. Something that sustainability science has a shortcoming of. Sustainability science requires cooperation between stakeholders and thus requires constructive communication between those stakeholders to create sustainable change. Robert Cox is a leader in the discipline of environmental communication and its role in the public sphere. Cox covers the importance of Environmental Communication and the role it plays in policy-making processes, advocacy campaigns, journalism, and environmental movements. Something that Cox overlooks in the importance of Environmental communication in the Public Sphere is the role visual and aural communication, electronic and digital media, and perhaps most glaringly, popular culture. Along with the aforementioned limitations the media plays a major role in the conversation around the environment because of the framing effect and the impact that it has on the overall perception of the environment and the discussion surrounding it. Framing is something that has been important to many movements in the past but it is more than just creating slogans and the like. George Lakoff argues in favor of a social movement approach similar to the feminist movement or the civil rights movement.The field of Environmental Communication also faces challenges of being silenced and invalidated by governments. Environmental communication like many disciplines had challenges with people with opposing views points that make it difficult to spread a certain message. Environmental Communication like many highly polarized topics is prone to confirmation bias which makes it difficult to have compromises in the world of policy making for the environmental crisis. Along with confirmation bias, Echo chambers do much the same thing and are discussed by Christel van Eck who says with respect to environmental communication that echo chambers can reinforce preexisting climate change perceptions. which serve to make it more difficult to engage in real conversations about the topic. Another reason that it can be difficult to communicate about these things is that many people try to use directional motivated reasoning in which they try to find evidence to push a specific narrative on the topic. The effect that this has had on communicating this idea is examined by Robin Bayes and others who say that it can be very detrimental and divisive. One of the things that makes environmental narratives so dangerous is that it changes so often that it is very difficult to keep the information the same as it travels. This according to Miyase Christensen makes it so that the spreading of these narratives can be dangerous. Environmental Communication faces a variety of challenges in the political environment due to increased polarization. People often feel threatened by arguments that do not align with their beliefs (boomerang effect). These can lead to psychological reactance, counter-arguing, and anxiety. This can cause difficulty in making progress in political change regarding environmental issues. When it comes to the increased polarization of movements regarding the environment some people point to the impact of identity campaigns because of the argument that fear is counterproductive. Robert Brulle argues this point and calls for a shift away from these identity campaigns and moving towards challenge campaigns. Another limitation of the conversation regarding the environment is the fact that there are multiple agendas being set by different groups in China and the fact that they are different from one another. Along with this the idea that these two different groups are in some sort of a discussion is presented by Xiaohui Wang et. al. A culture centered approach has been suggested by some like Debashish Munshi. These people argue for enacting change based on the knowledge of older cultures however it has to exist in a way that does not abuse the relationship between the older cultures and our current one which according to Munshi makes it very difficult to enact. To understand the ways in which environmental communication has an effect on individuals, researchers believe that one's view on the environment shapes their views in a variety of ways. The overall study of environmental communication consists of the idea that nature "speaks." In this field, theories exist in an effort to understand the basis of environmental communication.Researchers view environmental communication as symbolic and material. They argue that the material world helps shape communication as communication helps shape the world. The word environment, a primary symbol in western culture, is used to shape cultural understandings of the material world. This understanding gives researchers the ability to study how cultures react to the environment around them.Humans react and form opinions based on the environment around them. Nature plays a role in human relations. This theory strives to make a connection between human and nature relations. This belief is at the core of environmental communication because it seeks to understand how nature affects human behavior and identity. Researchers point out that there can be a connection made with this theory and phenomenology.It is difficult to avoid the "call to action" when talking about environmental communication because it is directly linked with issues such as climate change, endangered animals, and pollution. Scholars find it difficult to publish objective studies in this field. However, others argue that it is their ethical duty to inform the public on environmental change while providing solutions to these issues. This idea that it can be damaging to a scientist's reputation to offer up opinions or solutions to the problem of Climate Change has been furthered by research done by Doug Cloud who had findings affirming this idea.As the following section suggests, there are many divisions of studies and practices in the field of environmental communication, one of which being social marketing and advocacy campaigns. Though this is a broad topic, a key aspect of successful environmental campaigns is the language used in campaign material. Researchers have found that when individuals are concerned & interested about environmental actions, they take well to messages with assertive language; However, individuals who are less concerned & interested about environmental stances, are more receptive to less assertive messages. Although communications on environmental issues often aim to push into action consumers who already perceive the issue being promoted as important, it is important for such message producers to analyze their target audience and tailor messages accordingly. While there are some findings that there is a problem with scientists advocating for certain positions in a study conducted by John Kotcher and others it was found that there was no real difference between the credibility of scientists regardless of their advocacy unless they directly tried to argue in favor a specific solution to the problem.

Communication

Facial_Action_Coding_System

The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) is a system to taxonomize human facial movements by their appearance on the face, based on a system originally developed by a Swedish anatomist named Carl-Herman Hjortsjö. It was later adopted by Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, and published in 1978. Ekman, Friesen, and Joseph C. Hager published a significant update to FACS in 2002. Movements of individual facial muscles are encoded by the FACS from slight different instant changes in facial appearance. It has proven useful to psychologists and to animators. In 2009, a study was conducted to study spontaneous facial expressions in sighted and blind judo athletes. They discovered that many facial expressions are innate and not visually learned.Using the FACS human coders can manually code nearly any anatomically possible facial expression, deconstructing it into the specific "action units" (AU) and their temporal segments that produced the expression. As AUs are independent of any interpretation, they can be used for any higher order decision making process including recognition of basic emotions, or pre-programmed commands for an ambient intelligent environment. The FACS manual is over 500 pages in length and provides the AUs, as well as Ekman's interpretation of their meanings.The FACS defines AUs, as contractions or relaxations of one or more muscles. It also defines a number of "action descriptors", which differ from AUs in that the authors of the FACS have not specified the muscular basis for the action and have not distinguished specific behaviors as precisely as they have for the AUs. For example, the FACS can be used to distinguish two types of smiles as follows: the insincere and voluntary Pan-Am smile: contraction of zygomatic major alone the sincere and involuntary Duchenne smile: contraction of zygomatic major and inferior part of orbicularis oculi. The FACS is designed to be self-instructional. People can learn the technique from a number of sources including manuals and workshops, and obtain certification through testing. Although the labeling of expressions currently requires trained experts, researchers have had some success in using computers to automatically identify the FACS codes. One obstacle to automatic FACS code recognition is a shortage of manually coded ground truth data. The use of the FACS has been proposed for use in the analysis of depression, and the measurement of pain in patients unable to express themselves verbally.The original FACS has been modified to analyze facial movements in several non-human primates, namely chimpanzees, rhesus macaques, gibbons and siamangs, and orangutans. More recently, it was developed also for domestic species, including dogs, horses and cats. Similarly to the human FACS, the animal FACS has manuals available online for each species with the respective certification tests.Thus, the FACS can be used to compare facial repertoires across species due to its anatomical basis. A study conducted by Vick and others (2006) suggests that the FACS can be modified by taking differences in underlying morphology into account. Such considerations enable a comparison of the homologous facial movements present in humans and chimpanzees, to show that the facial expressions of both species result from extremely notable appearance changes. The development of FACS tools for different species allows the objective and anatomical study of facial expressions in communicative and emotional contexts. Furthermore, a cross-species analysis of facial expressions can help to answer interesting questions, such as which emotions are uniquely human. The Emotional Facial Action Coding System (EMFACS) and the Facial Action Coding System Affect Interpretation Dictionary (FACSAID) consider only emotion-related facial actions. Examples of these are: FACS coding is also used extensively in computer animation, in particular for computer facial animation, with facial expressions being expressed as vector graphics of AUs. FACS vectors are used as weights for blend shapes corresponding to each AU, with the resulting face mesh then being used to render the finished face. Deep learning techniques can be used to determine the FACS vectors from face images obtained during motion capture acting, facial motion capture or other performances.For clarification, the FACS is an index of facial expressions, but does not actually provide any bio-mechanical information about the degree of muscle activation. Though muscle activation is not part of the FACS, the main muscles involved in the facial expression have been added here.Action units (AUs) are the fundamental actions of individual muscles or groups of muscles. Action descriptors (ADs) are unitary movements that may involve the actions of several muscle groups (e.g., a forward‐thrusting movement of the jaw). The muscular basis for these actions has not been specified and specific behaviors have not been distinguished as precisely as for the AUs. For the most accurate annotation, the FACS suggests agreement from at least two independent certified FACS encoders. Intensities of the FACS are annotated by appending letters A:E (for minimal-maximal intensity) to the action unit number (e.g. AU 1A is the weakest trace of AU 1 and AU 1E is the maximum intensity possible for the individual person).

Communication

Global_information_system

Global information system is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context. Some examples of GIS are SAP, The Global Learning Objects Brokered Exchange and other systems. There are a variety of definitions and understandings of a global information system (GIS, GLIS), such asA global information system (GIS) is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context. A global information system (GIS) is any information system which attempts to deliver the totality of measurable data worldwide within a defined context. Common to this class of information systems is that the context is a global setting, either for its use or development process. This means that it highly relates to distributed systems / distributed computing where the distribution is global. The term also incorporates aspects of global software development and there outsourcing (when the outsourcing locations are globally distributed) and offshoring aspects. A specific aspect of global information systems is the case (domain) of global software development. A main research aspect in this field concerns the coordination of and collaboration between virtual teams. Further important aspects are the internationalization and language localization of system components. Critical tasks in designing global information systems are Process and system design: How are the processes between distributed actors organized, how are the systems distributed / integrated. Technical architecture: What is the technical infrastructure enabling actors to collaborate? Support mechanisms: How are actors in the process of communication, collaboration, and cooperation supported? A variety of examples can be given. Basically every multi-lingual website can be seen as a global information system. However, mostly the term GLIS is used to refer to a specific system developed or used in a global context.

Communication

History_of_the_concept_of_creativity

The ways in which societies have perceived the concept of creativity have changed throughout history, as has the term itself. The ancient Greek concept of art (in Greek, "techne"—the root of "technique" and "technology"), with the exception of poetry, involved not freedom of action but subjection to rules. In Rome, the Greek concept was partly shaken, and visual artists were viewed as sharing, with poets, imagination and inspiration. Under medieval Christianity, the Latin "creatio" came to designate God's act of "creatio ex nihilo" ("creation from nothing"); thus "creatio" ceased to apply to human activities. The Middle Ages, however, went even further than antiquity, when they revoked poetry's exceptional status: it, too, was an art and therefore craft and not creativity. Renaissance men sought to voice their sense of their freedom and creativity. The first to apply the word "creativity", however, was the 17th-century Polish poet Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski—but he applied it only to poetry. For over a century and a half, the idea of human creativity met with resistance, because the term "creation" was reserved for creation "from nothing". Nineteenth century religious skepticism allowed for a change in definition: now not only was art recognized as creativity, but it alone was. And at the turn of the 20th century, when there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the sciences and in nature, this was taken as the transference, to the sciences and to nature, of concepts that were proper to art. The ancient Greeks had no terms corresponding to "to create" or "creator." The expression "poiein" ("to make") was applied specifically to poiesis (poetry) and to the poietes (poet, or "maker") who made it rather than to art in general in its modern understanding. For example, Plato asks in The Republic, "Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?" and answers, "Certainly not, he merely imitates." To the ancient Greeks, the concept of a creator and of creativity implied freedom of action, whereas the Greeks' concept of art involved subjection to laws and rules. Art (in Greek, "techne") was "the making of things, according to rules." It contained no creativity, and it would have been—in the Greeks' view—a bad state of affairs if it had.This understanding of art had a distinct premise: Nature is perfect and is subject to laws, therefore man ought to discover its laws and submit to them, and not seek freedom, which will deflect him from that optimum which he can attain. The artist was a discoverer, not an inventor. The sole exception to this Greek view—a great exception—was poetry. The poet made new things—brought to life a new world—while the artist merely imitated. And the poet, unlike the artist, was not bound by laws. There were no terms corresponding to "creativity" or "creator," but in reality the poet was understood to be one who creates. And only he was so understood. In music, there was no freedom: melodies were prescribed, particularly for ceremonies and entertainments, and were known tellingly as "nomoi" ("laws"). In the visual arts, freedom was limited by the proportions that Polyclitus had established for the human frame, and which he called "the canon" (meaning, "measure"). Plato argued in Timaeus that, to execute a good work, one must contemplate an eternal model. Later the Roman, Cicero, would write that art embraces those things "of which we have knowledge" ("quae sciuntur"). Poets saw things differently. Book I of the Odyssey asks, "Why forbid the singer to please us with singing as he himself will?" Aristotle had doubts as to whether poetry was imitation of reality, and as to whether it required adherence to truth: it was, rather, the realm of that "which is neither true nor false." In the Roman era, these Greek concepts were partly challenged. Horace wrote that not only poets but painters as well were entitled to the privilege of daring whatever they wished to ("quod libet audendi"). In the declining period of antiquity, Philostratus wrote that "one can discover a similarity between poetry and art and find that they have imagination in common." Callistratos averred that "Not only is the art of the poets and prosaists inspired, but likewise the hands of sculptors are gifted with the blessing of divine inspiration." This was something new: classical Greeks had not applied the concepts of imagination and inspiration to the visual arts but had restricted them to poetry. Latin was richer than Greek: it had a term for "creating" ("creatio") and for "creator," and had two expressions—"facere" and "creare"—where Greek had but one, "poiein." Still, the two Latin terms meant much the same thing.A fundamental change, however, came in the Christian period: "creatio" came to designate God's act of "creation from nothing" ("creatio ex nihilo"). "Creatio" thus took on a different meaning than "facere" ("to make"), and ceased to apply to human functions. As the 6th-century Roman official and literary figure Cassiodorus wrote, "things made and created differ, for we can make, who cannot create." Alongside this new, religious interpretation of the expression, there persisted the ancient view that art is not a domain of creativity. This is seen in two early and influential Christian writers, Pseudo-Dionysius and St. Augustine. Later medieval men such as Hraban the Moor, and Robert Grosseteste in the 13th century, thought much the same way. The Middle Ages here went even further than antiquity; they made no exception of poetry: it too had its rules, was an art, and was therefore craft and not creativity. The Renaissance saw a change in perspective. The philosopher Marsilio Ficino wrote that the artist "thinks up" ("excogitatio") his works; the theoretician of architecture and painting, Leon Battista Alberti, that he "preordains" ("preordinazione"); Raphael, that he shapes a painting according to his idea; Leonardo da Vinci, that he employs "shapes that do not exist in nature"; Michelangelo, that the artist realizes his vision rather than imitating nature; Giorgio Vasari, that "nature is conquered by art"; the Venetian art theoretician, Paolo Pino, that painting is "inventing what is not"; Paolo Veronese, that painters avail themselves of the same liberties as do poets and madmen; Federico Zuccari (1542:1609), that the artist shapes "a new world, new paradises"; Cesare Cesariano (1483:1541), that architects are "demi-gods." Among musicians, the Flemish composer and musicologist Johannes Tinctoris (1446:1511) demanded novelty in what a composer did, and defined a composer as "one who produces new songs."Still more emphatic were those who wrote about poetry: G.P. Capriano held (1555) that the poet's invention springs "from nothing." Francesco Patrizi (1586) saw poetry as "fiction," "shaping," "transformation." Possibly the first to recognisably use the word "creation" in terms of human creativity was the 17th-century Polish poet and theoretician of poetry, Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595:1640), known as "the last Latin poet." In his treatise, De perfecta poesi, he not only wrote that a poet "invents," "after a fashion builds," but also that the poet "creates anew" ("de novo creat"). Sarbiewski even added: "in the manner of God" ("instar Dei").Sarbiewski, however, regarded creativity as the exclusive privilege of poetry; creativity was not open to visual artists. "Other arts merely imitate and copy but do not create, because they assume the existence of the material from which they create or of the subject." As late as the end of the 17th century, André Félibien (1619:75) would write that the painter is "so to speak [a] creator." The Spanish Jesuit Baltasar Gracián (1601:58) wrote similarly as Sarbiewski: "Art is the completion of nature, as it were a second Creator..." By the 18th century, the concept of creativity was appearing more often in art theory. It was linked with the concept of imagination, which was on all lips. Joseph Addison wrote that the imagination "has something in it like creation." Voltaire declared (1740) that "the true poet is creative." With both these authors, however, this was rather only a comparison of poet with creator.Other writers took a different view. Denis Diderot felt that imagination is merely "the memory of forms and contents," and "creates nothing" but only combines, magnifies or diminishes. It was precisely in 18th-century France, indeed, that the idea of man's creativity met with resistance. Charles Batteux wrote that "The human mind cannot create, strictly speaking; all its products bear the stigmata of their model; even monsters invented by an imagination unhampered by laws can only be composed of parts taken from nature." Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues (1715:47), and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715:80) spoke to a similar effect. Their resistance to the idea of human creativity had a triple source. The expression, "creation," was then reserved for creation ex nihilo (Latin: from nothing), which was inaccessible to man. Second, creation is a mysterious act, and Enlightenment psychology did not admit of mysteries. Third, artists of the age were attached to their rules, and creativity seemed irreconcilable with rules. The latter objection was the weakest, as it was already beginning to be realized (e.g., by Houdar de la Motte, 1715) that rules ultimately are a human invention. In the 19th century, art took its compensation for the resistance of preceding centuries against recognizing it as creativity. Now not only was art regarded as creativity, but it alone was. The art critic John Ruskin has often been referred to in the context of the transition to self-expression in the history of art education, though some scholars believe this to be a misreading. At the turn of the 20th century, when there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the sciences (e.g., Jan Łukasiewicz, 1878:1956) and in nature (e.g., Henri Bergson), this was generally taken as the transference, to the sciences and to nature, of concepts proper to art. The start of the scientific study of creativity is sometimes taken as J. P. Guilford's 1950 address to the American Psychological Association, which helped popularize the subject.

Communication

Regulatory_focus_theory

Regulatory focus theory (RFT) is a theory of goal pursuit  formulated by Columbia University psychology professor and researcher E. Tory Higgins regarding people's motivations and perceptions in judgment and decision making processes. RFT examines the relationship between the motivation of a person and the way in which they go about achieving their goal. RFT posits two separate and independent self-regulatory orientations: prevention and promotion (Higgins, 1997). This psychological theory, like many others, is applied in communication, specifically in the subfields of nonverbal communication and persuasion. Chronic regulatory focus is measured using the Regulatory Focus Questionnaire (Higgins et al., 2001) or the Regulatory Strength measure. Momentary regulatory focus can be primed or induced. To understand RFT, it is important to understand another of E. Tory Higgins' theories: regulatory fit theory. When a person believes that there is "fit", they will involve themselves more in what they are doing and "feel right" about it.  Regulatory fit should not directly affect the hedonic occurrence of a thing or occasion, but should influence a person's assurance in their reaction to the object or event.Regulatory fit theory suggests that a match between orientation to a goal and the means used to approach that goal produces a state of regulatory fit that both creates a feeling of rightness about the goal pursuit and increases task engagement (Higgins, 2001, 2005). Regulatory fit intensifies responses, such as the value of a chosen object, persuasion, and job satisfaction. Regulatory fit does not increase the assessment of a decision; instead when someone feels "right" about their decision, the experience of "correctness and importance" is transferred to the ensuing assessment of the chosen object, increasing its superficial worth. Research suggests that the "feeling right" experience can then sway retrospective or prospective evaluations. Regulatory fit can be manipulated incidentally (outside the context of interest) or integrally (within the context of interest). RFT refers to when a person pursues a goal in a way that maintains the person's own personal values and beliefs, also known as regulatory orientation. This theory operates on the basic principle that people embrace pleasure but avoid pain, and they then maintain their regulatory fit based on this standard.The regulatory focus is basically the way in which someone approaches pleasure but avoids pain. An individual's regulatory focus concentrates on desired end-states, and the approach motivation used to go from the current state to the desired end-state. This theory differentiates between a promotion-focus on hopes and accomplishments, also known as gains. This focus is more concerned with higher level gains such as advancement and accomplishment. Another focus is the prevention-focus based on safety and responsibilities, also known as non-losses. This focus emphasizes security and safety by following the guidelines and the rules. These two regulatory focuses regulate the influences that a person would be exposed to in the decision-making process, and determine the different ways they achieve their goal, as discussed by RFT. An individual's regulatory orientation is not necessarily fixed. While individuals have chronic tendencies towards either promotion or prevention, these preferences may not hold for all situations. Furthermore, a specific regulatory focus can be induced. The value taken from interaction and goal attainment can be either positive or negative. The decision has positive value when people attempt to attain their goal in a way that fits their regulatory orientation and it will have negative value when people attempt to attain their goal in a way that does not fit their regulatory orientation. Regulatory fit allows value to be created by intensifying the commitment, based on one of the regulatory focus orientations. Making choices and fulfilling objectives are considered as activities, and with any activity, people can be more or less involved. When this involvement is strong, it can intensify the feelings and values about this activity, and the approach to the activity determines whether they are or are not satisfied with the outcome and method of achieving the outcome. This theory has noteworthy implications for increasing the value of life. For example, in interpersonal conflict, if each person experiences "fit", each one will be satisfied with and committed to the outcome. In the broad sense, for people to appreciate their own lives, they need to be satisfied and "feel right" about what they are doing, and the way they are doing it.  If it is not satisfying, it is known as "non-fit", and they will not reach their desired goal. Regulatory focus theory, according to Higgins, views motivation in a way that allows an understanding of the foundational ways we approach a task or a goal. Different factors can motivate people during goal pursuit, and we self-regulate our methods and processes during our goal pursuit. RFT proposes that motivational strength is enhanced when the manner in which people work toward a goal sustains their regulatory orientation. Achieving a goal in a way that is consistent to a person's regulatory orientation leads to an individual sense of importance to the event. The impact of motivation is considered calculated and this creates a greater sense of commitment to the goal. The more strongly an individual is engaged (i.e., involved, occupied, fully engrossed) in an activity, the more intense the motivational force experienced. Engagement is of great importance to attain and motivate in order to reach a goal. Engagement serves as intensifier of the directional component of the value experience. An individual who is strongly engaged in a goal pursuits will experience a positive target more positively and a negative target more negatively.Individuals can pursue different goals with diverse regulatory orientations and in unlike ways. There are two different kinds of regulatory orientations that people use to obtain their goals: promotion-focus orientation and prevention-focus orientation. These terms are derived from E. Tory Higgins's Theory of Regulatory Focus. In which, he adds to the notion that people regulate their goal-oriented behavior in two very distinct ways, coined promotion-focus orientation and prevention-focus orientation E. Tory Higgins uses this example: there is Student A and Student B, and they both have the shared goal to make an A in a class they are both taking in college. Student A uses a promotion-focus orientation which slants them towards achieving their goal and towards advancement, growth and life accomplishment. This would cause Student A to view the goal as an ideal that satisfies their need for accomplishment. Student B uses a prevention-focus orientation where the goal is something that should be realized because it fulfills their need for security, protection and prevention of negative outcomes. Student A uses an eager approach where they read extra materials to obtain their goal of an A. Student B uses a vigilant approach where they become more detail oriented and pay careful attention to completing all of the course requirements. Both forms of regulatory orientation can work to fulfill goals, but the choice of orientation is based on individual preferences and style. When a person pursues their goal in the focus that fits their regulatory orientation, they are more likely to pursue their goal more eagerly and aggressively than if they were using the other focus. In this case each student has different styles. They both feel more comfortable in persuading their goal. The outcome in this experiment would have been different if the students were given an undesirable choice. When people make decisions, they often envision the possible "pleasure or pain" of the possible outcomes that the focus orientation will produce.  A person imagining making a pleasing choice is more likely to engage in promotion-focus orientation because envisioning the possible outcome of success maintains eagerness about the outcome but does not place importance on vigilance. A person imagining the possible pain by making an undesirable choice maintains more vigilance but less eagerness. A person with promotion-focus orientation is more likely to remember the occasions where the goal is pursued by using eagerness approaches and less likely to remember occasions where the goal is pursued by vigilance approaches. A person with prevention-focus orientation is more likely to remember events where the goal is pursued by means of vigilance than if it was pursued using eagerness approaches. When relating regulatory focus theory to persuasion, it is important to remember that RFT is a goal-attainment theory, and that RFT can spawn feelings of rightness/wrongness which in turn may produce formulations for judgments.The feelings of rightness give an individual more commitment to the information coming in and therefore can avoid endangering their regulatory fit which in turn changes their regulatory focus and accepting a probable motive to change. If a person experiences feelings of wrongness they will suffer negative emotions and deem the experience and information as a threat to their regulatory fit and therefore a threat to their regulatory focus and their goal. Studies have been done where fit and focus have been applied to show their applicability to consumer purchasing, health advisories, and social policy issues.  To be persuaded is to change your prior feelings, actions, and/or beliefs on a matter to where you agree with the persuader. The "fit" involved in RFT plays a large role in such issues and stories because it can be a device to help an individual receive and review the experience during a particular message delivery. Positive reinforcement and feelings of rightness while decoding the message creates a stronger engagement and relationship with processing the message, and negative reinforcement and feelings of wrongness lessens the engagement and attachment.  Researchers found that targeting the two different regulatory focus orientations, and their coinciding types of fit, works as an effective process to aid in persuasive charm or pull when they introduced a manner of persuasion where the framing of the message was everything and the content was irrelevant to uphold or interrupt a person's regulatory fit and follow the pattern of logic used in regulatory orientation.  Lee and Aaker (2004) conducted an experiment that involved whether or not to give their information in a prevention-focus- or promotion-focus-concerning way. The study involved an advertisement for a grape juice drink, which they split into two to create prevention-focus concerns (disease-preventing) and then promotion-focus concerns (energy enhancement).  In doing so, they demonstrated that rather than trying to know each individual recipient's qualities, one needs only to start by nailing the focus (prevention/promotion) and then framing the message so that it creates that "rightness". Some may confuse RFT with regulatory fit, regulatory relevance, message matching, and source attractiveness in such an example. The extent of similarities between closely related theories of RFT, such as ones stated above, make it hard to clarify when this theory is applicable or apparent in respect to the persuasion process. RFT can be a useful outline for a better understanding of the effects of nonverbal cues in persuasion and impression formation. Regulatory Fit Theory suggests that the effect of a cue cannot be understood without remembering what the cue means given a recipient's focus orientation. Nonverbal cues can be used by the message source to vary delivery style, more specifically to convey eagerness or vigilance, of a given message in a way that will produce regulatory fit in message recipients of different focus orientations. Advancement implies eager movement forward, so eagerness is conveyed by gestures that involve animated, broad opening movements such as hand movements projecting outward, forward leaning body positions, fast body movement, and fast speech rate. Caution implies vigilant carefulness, so vigilance should be conveyed by gestures that show precision like slightly backward-leaning body positions, slower body movement, and slower speech rate. An eager nonverbal delivery style will result in greater message effectiveness for promotion-focus recipients than for prevention-focus recipients, while the opposite is true for a vigilant nonverbal style. There are various aspects, which may contribute to whether or not a message's persuasive element is successful. One aspect is the effect of nonverbal cues and their association with persuasive appeals based on the message recipient's motivational regulatory orientation. This determines the recipient's impression of the source during impression formation. Research has found that nonverbal cues are an essential element of most persuasive appeals. RFT creates the background that allows a prediction for when and for whom a nonverbal cue can have an effect on persuasion. When nonverbal cues and signals are used appropriately, they increase the effectiveness of persuasion. RFT has also been applied within moral psychology to the topic of moral judgment, contrasting the notions of "oughts" and "ideals."

Communication

Safety_sign

A safety sign is a sign designed to warn of hazards, indicate mandatory actions or required use of personal protective equipment, prohibit actions or objects, identify the location of firefighting or safety equipment, or marking of exit routes. In addition to being encountered in industrial facilities; safety signs are also found in public places and communities, at electrical pylons and electrical substations, cliffs, beaches, bodies of water, on motorized equipment, such as lawn mowers, and areas closed for construction or demolition. One of the earliest attempts to standardize safety signage in the United States was the 1914 Universal Safety Standards. The signs were fairly simple in nature, consisting of an illuminated board with "DANGER" in white letters on a red field. An arrow was added to draw attention to the danger if it was less obvious. Signs indicating exits, first aid kits consisted of a green board, with white letters. The goal with signs was to inform briefly. The next major standards to follow were ASA Z35.1 in 1941, revised in 1959, 1968, and 1972. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration devised their requirements from ASA Z35.1-1968 in the development of their rules, OSHA §1910.145 for the usage of safety signage in workplaces. In the 1980s, American National Standards Institute formed a committee to update the Z53 and Z35 standards. In 1991, ANSI Z535 was introduced, which was intended to modernize signage through increased use of symbols, the introduction of a new header, 'Warning' and requiring that wording not just state the hazard, but also the possible harm the hazard could inflict and how to avoid the hazard. Until 2013, OSHA regulations technically required usage of signage prescribed in OSHA §1910.145, based on the standard ASA Z35.1-1968. Regulation changes and clarification of the law now allow usage of signs complying with either OSHA §1910.145 or ANSI Z535 designs.Prior to widespread globalization and adoption of standards from the ISO, most countries developed their own standards for safety signage. Text only signs were common prior to introduction of European Council Directive 77/576/EEC on 25 July 1977, which required member states to have policies in place to ensure that "safety signs at all places of work conform to the principles laid down in Annex I", which required color coding and symbols.In 1992, the European Council Directive 92/58/EEC replaced EEC 77/576/EEC. The new directive included improved information on how to utilize safety signage effectively. Beyond safety signs, EEC Directive 92/58/EEC standardize markings for fire equipment, acoustic signals, verbal and hand signals for vehicle movements. In 2013, the European Union adopted ISO 7010 to replace the symbols provided previously, adopting them as European Norm (EN) ISO 7010, standardizing symbols among the EU countries. Prior to this, while symbols were provided, symbols were permitted to vary in appearance "provided that they convey the same meaning and that no difference or adaptation obscures the meaning". Australian safety signage started in 1952 as CZ4-1952: Safety signs for the occupational environment. It revised and redesignated as AS1319-1972 in 1972, with further revisions taking place in 1979, 1983 and 1994. In August 2018, AS1319-1994 was reconfirmed as still being valid and not in need of major revisions.Japanese safety signage is notable for its clear visual differences from international norms, such as use of square 'no symbols', vertical formatting of sign text. Safety sign standards are regulated by Japanese Industrial Standards through standards JIS Z9101 (Workplace and public area safety signs) JIS Z 9103 (Safety sign colors) and JIS Z 9104 (Safety signs - General specifications). While design trends have been moving towards international norms of ISO standards, differences are still present such as the use of symbols unique to the JIS standards, using colors differently from ISO standards.In addition to typical safety sign standards, Japan introduced JIS Z 9098 in 2016 specifically addressing emergency management needs: informing people of areas susceptible to natural disasters, evacuation routes and safe shelters from disasters. The standard's more unique aspect is the usage of maps and diagrams to provide more detailed information about the area's hazards, shelters and evacuation routes. Chinese safety signage is regulated by Standardization Administration of China using GB standards 2893-2008 and 2894-2008, which all safety signs are legally required to comply with. Designs are similar to ISO 3864 and uses older ISO 7010 symbols, while adding several additional symbols covering a wider range of prohibitions and hazards.Modern signage design typically consists of a symbol, warning text, and in the United States, Canada, Australia a header consisting of a signal word.North American and some Australian safety signage utilize distinctive headers to draw attention to the risk of harm from a hazard. Headers have guidelines for usage, where conditions must be met to dictate which header must be used for a sign.The 2007 revisions to ANSI Z353.4 allowed for the 'safety alert symbol' found on 'Danger', Warning' and 'Caution' headers to be replaced with the ISO 7010 "W001 - General warning" symbol to enable compliance with ISO 3864-1 for signs used in international situations or equipment being exported abroad. Additional headers designs exist, Z53.1-1968 prescribed a magenta and yellow 'Radiation' header for radiation hazards. Other headers have been created by sign manufacturers for various situations not covered Z53.1 standard, such as "Security Notice", "Biohazard", "Restricted Area". As a means of overcoming language and literacy barriers, symbols depicting the hazards, required action or equipment, prohibited actions or items and safety equipment were introduced to safety signage during the 1990s. Globalization and increased international trade helped push this development, as a means of reducing costs associated with needing signage multiple languages. Increasingly, countries are adopting symbols used by ISO 7010 and UN Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, that harmonizes symbols internationally to reduce confusion, and bring themselves into compliance with international standards.For temporary situations such as wet floors, portable signs are used. They are designed to be self supporting and relatively easy to move once the task is complete. The 1914 Universal Safety Standards provided for a portable 'Danger' sign suitable for both hard floors and soft dirt. Portable signs can take a variety of forms, from a traffic cone with stick on letters, plastic a-frame signs, to safety signs mounted on poles with bases that enable movement.Wet floor signs are also intended to avoid legal liability from injury due failing to warn of an unsafe condition. They are usually yellow. The warning is sometimes enhanced with new technology to provide audible warnings. Robotic cleaning equipment can use wet floor signs with sonar gadgetry to know when its job is finished. Since the late 1980s, more emphasis has been put on testing signage for clarity and to eliminate possible misunderstandings. Researchers have examined the impacts of using different signal words, inclusion of borders and color contrast with text and symbols against sign backgrounds. In 1999, a group of designers were tasked with creating standardized warning labels for personal watercraft. The group devised several versions of the same warning label using different symbols, wording and emphasis of key phrases through use of underlining, bold fonts and capitalizing. The label designs were reviewed by the United States Coast Guard, United States Power Squadron, industry representatives and subjected to ease of comprehension and readability tests. Results of these reviews and tests lead to further revisions of words and redesigning of some symbols. The resulting labels are still applied to personal watercraft nearly 20 years after their initial design.Placement of signs also affects the effectiveness of signs. A 1993 study tested compliance with a warning against loading the top drawer of a filing cabinet first. The warning was least effective when it was only placed on the shipping box, but most effective when placed as part of a removable cardboard sleeve that physically obstructed the top drawer, interfering with adding files to the drawer. Sign effectiveness can be reduced from a number of factors, including information overload, where the sheer amount of information is presented in a manner that a reader is unable process it adequately, such as being confronted by a sign consisting of dozens of words with no paragraph breaks, or excessive amounts of unnecessary information. This can be prevented through simplifying warnings down to their key points, with supplementary manuals or training covering the more nuanced and minor information. Overwarning is a related problem, where warnings are overlooked by people due to the sheer number of warnings, such as placing many safety signs together, redundant or obvious warnings. Effectiveness can be reduced through conditions such as poor maintenance, placing a sign too high or low, or in a way that requires excessive effort to read.

Communication

Video_feedback

Video feedback is the process that starts and continues when a video camera is pointed at its own playback video monitor. The loop delay from camera to display back to camera is at least one video frame time, due to the input and output scanning processes; it can be more if there is more processing in the loop. First discovered shortly after Charlie Ginsburg invented the first video recorder for Ampex in 1956, video feedback was considered a nuisance and unwanted noise. Technicians and studio camera operators were chastised for allowing a video camera to see its own monitor as the overload of self-amplified video signal caused significant problems with the 1950s video pickup, often ruining the pickup. It could also cause screen burn-in on television screens and monitors of the time as well, by generating static brightly illuminated display patterns.In the 1960s early examples of video feedback art became introduced into the psychedelic art scene in New York City. Nam June Paik is often cited as the first video artist; he had clips of video feedback on display in New York City at the Greenwich Cafe in the mid 1960s. Early video feedback works were produced by media artist experimenters on the East and West Coasts of North America in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Video feedback artists Steina and Woody Vasulka, with Richard Lowenberg and others, formed The Kitchen, which was located in the kitchen of a broken-down hotel in lower Manhattan; while Skip Sweeney and others founded Video Free America in San Francisco, to nurture their video art and feedback experiments. David Sohn mentions video feedback in his 1970 book Film, the Creative Eye. This book was part of the base curriculum for Richard Lederer of St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire, when he made video feedback part of an English curriculum in his 1970s course Creative Eye in Film. Several students in this class participated regularly in the making and recording of video feedback. Sony had released the VuMax series of recording video cameras and manually "hand-looped" video tape decks by this time which did two things: it increased the resolution of the video image, which improved picture quality, and it made video tape recording technology available to the general public for the first time and allowed for such video experimentation by anyone. During the 1980s and into the 1990s video technology became enhanced and evolved into high quality, high definition video recording. Michael C. Andersen generated the first known mathematical formula of the video feedback process, and he has also generated a Mendeleev's square to show the gradual progressive formulaic change of the video image as certain parameters are adjusted. In the 1990s the rave scene and a social return to art of a more psychedelic nature brought back displays of video feedback on large disco dance floor video screens around the world. There are filters for Adobe Photoshop and non-linear video editors that often have video feedback as the filter description, or as a setting on a filter. These filter types either mimic or directly utilize video feedback for its result effect and can be recognized by its vortex, phantasmagoric manipulation of the original recorded image. Many artists have used optical feedback. A famous example is Queen's music video for "Bohemian Rhapsody" (1975). The effect (in this simple case) can be compared to looking at oneself between two mirrors.This technique—under the name "howl-around"—was employed for the opening titles sequence for the British science fiction series Doctor Who, which employed this technique from 1963 to 1973.Initially this was in black and white, and redone in 1967 to showcase the show's new 625-line broadcast resolution and feature the Doctor's face (Patrick Troughton at that time). It was redone again, in colour this time, in 1970. The next title sequence for the show, which debuted in 1973, abandoned this technique in favour of slit-scan photography. An example of optical feedback in science is the optical cavity found in almost every laser, which typically consists of two mirrors between which light is amplified. In the late 1990s it was found that so-called unstable-cavity lasers produce light beams whose cross-section present a fractal pattern.Optical feedback in science is often closely related to video feedback, so an understanding of video feedback can be useful for other applications of optical feedback. Video feedback has been used to explain the essence of fractal structure of unstable-cavity laser beams. Video feedback is also useful as an experimental-mathematics tool. Examples of its use include the making of Fractal patterns using multiple monitors, and multiple images produced using mirrors. Optical feedback is also found in the image intensifier tube and its variants. Here the feedback is usually an undesirable phenomenon, where the light generated by the phosphor screen "feeds back" to the photocathode, causing the tube to oscillate, and ruining the image. This is typically suppressed by an aluminum reflective screen deposited on the back of the phosphor screen, or by incorporating a microchannel plate detector. Optical feedback has been used experimentally in these tubes to amplify an image, in the manner of the cavity laser, but this technique has had limited use. Optical feedback has also been experimented with as an electron source, since a photocathode-phosphor cell will 'latch' when triggered, providing a steady stream of electrons. See US Patent 4,531,122 for a typical application. Douglas Hofstadter discusses video feedback in his book I Am a Strange Loop about the human mind and consciousness. He devotes a chapter to describing his experiments with video feedback.At some point during the session, I accidentally stuck my hand momentarily in front of the camera's lens. Of course the screen went all dark, but when I removed my hand, the previous pattern did not just pop right back onto the screen, as expected. Instead I saw a different pattern on the screen, but this pattern, unlike anything I'd seen before, was not stationary.

Education

Beehive_Design_Collective

The Beehive Design Collective is a volunteer-driven non-profit art collective that uses graphical media as educational tools to communicate stories of resistance to corporate globalization. The purpose of the Machias, Maine-based group is to "cross-pollinate the grassroots" by creating collaborative, anti-copyright images that can be used as educational and organizing tools. The most recognizable of these images are large format pen and ink posters, which seek to provide a visual alternative to deconstruction of complicated social and political issues ranging from globalization, free trade, militarism, resource extraction, and biotechnology. Their work has been included in curated exhibitions internationally, including at the Station Museum of Contemporary Art and Manifesta. One of their most well-known works, Mesoamérica Resiste, was a nine-year research project working directly with communities in Central America regarding effects of the Mesoamerica Project, and is typical of their community-engaged style of production. The Collective creates graphic campaigns addressing diverse geo- and socio-political issues. The illustrations are informed and developed through extensive research. The work for the poster began in 2004, and by 2010 the group had distributed over 10,000 posters in the Americas. The most recent campaign in 2012 resulted from travel to Mexico and interviews of a broad spectrum of people. The “Mesoamerica Resiste” poster was used as their aid in this campaign and was unveiled in December 7, 2012 at the Machias Grange Hall. The group adheres to self-imposed rules during their campaign production, including absence of literal human depictions, use of cross-cultural imagery, and avoidance of cultural appropriation. The group bills its pieces as “portable murals,” using them as educational pieces while they travel around the world to do speaking engagements.The current trilogy in progress details globalization in the western hemisphere through a series of three graphics. The Collective's educational work involves storytelling, international lecture circuits using giant reproductions of their posters as storytelling aids. "Picture lectures" feature a 30-feet high graphic and a 6-foot-tall (1.8 m) fabric flipbook/storybook. Audiences are led through a two-hour interactive, conversational presentation.One of the Beehive's goals in their graphic distribution is to have 50% of each print run distributed free to communities in the global south, including to groups working on the issues depicted in the prints. The remaining half are distributed internationally for donations. Posters are distributed at a wide range of venues, events, college campuses and academic events.All of the Beehive Collective's materials are distributed as anti-copyright, and their production is encouraged for non-profit, non-commercial use to assist in publications and productions. The black and white imagery is designed to facilitate ease of reproduction. The Beehive distributes free clip-art digital imagery via their website and graphic CD-ROMs distributed from their webstore. Since the year 2000, the Collective has been engaged in the restoration of the Machias Valley Grange Hall in Machias, Maine, built in 1904. The restoration labor was sourced from visiting volunteers. The building was initially used as the Collective's center of its stone mosaics program.Annually, the Collective throws a no-cost dress-up dance party of immense proportions called the "Blackfly Ball". There are ongoing events such as a weekly Open Mic night and annual Halloween celebration. In 2007, the Machias Valley Grange Hall was placed onto the National Register of Historic Places.

Education

Campus_climate

Campus climate refers to current dimensions of climate in the campus community in higher education institutions. According to one definition offered by Jeni Hart and Jennifer Fellabaum, the dimensions of climate could refer to views, attitudes, psychology, behaviors, standards, perceptions and expectations. Campus community could refer to employees such as faculty, staff, administrators, and students, individually or as a group. Campus climate is often contrasted with campus culture. While climate and culture are sometimes used interchangeably, some authors mention overlaps while others define clear boundaries between the two. Huston Smith (1955) wrote that the "atmosphere" and "environment" of a college affects everyone that is a part of it, making an educational institute more than a group of students, employees and buildings. Early attempts at measuring campus climate (culture, atmosphere, environment) include assessments and indexes created by John L. Holland & Alexander Astin (1961), and George G. Stern & C. Robert Pace (1962). More recently, climate has been understood to represent an "immeasurable construct". Hart & Fellabaum (2008) studied 118 campus climate papers and identified a number of definitions and measurement efforts.The major features of climate are (1) its primary emphasis on common participant views of a wide array of organizational phenomena that allow for comparison among groups or over time, (2) its focus on current patterns of beliefs and behaviors, and (3) its often ephemeral or malleable character The collective, mutually shaping patterns of institutional history, mission, physical settings, norms, traditions, values, practices, beliefs, and assumptions that guide the behavior of individuals and groups in an institution of higher education which provide a frame of reference for interpreting the meanings of events and actions on and off campus The current attitudes, behaviors, and standards and practices of employees and students of an institution [...] that concern the access for, inclusion of, and level of respect for individual and group needs, abilities, and potential Climate is a broad concept however often used in a narrower and more concentrated manner. Conceptual framework for campus climate has developed to include the history of the educational institute, capacity to handle diversity, and psychological and behavioral climate. Women colleges and universities around the world provide a friendly and "warm" to "neutral" climate. Campus climate at women's colleges for female faculty is more conducive than at coeducational institutions. The climate situation in coeducational settings for female faculty is similar to the situation for female students, say with regard to male privilege. Intellectual inbreeding in China, Japan and Korea is affected by the old boy networks; in this respect women colleges and universities provide opportunities which coeducational institutions do not.A study conducted at Federal University of Bahia observed that a number of campus climate variables affected students in general, and more importantly variables that went on to affect their interaction with their academic life and retention. This includes identity, teaching and faculty interactions.One of the first studies in India which included the aspect of campus climate was conducted in the University of Pune from 2013 onwards. The study found that faculty demographics and student demographics has changed unequally and this has a significant factor of campus climate. The study also revealed changing gender patterns which also have implications for campus climate. Changes in the gender gap include increased access to higher education for women from "relatively privileged backgrounds" and males from "disadvantaged backgrounds". This kind of changing social dynamic has resulted in observations such as men reporting experiencing more discrimination than women. Low empathy, low tolerance and low argumentation skills were observed.Gunuc & Artun et al. (2019) conducted a campus climate study of 26 universities in Turkey covering all the geographic regions of the country. The study found that the correlation between student engagement and campus climate along with certain other variables was significant.Climate for free speech in US campuses has been studied. More than half of college students self-censor themselves and there is a large variation between institutions with regard to free speech. There is a discussion about cancel culture and wokeness on the left. Campus climate is an important factor that affects decisions to seek out mental health services for mental health issues.

Education

Classification_of_Instructional_Programs

The Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP) is a taxonomy of academic disciplines at institutions of higher education in the United States and Canada. The CIP was originally developed by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the United States Department of Education in 1980 and was revised in 1985, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020. The 2020 edition (CIP 2020) is the fifth and current revision of the taxonomy. Instructional programs are classified by a six-digit CIP at the most granular level and are classified according to the two-digit and four-digit prefixes of the code. For example, "Forensic Science and Technology" has the six-digit code 43.0406, which places it in "Security Science and Technology" (43.04) and "Homeland Security, Law Enforcement, Firefighting and Related Protective Services" (two-digit CIP 43).

Education

Content_similarity_detection

Plagiarism detection or content similarity detection is the process of locating instances of plagiarism or copyright infringement within a work or document. The widespread use of computers and the advent of the Internet have made it easier to plagiarize the work of others. Detection of plagiarism can be undertaken in a variety of ways. Human detection is the most traditional form of identifying plagiarism from written work. This can be a lengthy and time-consuming task for the reader and can also result in inconsistencies in how plagiarism is identified within an organization. Text-matching software (TMS), which is also referred to as "plagiarism detection software" or "anti-plagiarism" software, has become widely available, in the form of both commercially available products as well as open-source software. TMS does not actually detect plagiarism per se, but instead finds specific passages of text in one document that match text in another document. Computer-assisted plagiarism detection is an Information retrieval (IR) task supported by specialized IR systems, which is referred to as a plagiarism detection system (PDS) or document similarity detection system. A 2019 systematic literature review presents an overview of state-of-the-art plagiarism detection methods.Systems for text similarity detection implement one of two generic detection approaches, one being external, the other being intrinsic.External detection systems compare a suspicious document with a reference collection, which is a set of documents assumed to be genuine. Based on a chosen document model and predefined similarity criteria, the detection task is to retrieve all documents that contain text that is similar to a degree above a chosen threshold to text in the suspicious document. Intrinsic PDSes solely analyze the text to be evaluated without performing comparisons to external documents. This approach aims to recognize changes in the unique writing style of an author as an indicator for potential plagiarism. PDSes are not capable of reliably identifying plagiarism without human judgment. Similarities and writing style features are computed with the help of predefined document models and might represent false positives. A study was conducted to test the effectiveness of similarity detection software in a higher education setting. One part of the study assigned one group of students to write a paper. These students were first educated about plagiarism and informed that their work was to be run through a content similarity detection system. A second group of students was assigned to write a paper without any information about plagiarism. The researchers expected to find lower rates in group one but found roughly the same rates of plagiarism in both groups.The figure below represents a classification of all detection approaches currently in use for computer-assisted content similarity detection. The approaches are characterized by the type of similarity assessment they undertake: global or local. Global similarity assessment approaches use the characteristics taken from larger parts of the text or the document as a whole to compute similarity, while local methods only examine pre-selected text segments as input.Fingerprinting is currently the most widely applied approach to content similarity detection. This method forms representative digests of documents by selecting a set of multiple substrings (n-grams) from them. The sets represent the fingerprints and their elements are called minutiae.A suspicious document is checked for plagiarism by computing its fingerprint and querying minutiae with a precomputed index of fingerprints for all documents of a reference collection. Minutiae matching with those of other documents indicate shared text segments and suggest potential plagiarism if they exceed a chosen similarity threshold. Computational resources and time are limiting factors to fingerprinting, which is why this method typically only compares a subset of minutiae to speed up the computation and allow for checks in very large collection, such as the Internet. String matching is a prevalent approach used in computer science. When applied to the problem of plagiarism detection, documents are compared for verbatim text overlaps. Numerous methods have been proposed to tackle this task, of which some have been adapted to external plagiarism detection. Checking a suspicious document in this setting requires the computation and storage of efficiently comparable representations for all documents in the reference collection to compare them pairwise. Generally, suffix document models, such as suffix trees or suffix vectors, have been used for this task. Nonetheless, substring matching remains computationally expensive, which makes it a non-viable solution for checking large collections of documents.Bag of words analysis represents the adoption of vector space retrieval, a traditional IR concept, to the domain of content similarity detection. Documents are represented as one or multiple vectors, e.g. for different document parts, which are used for pair wise similarity computations. Similarity computation may then rely on the traditional cosine similarity measure, or on more sophisticated similarity measures.Citation-based plagiarism detection (CbPD) relies on citation analysis, and is the only approach to plagiarism detection that does not rely on the textual similarity. CbPD examines the citation and reference information in texts to identify similar patterns in the citation sequences. As such, this approach is suitable for scientific texts, or other academic documents that contain citations. Citation analysis to detect plagiarism is a relatively young concept. It has not been adopted by commercial software, but a first prototype of a citation-based plagiarism detection system exists. Similar order and proximity of citations in the examined documents are the main criteria used to compute citation pattern similarities. Citation patterns represent subsequences non-exclusively containing citations shared by the documents compared. Factors, including the absolute number or relative fraction of shared citations in the pattern, as well as the probability that citations co-occur in a document are also considered to quantify the patterns' degree of similarity.Stylometry subsumes statistical methods for quantifying an author's unique writing style and is mainly used for authorship attribution or intrinsic plagiarism detection. Detecting plagiarism by authorship attribution requires checking whether the writing style of the suspicious document, which is written supposedly by a certain author, matches with that of a corpus of documents written by the same author. Intrinsic plagiarism detection, on the other hand, uncovers plagiarism based on internal evidences in the suspicious document without comparing it with other documents. This is performed by constructing and comparing stylometric models for different text segments of the suspicious document, and passages that are stylistically different from others are marked as potentially plagiarized/infringed. Although they are simple to extract, character n-grams are proven to be among the best stylometric features for intrinsic plagiarism detection.More recent approaches to assess content similarity using neural networks have achieved significantly greater accuracy, but come at great computational cost. Traditional neural network approaches embed both pieces of content into semantic vector embeddings to calculate their similarity, which is often their cosine similarity. More advanced methods perform end-to-end prediction of similarity or classifications using the Transformer architecture. Paraphrase detection particularly benefits from highly parameterized pre-trained models.Comparative evaluations of content similarity detection systems indicate that their performance depends on the type of plagiarism present (see figure). Except for citation pattern analysis, all detection approaches rely on textual similarity. It is therefore symptomatic that detection accuracy decreases the more plagiarism cases are obfuscated.Literal copies, a.k.a. copy and paste plagiarism or blatant copyright infringement, or modestly disguised plagiarism cases can be detected with high accuracy by current external PDS if the source is accessible to the software. In particular, substring matching procedures achieve good performance for copy and paste plagiarism, since they commonly use lossless document models, such as suffix trees. The performance of systems using fingerprinting or bag of words analysis in detecting copies depends on the information loss incurred by the document model used. By applying flexible chunking and selection strategies, they are better capable of detecting moderate forms of disguised plagiarism when compared to substring matching procedures. Intrinsic plagiarism detection using stylometry can overcome the boundaries of textual similarity to some extent by comparing linguistic similarity. Given that the stylistic differences between plagiarized and original segments are significant and can be identified reliably, stylometry can help in identifying disguised and paraphrased plagiarism. Stylometric comparisons are likely to fail in cases where segments are strongly paraphrased to the point where they more closely resemble the personal writing style of the plagiarist or if a text was compiled by multiple authors. The results of the International Competitions on Plagiarism Detection held in 2009, 2010 and 2011, as well as experiments performed by Stein, indicate that stylometric analysis seems to work reliably only for document lengths of several thousand or tens of thousands of words, which limits the applicability of the method to computer-assisted plagiarism detection settings. An increasing amount of research is performed on methods and systems capable of detecting translated plagiarism. Currently, cross-language plagiarism detection (CLPD) is not viewed as a mature technology and respective systems have not been able to achieve satisfying detection results in practice. Citation-based plagiarism detection using citation pattern analysis is capable of identifying stronger paraphrases and translations with higher success rates when compared to other detection approaches, because it is independent of textual characteristics. However, since citation-pattern analysis depends on the availability of sufficient citation information, it is limited to academic texts. It remains inferior to text-based approaches in detecting shorter plagiarized passages, which are typical for cases of copy-and-paste or shake-and-paste plagiarism; the latter refers to mixing slightly altered fragments from different sources. The design of content similarity detection software for use with text documents is characterized by a number of factors:Most large-scale plagiarism detection systems use large, internal databases (in addition to other resources) that grow with each additional document submitted for analysis. However, this feature is considered by some as a violation of student copyright. Plagiarism in computer source code is also frequent, and requires different tools than those used for text comparisons in document. Significant research has been dedicated to academic source-code plagiarism.A distinctive aspect of source-code plagiarism is that there are no essay mills, such as can be found in traditional plagiarism. Since most programming assignments expect students to write programs with very specific requirements, it is very difficult to find existing programs that already meet them. Since integrating external code is often harder than writing it from scratch, most plagiarizing students choose to do so from their peers. According to Roy and Cordy, source-code similarity detection algorithms can be classified as based on either Strings : look for exact textual matches of segments, for instance five-word runs. Fast, but can be confused by renaming identifiers. Tokens : as with strings, but using a lexer to convert the program into tokens first. This discards whitespace, comments, and identifier names, making the system more robust against simple text replacements. Most academic plagiarism detection systems work at this level, using different algorithms to measure the similarity between token sequences. Parse Trees : build and compare parse trees. This allows higher-level similarities to be detected. For instance, tree comparison can normalize conditional statements, and detect equivalent constructs as similar to each other. Program Dependency Graphs (PDGs) : a PDG captures the actual flow of control in a program, and allows much higher-level equivalences to be located, at a greater expense in complexity and calculation time. Metrics : metrics capture 'scores' of code segments according to certain criteria; for instance, "the number of loops and conditionals", or "the number of different variables used". Metrics are simple to calculate and can be compared quickly, but can also lead to false positives: two fragments with the same scores on a set of metrics may do entirely different things. Hybrid approaches : for instance, parse trees + suffix trees can combine the detection capability of parse trees with the speed afforded by suffix trees, a type of string-matching data structure. The previous classification was developed for code refactoring, and not for academic plagiarism detection (an important goal of refactoring is to avoid duplicate code, referred to as code clones in the literature). The above approaches are effective against different levels of similarity; low-level similarity refers to identical text, while high-level similarity can be due to similar specifications. In an academic setting, when all students are expected to code to the same specifications, functionally equivalent code (with high-level similarity) is entirely expected, and only low-level similarity is considered as proof of cheating. Difference between Plagiarism and Copyright Plagiarism and copyright are essential concepts in academic and creative writing that writers, researchers, and students have to understand. Although they may sound similar, they are not; different strategies can be used to address each of them. Various complications have been documented with the use of text-matching software when used for plagiarism detection. One of the more prevalent concerns documented centers on the issue of intellectual property rights. The basic argument is that materials must be added to a database in order for the TMS to effectively determine a match, but adding users' materials to such a database may infringe on their intellectual property rights. The issue has been raised in a number of court cases. An additional complication with the use of TMS is that the software finds only precise matches to other text. It does not pick up poorly paraphrased work, for example, or the practice of plagiarizing by use of sufficient word substitutions to elude detection software, which is known as rogeting. It also cannot evaluate whether the paraphrase genuinely reflects an original understanding or is an attempt to bypass detection. Another complication with TMS is its tendency to flag much more content than necessary, including legitimate citations and paraphrasing, making it difficult to find real cases of plagiarism. This issue arises because TMS algorithms mainly look at surface-level text similarities without considering the context of the writing. Educators have raised concerns that reliance on TMS may shift focus away from teaching proper citation and writing skills, and may create an oversimplified view of plagiarism that disregards the nuances of student writing. As a result, scholars argue that these false positives can cause fear in students and discourage them from using their authentic voice.

Education

Field_trip

A field trip or excursion is a journey by a group of associated peers, such as coworkers or school students, to a place away from their normal environment for the purpose of education or leisure, either within their country or abroad. When arranged by a school administration for students, it is also known as school trip in the United Kingdom, Australia, Kenya, New Zealand and Bangladesh, and school tour in Ireland. A 2022 study, which used randomized controlled trial data, found that culturally enriching field trips led students to show a greater interest in arts, greater tolerance for people with different views, and boosted their educational outcomes. The purpose of the field trip is usually observation for education, non-experimental research or to provide students with experiences outside their everyday activities, such as going camping with teachers and their classmates. The aim of this research is to observe the subject in its natural state and possibly collect samples. It is seen that more-advantaged children may have already experienced cultural institutions outside of school, and field trips provide common ground between more-advantaged and less-advantaged children to share the same cultural experiences.Field trips often involve three steps: preparation, activities and follow-up activity. Preparation applies to both the students and the teachers. Teachers often take the time to learn about the destination and the subject before the trip. Activities on the field trips often include: lectures, tours, worksheets, videos and demonstrations. Follow-up activities are generally discussions in the classroom once the field trip is completed. In Western culture people first come across this method during school years when classes are taken on school trips to visit a geological or geographical feature of the landscape, for example. Much of the early research into the natural sciences was of this form. Charles Darwin is an important example of someone who has contributed to science through the use of field trips. Popular field trip sites include zoos, nature centers, community agencies such as fire stations and hospitals, government agencies, local businesses, amusement parks, science museums and factories. Field trips provide alternative educational opportunities for children and can benefit the community if they include some type of community service. Field trips also let students take a break from their normal routine and experience more hands-on learning. Places like zoos and nature centers often have an interactive display that allows children to touch plants or animals. Today, culturally enriching field trips are in decline. Museums across the United States report a steep drop in school tours. For example, the Field Museum in Chicago at one time welcomed more than 300,000 students every year. Recently, the number is below 200,000. Between 2002 and 2007, Cincinnati arts organizations saw a 30 percent decrease in student attendance. A survey by the American Association of School Administrators found that more than half of schools eliminated planned field trips in 2010:11. A variation on the field trip is the "site-based program" or "site-school" model, where a class temporarily relocates to a non-school location for an entire week to take advantage of the resources on the site. As with a multi-day field trip, appropriate overnight camping or lodging arrangements are often made to accommodate the experience. The approach was first developed at the Calgary Zoo in Alberta, Canada in 1993, and "Zoo School" was inaugurated in 1994. The Calgary Board of Education then approached the Glenbow Museum and Archives to create a "Museum School" in 1995 followed by the Calgary Science Centre (1996), the University of Calgary (1996), Canada Olympic Park (1997), the Inglewood Bird Sanctuary (1998), Calgary City Hall (2000), Cross Conservation Area (2000), the Calgary Stampede (2002), the Calgary Aero-Space Museum (2005), and the Fire Training Academy (2008). One of the newer schools in Calgary is Tinker School and Social Enterprise School as STEM Learning Lab (2018) The model spread across Alberta (with 15 sites in Edmonton alone), throughout Canada and in the United States. Global coordination of the model is through the "Beyond the Classroom Network".In Europe, School Trip, a 2002 German-Polish film, describes the German students' trip to Poland during the summer.In Japan, in addition to the one-day field trip, the school trip, called shūgaku ryokō (Japanese: 修学旅行, literally "learning journey"), has a history since 1886, and is now part of the middle school and high school curriculum, with all students participating in such a program. The trip is usually longer than several days, such as a week or several weeks long. The typical locations visited within Japan are regions of national or historical significance, such as ancient capitals of Kyoto and Nara, Nagasaki, for its experience with nuclear weapons and historical significance as the sole international port during the country's 17th:19th century isolationist foreign policy Japanese: 鎖国, romanized: sakoku (さこく) and Nikkō 日光, popular onsen spa town renowned for its beauty. Travelling abroad is occasionally chosen as an option by some schools.In other Asian regions/countries such as South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore, the school trip, when arranged, tends to become a voluntary part of the school curriculum. When Japan was selected, the Japanese government waived the entry visa.

Education

Further_and_Higher_Education_Act_1992

The Further and Higher Education Act 1992 made changes in the funding and administration of further education and higher education within England and Wales, with consequential effects on associated matters in Scotland which had previously been governed by the same legislation as England and Wales. It was introduced during the First Major ministry. The most visible result was to allow thirty-five polytechnics to become universities (often referred to as the "new universities" or "post-1992 universities"). A goal of the act was to end the distinction : known as the "binary divide" : between colleges and universities. In addition, the act created bodies to fund higher education in England—HEFCE—and further education—FEFC. Universities in Scotland and Wales which had previously been funded by the UK-wide Universities Funding Council were the subject of other acts that created higher education funding councils in each country. The act also removed colleges of further education from local government control, and created quality assessment arrangements.

Education

Hospitality_management_studies

Hospitality Management and Tourism is the study of the hospitality industry. A degree in the subject may be awarded either by a university college dedicated to the studies of hospitality management or a business school with a relevant department. Degrees in hospitality management may also be referred to as hotel management, hotel and tourism management, or hotel administration. Degrees conferred in this academic field include BA, Bachelor of Business Administration, BS, BASc, B.Voc, MS, MBA, Bachelor of Hospitality Management, Master of Management, PhD and short term course. Hospitality management covers hotels, restaurants, cruise ships, amusement parks, destination marketing organizations, convention centers, country clubs and many more. In the US, hospitality and tourism management curricula follow similar core subject applications to that of a business degree, but with a focus on tourism development and hospitality management. Core subject areas include accounting, administration, entrepreneurship, finance, information systems, marketing, human resource management, public relations, strategy, quantitative methods, and sectoral studies in the various areas of hospitality business. Some programs in India also include culinary training.Many schools have departments that specifically give degrees in the hospitality field.The QS World University Rankings by Subject are based upon academic reputation, employer reputation and research impact. These results are reviewed and evaluated every year by academics and industry professionals to ensure consistent quality over time.

Education

SESI_Mathematics

SESI Mathematics is a project developed by FIRJAN System with the aim of improving the teaching of math for high school students. The program consists of a series of initiatives, from the organization of training courses for teachers and distribution of educational kits, to the providing of physical spaces for students of SESI Rio and SENAI Rio network, as well as for those from selected state schools. Although the project has the pretension of being expanded to other Brazilian states, nowadays it only operates in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia. SESI Mathematics was launched in 2012 by SESI Rio. The program counted on an initial investment of R$ 10 million and was created based on the Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional (read "Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education"), motivated by the poor performance of Brazil in national and international reviews, as well as in researches that indicated a lack of skilled people to work in areas related to the exact sciences, which require mastery of mathematics.In 2013, an agreement was signed between SESI Bahia and the Government of Bahia State to extend the project to the schools of the state of Bahia. In the same year, the project won the Idea Brasil award in the "Design Strategy" category. The project's initiatives make use of online interactive technologies such as educational games as a way to encourage the teaching of students.The games are developed by the English company Mangahigh. In partnership with the Instituto Nacional de Matemática Pura e Aplicada (read "National Institute for Pure and Applied Mathematics"), one of the initiatives of the project is the construction of a public space dedicated to temporary and permanent exhibitions of themes related to mathematics, among other activities. The space will be located at Barra da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brasil) and is scheduled to open in 2015.

Education

Sophomore

In the United States, a sophomore ( or ) is a person in the second year at an educational institution; usually at a secondary school or at the college and university level, but also in other forms of post-secondary educational institutions. In high school a sophomore is equivalent to a tenth grade or Class-10 student. In sports, sophomore may also refer to a professional athlete in their second season. In entertainment, television series in their second season may be referred to as sophomore shows, while actors and musicians experiencing their second major success may be referred to as sophomore artists. The 10th grade is the second year of a student's high school period (usually aged 15:16) and is referred to as sophomore year, so in a four year course the stages are freshman, sophomore, junior and senior.In How to Read a Book, the Aristotelean philosopher and founder of the "Great Books of the Western World" program Mortimer Adler says, "There have always been literate ignoramuses, who have read too widely, and not well. The Greeks had a name for such a mixture of learning and folly which might be applied to the bookish but poorly read of all ages. They are all 'sophomores'." This oxymoron points at the Greek words σοφός ('wise') and μωρός ('fool'). High-school sophomores are expected to begin preparing for the college application process, including increasing and focusing their extracurricular activities. Students at this level are also considered to be developing greater ability for abstract thinking. The term sophomore is also used to refer to a student in the second year of college or university studies in the United States; typically a college sophomore is 19 to 20 years old. Sophomores generally work on completing general education requirements and might declare their major if they are allowed. College sophomores are also advised to begin thinking of career options and to get involved in volunteering or social organizations on or near campus.

Education

Validation_of_foreign_studies_and_degrees

The Validation or recognition of foreign studies and degrees is the process whereby a competent authority in one country formally recognises the value of a qualification from a foreign country. This can entail total or partial validation of foreign university and non-university studies, degrees and other qualifications. Particularly within Europe, this is covered by a number of international conventions and agreements. The first generation of recognition conventions was developed under the auspices of UNESCO in the 1970s and 1980s, with conventions covering Latin America and the Caribbean (1974), the Mediterranean (1976), the Arab States (1978), Europe (1979), Africa (1981), and Asia and the Pacific (1983). These conventions are specifically concerned with recognition of qualifications rather than equivalence : there is no attempt to build frameworks with automatic equivalence of qualifications. This first generation of conventions has been built on by second generation conventions, starting with Lisbon (1997) covering Europe and now including the Asia-Pacific region (Tokyo, 2011) and Africa (Addis Ababa, 2014). A major change with the more recent conventions is a shift in favour of recognition, with the burden being to show substantial differences. The Lisbon Convention entered into force in 1999, the Tokyo Convention in 2018 and the Addis Ababa Convention in 2019. A new regional convention covering Latin America and the Caribbean was adopted in Buenos Aires in 2019 but has not, as of February 2020, entered into force. The first recognition treaty with a global scope, the Global Convention on the Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications, was adopted by the 40th session of UNESCO's General Conference in November 2019. Mutual recognition of higher education qualifications is enshrined in the UNESCO/Council of Europe Lisbon Recognition Convention, which covers (as of February 2017) all Council of Europe members except Monaco and Greece, as well as Australia, Belarus, Holy See, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrghyz Republic, New Zealand and Tajikistan. The convention has also been signed, but not ratified, by Canada and the United States. Within these countries, qualifications must be recognised as equivalent unless proven otherwise, and assessments must be carried out fairly and within a reasonable time.The convention established the European Network of Information Centres (ENIC), supplementing and expanding the National Academic Recognition Information Centre (NARIC) network established by the European Union in 1984. The ENIC-NARIC network comprises national centres for validation of degrees in member countries. The European Higher Education Area consists (as of February 2017) of 48 national members (who must be signatories of the European Cultural Convention) and the European Union. It aims to promote mutual recognition of academic qualifications through alignment of national qualifications frameworks, via the Bologna Process's short cycle, first cycle (bachelor's degree), second cycle (master's degree) and third cycle (doctoral degree) framework, the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, and the use of Diploma Supplements.The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) is an initiative of the European Commission to provide a "translation" for national qualifications frameworks at all levels (not just higher education) and so support mobility of workers within the European Union. It originally covered the 28 EU states plus Lichtenstein and Norway, but has been opened to non-EU states, with Australia, New Zealand and Hong Kong currently going through referencing of their national frameworks to the EQF.Mutual recognition of professional qualifications is regulated by European Union Directive 2005/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 September 2005 on the recognition of professional qualifications, modified by Council Directive 2006/100/EC.Procedure: The competent authority of the host Member State shall acknowledge receipt of the application within one month of receipt and inform the applicant of any missing document. The procedure for examining an application for authorisation to practise a regulated profession must be completed as quickly as possible and lead to a duly substantiated decision by the competent authority in the host Member State in any case within three months after the date on which the applicant's complete file was submitted. However, this deadline may be extended by one month in certain cases. The decision, or failure to reach a decision within the deadline, shall be subject to appeal under national law. The Norwegian governmental authority for accreditation of foreign education of Norwegian citizens and foreigners, NOKUT, has sole power in these matters.The total validation of foreign university studies and degrees in the Spanish system consists of a complete recognition of said studies and degrees in that system. The Spanish Ministry of Education and Science is in charge of the procedure.The academic degrees, diplomas or certificates on pharmaceutical or medical specialities which were obtained in a foreign country and which qualify the applicant in order to carry out the relevant professions in those countries can be validated as their official equivalents in the Spanish system. The Ministry of Education and Science is only responsible for the total validation of a foreign university degree for its Spanish equivalent. Any other applications for the partial validation of studies carried out in a foreign country in order to pursue a university study course in Spain must be submitted to the Spanish university itself. The US government does not have a specified agency for recognition and validation of foreign qualifications. Instead, responsibility falls on universities and colleges to determine the equivalence for students they admit, on employers for people they employ and on state licensing board for entry into regulated professions. These bodies may carry out assessment themselves, or contract a private credential evaluation service.Credential evaluation is also important for those seeking an H-1B visa, which requires a bachelor's degree or equivalent, and for some categories of permanent resident. For H-1Bs, but not permanent resident applications, experience can be counted towards equivalence at the rate of three years of experience equals one year of education.

Energy

Advanced_thermal_recycling_system

An advanced thermal recycling system (or an ATR system) is the commercial brand name of the waste-to-energy incineration offering by Klean Power, which has been implemented in a single plant in Germany in 1999. WtE facilities such as the ATR transforms municipal solid waste (MSW) into electricity or steam for district heating or industrial customers. The combustion bottom ash, and the combustion fly ash, along with the air pollution control system fly ash, are treated to produce products that can be beneficially reused. Specifically, ATR systems consist of the following: Solid waste combustion, boiler and combustion control system, energy recovery and air pollution control equipment; Combustion bottom ash and fly ash treatment systems that produce commercially reusable products; and An optional pre-processing system to recover recyclable materials contained in the MSW delivered to the facility before the MSW enters the thermal processing area of the facility. One commercially operating ATR facility has been built so far. It is the Müllverwertung Rugenberger Damm WtE plant in Hamburg, Germany, commissioned in 1999. The German Green Party has endorsed the specific features of this facility in its "Concept 2020" initiative to cease all landfilling of waste by 2020 as an essential part of an integrated waste management system achieving the highest standards in the energy-from-waste industry. No landfilling of unprocessed waste has been allowed in Germany since 2005.Overhead refuse cranes are used to hold approximately five tons of garbage each. The waste is then mixed in the bunker to create a homogeneous mixture to ensure that the bottom ash byproduct has good combustion, and low carbon content. These cranes then deliver the mixed waste into the feeding hopper, which leads down onto stoker grates. These grates control the rate at which the waste travels through the boiler. The heat ignites the trash as it moves along the forward feeding grates until only the byproduct bottom ash remains at the end of the grate. Each combustion line feeds a boiler that operates above 1,560 °F (850 °C) for two seconds. The temperature in the combustion zone is measured through acoustic monitoring. A computer controls the temperature, the grate speed, the amount of air used, and all other aspects of the process that enable complete combustion and minimization of emissions. Maintaining the furnace's high temperature is essential to rid the waste and the resulting combustion gases of complex organic compounds such as dioxins and furans. To prevent the reformulation of pollutants, fly ash is separated from the flue gas downstream of the superheaters to reduce the fly ash content, which could act as a catalyst in the critical reformulation temperature range of 600 to 400 °F (316 to 204 °C). At the exit of the boiler, the flue gas is cooled down to a level of 340 °F (171 °C). As the waste is combusted, heat is released in the boiler. This heat produces high-pressure, high-temperature steam, which generates electrical energy when passed through a turbine generator. The electricity is fed into the public power grid or sold directly to a customer. The steam can also be exported directly for use in district heating or industrial processes. Each unit has an independent air pollution control system. Flue gas cleaning begins in the boiler, where oxides of nitrogen are reduced by injecting ammonia water into the combustion chamber. Lightly loaded absorbents (activated carbon from the second bag house) are injected into the flue gas downstream of the first bag house to separate any contaminants that have reformed (such as organic compounds), any condensed heavy metals, salts and other gaseous contaminants, as well as residue fly ash. The first baghouse makes it possible to produce reusable by-products such as hydrochloric acid and gypsum from the consecutive air pollution control process steps. Acid gases are removed from the flue gases by passing through a two-stage scrubber to remove acid components, especially halogen compounds such as hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid. A counter-flow neutral scrubber follows, using a lime slurry to remove sulphur oxides. The pollutant gases are either dissolved in water droplets (acids) or bound as calcium salts and thereby removed from the flue gas. A second baghouse acts as a polishing filter to capture any remaining aerosols, organic compounds and heavy metals, which thereby are reduced to levels usually below detection. Following combustion, the material left consists of the non-combustible components of the waste and the inert materials produced during combustion. This is known as bottom ash. The bottom ash is washed to eliminate soluble salts. Iron scrap and non-ferrous metals such as aluminium, copper and brass are separated and sold in secondary metals markets. The bottom ash is then screened, crushed and sold for use as a construction material. Gypsum is created when the oxides of sulphur (SO2 and SO3) are separated by the single stage scrubber. It is purified, then sold to the construction industry. The acid scrubbing process in the flue gas treatment system also produces a raw hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 10% to 12%. The acid is distilled (rectified) to yield commercial-grade (30% concentration) hydrochloric acid. Fly ash, separated in the boiler and baghouses and constituting up to 5% by weight of the combusted MSW, is treated to recover metals and minerals for reuse, resulting in an overall ATR process landfill diversion rate of approximately 98.5%.

Energy

Anne_Korin

Anne Korin is co-director of the Institute for the Analysis of Global Security, a think tank focused on energy and security, and chairs the Set America Free Coalition, an alliance of national security, environmental, labor and religious groups promoting ways to reduce America's dependence on foreign oil. She is co-author of Energy Security Challenges for the 21st Century (2009) and Turning Oil into Salt (2009). She appears in the media frequently and has written articles for Foreign Affairs, MIT Innovations, The American Interest and National Review. In May 2008, Korin testified before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. Korin is adviser to the United States Energy Security Council. In July 2023, Gal Luft, with whom Korin co-authored Turning Oil into Salt, and Energy Security Challenges for the 21st Century, along with several other books and articles, was indicted in the United States for acting as unregistered foreign agent, trafficking in arms, violating U.S. sanctions against Iran, and making false statements to federal Agents. Korin and Luft are co-directors of The Institute for the Analysis of Global Security.

Energy

Association_for_Decentralised_Energy

The Association for Decentralised Energy (ADE), formerly the Combined Heat and Power Association, is an advocate of an integrated approach to delivering energy locally. The ADE was founded in 1967 as the District Heating Association, becoming the Combined Heat and Power Association in 1983, and was then renamed to the Association for Decentralised Energy on 12 January 2015. The ADE has over 100 members. The Association merged with the Association for the Conservation of Energy in 2018. The ADE acts as an advocate for its members by engaging with Government and key decision makers to support cost effective and efficient solutions to industry, businesses and householders by: Developing a policy which puts the energy user's needs first Delivering a local, low carbon energy system at lowest cost Ensuring an understanding of heat, which makes up half of our energy use Taking an integrated and 'systems thinking' approach Helping users manage energy demand to limit the need for new generation capacity Strengthening the sector's reputation through industry standards and best practice The Association also provide secretariat for the Independent Heat Customer Protection Scheme.