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= Valkyria Chronicles III = Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Unrecorded Chronicles ( Japanese : 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 ) , commonly referred to as Valkyria Chronicles III outside Japan , is a tactical role @-@ playing video game developed by Sega and Media.Vision for the PlayStation Portable . Released in January 2011 in Japan , it is the third game in the Valkyria series . Employing the same fusion of tactical and real @-@ time gameplay as its predecessors , the story runs parallel to the first game and follows the " Nameless " , a penal military unit serving the nation of Gallia during the Second Europan War who perform secret black operations and are pitted against the Imperial unit " Calamaty Raven " . The game began development in 2010 , carrying over a large portion of the work done on Valkyria Chronicles II . While it retained the standard features of the series , it also underwent multiple adjustments , such as making the game more forgiving for series newcomers . Character designer Raita Honjou and composer Hitoshi Sakimoto both returned from previous entries , along with Valkyria Chronicles II director Takeshi Ozawa . A large team of writers handled the script . The game 's opening theme was sung by May 'n . It met with positive sales in Japan , and was praised by both Japanese and western critics . After release , it received downloadable content , along with an expanded edition in November of that year . It was also adapted into manga and an original video animation series . Due to low sales of Valkyria Chronicles II , Valkyria Chronicles III was not localized , but a fan translation compatible with the game 's expanded edition was released in 2014 . Media.Vision would return to the franchise with the development of Valkyria : Azure Revolution for the PlayStation 4 . = = Gameplay = = As with previous Valkyira Chronicles games , Valkyria Chronicles III is a tactical role @-@ playing game where players take control of a military unit and take part in missions against enemy forces . Stories are told through comic book @-@ like panels with animated character portraits , with characters speaking partially through voiced speech bubbles and partially through unvoiced text . The player progresses through a series of linear missions , gradually unlocked as maps that can be freely scanned through and replayed as they are unlocked . The route to each story location on the map varies depending on an individual player 's approach : when one option is selected , the other is sealed off to the player . Outside missions , the player characters rest in a camp , where units can be customized and character growth occurs . Alongside the main story missions are character @-@ specific sub missions relating to different squad members . After the game 's completion , additional episodes are unlocked , some of them having a higher difficulty than those found in the rest of the game . There are also love simulation elements related to the game 's two main heroines , although they take a very minor role . The game 's battle system , the BliTZ system , is carried over directly from Valkyira Chronicles . During missions , players select each unit using a top @-@ down perspective of the battlefield map : once a character is selected , the player moves the character around the battlefield in third @-@ person . A character can only act once per @-@ turn , but characters can be granted multiple turns at the expense of other characters ' turns . Each character has a field and distance of movement limited by their Action Gauge . Up to nine characters can be assigned to a single mission . During gameplay , characters will call out if something happens to them , such as their health points ( HP ) getting low or being knocked out by enemy attacks . Each character has specific " Potentials " , skills unique to each character . They are divided into " Personal Potential " , which are innate skills that remain unaltered unless otherwise dictated by the story and can either help or impede a character , and " Battle Potentials " , which are grown throughout the game and always grant boons to a character . To learn Battle Potentials , each character has a unique " Masters Table " , a grid @-@ based skill table that can be used to acquire and link different skills . Characters also have Special Abilities that grant them temporary boosts on the battlefield : Kurt can activate " Direct Command " and move around the battlefield without depleting his Action Point gauge , the character Reila can shift into her " Valkyria Form " and become invincible , while Imca can target multiple enemy units with her heavy weapon . Troops are divided into five classes : Scouts , Shocktroopers , Engineers , Lancers and Armored Soldier . Troopers can switch classes by changing their assigned weapon . Changing class does not greatly affect the stats gained while in a previous class . With victory in battle , experience points are awarded to the squad , which are distributed into five different attributes shared by the entire squad , a feature differing from early games ' method of distributing to different unit types . = = Plot = = The game takes place during the Second Europan War . Gallian Army Squad 422 , also known as " The Nameless " , are a penal military unit composed of criminals , foreign deserters , and military offenders whose real names are erased from the records and thereon officially referred to by numbers . Ordered by the Gallian military to perform the most dangerous missions that the Regular Army and Militia will not do , they are nevertheless up to the task , exemplified by their motto , Altaha Abilia , meaning " Always Ready . " The three main characters are No.7 Kurt Irving , an army officer falsely accused of treason who wishes to redeem himself ; Ace No.1 Imca , a female Darcsen heavy weapons specialist who seeks revenge against the Valkyria who destroyed her home ; and No.13 Riela Marcellis , a seemingly jinxed young woman who is unknowingly a descendant of the Valkyria . Together with their fellow squad members , these three are tasked to fight against a mysterious Imperial unit known as Calamity Raven , consisting of mostly Darcsen soldiers . As the Nameless officially do not exist , the upper echelons of the Gallian Army exploit the concept of plausible deniability in order to send them on missions that would otherwise make Gallia lose face in the war . While at times this works to their advantage , such as a successful incursion into Imperial territory , other orders cause certain members of the 422nd great distress . One such member , Gusurg , becomes so enraged that he abandons his post and defects into the ranks of Calamity Raven , attached to the ideal of Darcsen independence proposed by their leader , Dahau . At the same time , elements within Gallian Army Command move to erase the Nameless in order to protect their own interests . Hounded by both allies and enemies , and combined with the presence of a traitor within their ranks , the 422nd desperately move to keep themselves alive while at the same time fight to help the Gallian war effort . This continues until the Nameless 's commanding officer , Ramsey Crowe , who had been kept under house arrest , is escorted to the capital city of Randgriz in order to present evidence exonerating the weary soldiers and expose the real traitor , the Gallian General that had accused Kurt of Treason . Partly due to these events , and partly due to the major losses in manpower Gallia suffers towards the end of the war with the Empire , the Nameless are offered a formal position as a squad in the Gallian Army rather than serve as an anonymous shadow force . This is short @-@ lived , however , as following Maximilian 's defeat , Dahau and Calamity Raven move to activate an ancient Valkyrian super weapon within the Empire , kept secret by their benefactor . Without the support of Maximilian or the chance to prove themselves in the war with Gallia , it is Dahau 's last trump card in creating a new Darcsen nation . As an armed Gallian force invading the Empire just following the two nations ' cease @-@ fire would certainly wreck their newfound peace , Kurt decides to once again make his squad the Nameless , asking Crowe to list himself and all under his command as killed @-@ in @-@ action . Now owing allegiance to none other than themselves , the 422nd confronts Dahau and destroys the Valkyrian weapon . Each member then goes their separate ways in order to begin their lives anew . = = Development = = Concept work for Valkyria Chronicles III began after development finished on Valkyria Chronicles II in early 2010 , with full development beginning shortly after this . The director of Valkyria Chronicles II , Takeshi Ozawa , returned to that role for Valkyria Chronicles III . Development work took approximately one year . After the release of Valkyria Chronicles II , the staff took a look at both the popular response for the game and what they wanted to do next for the series . Like its predecessor , Valkyria Chronicles III was developed for PlayStation Portable : this was due to the team wanting to refine the mechanics created for Valkyria Chronicles II , and they had not come up with the " revolutionary " idea that would warrant a new entry for the PlayStation 3 . Speaking in an interview , it was stated that the development team considered Valkyria Chronicles III to be the series ' first true sequel : while Valkyria Chronicles II had required a large amount of trial and error during development due to the platform move , the third game gave them a chance to improve upon the best parts of Valkyria Chronicles II due to being on the same platform . In addition to Sega staff from the previous games , development work was also handled by Media.Vision. The original scenario was written Kazuki Yamanobe , while the script was written by Hiroyuki Fujii , Koichi Majima , Kishiko Miyagi , Seiki Nagakawa and Takayuki Shouji . Its story was darker and more somber than that of its predecessor . The majority of material created for previous games , such as the BLiTZ system and the design of maps , was carried over . Alongside this , improvements were made to the game 's graphics and some elements were expanded , such as map layouts , mission structure , and the number of playable units per mission . A part of this upgrade involved creating unique polygon models for each character 's body . In order to achieve this , the cooperative elements incorporated into the second game were removed , as they took up a large portion of memory space needed for the improvements . They also adjusted the difficulty settings and ease of play so they could appeal to new players while retaining the essential components of the series ' gameplay . The newer systems were decided upon early in development . The character designs were done by Raita Honjou , who had worked on the previous Valkyria Chronicles games . When creating the Nameless Squad , Honjou was faced with the same problem he had had during the first game : the military uniforms essentially destroyed character individuality , despite him needing to create unique characters the player could identify while maintaining a sense of reality within the Valkyria Chronicles world . The main color of the Nameless was black . As with the previous Valkyria games , Valkyria Chronicles III used the CANVAS graphics engine . The anime opening was produced by Production I.G. = = = Music = = = The music was composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto , who had also worked on the previous Valkyria Chronicles games . When he originally heard about the project , he thought it would be a light tone similar to other Valkyria Chronicles games , but found the themes much darker than expected . An early theme he designed around his original vision of the project was rejected . He redid the main theme about seven times through the music production due to this need to reassess the game . The main theme was initially recorded using orchestra , then Sakimoto removed elements such as the guitar and bass , then adjusted the theme using a synthesizer before redoing segments such as the guitar piece on their own before incorporating them into the theme . The rejected main theme was used as a hopeful tune that played during the game 's ending . The battle themes were designed around the concept of a " modern battle " divorced from a fantasy scenario by using modern musical instruments , constructed to create a sense of atonality . While Sakimoto was most used to working with synthesized music , he felt that he needed to incorporate live instruments such as orchestra and guitar . The guitar was played by Mitsuhiro Ohta , who also arranged several of the later tracks . The game 's opening theme song , " If You Wish for ... " ( もしも君が願うのなら , Moshimo Kimi ga Negauno Nara ) , was sung by Japanese singer May 'n . Its theme was the reason soldiers fought , in particular their wish to protect what was precious to them rather than a sense of responsibility or duty . Its lyrics were written by Seiko Fujibayashi , who had worked on May 'n on previous singles . = = = Release = = = In September 2010 , a teaser website was revealed by Sega , hinting at a new Valkyria Chronicles game . In its September issue , Famitsu listed that Senjō no Valkyria 3 would be arriving on the PlayStation Portable . Its first public appearance was at the 2010 Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) , where a demo was made available for journalists and attendees . During the publicity , story details were kept scant so as not to spoil too much for potential players , along with some of its content still being in flux at the time of its reveal . To promote the game and detail the story leading into the game 's events , an episodic Flash visual novel written by Fujii began release in January 2011 . The game was released January 27 , 2011 . During an interview , the development team said that the game had the capacity for downloadable content ( DLC ) , but that no plans were finalized . Multiple DLC maps , featuring additional missions and recruitable characters , were released between February and April 2011 . An expanded edition of the game , Valkyria Chronicles III Extra Edition , released on November 23 , 2011 . Packaged and sold at a lower price than the original , Extra Edition game with seven additional episodes : three new , three chosen by staff from the game 's DLC , and one made available as a pre @-@ order bonus . People who also owned the original game could transfer their save data between versions . Unlike its two predecessors , Valkyria Chronicles III was not released in the west . According to Sega , this was due to poor sales of Valkyria Chronicles II and the general unpopularity of the PSP in the west . An unofficial fan translation patch began development in February 2012 : players with a copy of Valkyria Chronicles III could download and apply the patch , which translated the game 's text into English . Compatible with the Extra Edition , the patch was released in January 2014 . = = Reception = = On its day of release in Japan , Valkyria Chronicles III topped both platform @-@ exclusive and multi @-@ platform sales charts . By early February , the game sold 102 @,@ 779 units , coming in second overall to The Last Story for the Wii . By the end of the year , the game had sold just over 152 @,@ 500 units . Famitsu enjoyed the story , and were particularly pleased with the improvements to gameplay . Japanese gaming site Game Watch Impress , despite negatively noting its pacing and elements recycled from previous games , was generally positive about its story and characters , and found its gameplay entertaining despite off @-@ putting difficulty spikes . 4Gamer.net writer Naohiko Misuosame , in a " Play Test " article based on the game 's PSN demo , felt that Valkyria Chronicles III provided a " profound feeling of closure " for the Valkyria Chronicles series . He praised its gameplay despite annoying limitations to aspects such as special abilities , and positively noted its shift in story to a tone similar to the first game . PlayStation Official Magazine - UK praised the story 's blurring of Gallia 's moral standing , art style , and most points about its gameplay , positively noting the latter for both its continued quality and the tweaks to balance and content . Its one major criticism were multiple difficulty spikes , something that had affected the previous games . Heath Hindman of gaming website PlayStation Lifestyle praised the addition of non @-@ linear elements and improvements or removal of mechanics from Valkyria Chronicles II in addition to praising the returning gameplay style of previous games . He also positively noted the story 's serious tone . Points criticized in the review were recycled elements , awkward cutscenes that seemed to include all characters in a scene for no good reason , pacing issues , and occasional problems with the game 's AI . In a preview of the TGS demo , Ryan Geddes of IGN was left excited as to where the game would go after completing the demo , along with enjoying the improved visuals over Valkyria Chronicles II . Kotaku 's Richard Eisenbeis was highly positive about the game , citing is story as a return to form after Valkyria Chronicles II and its gameplay being the best in the series . His main criticisms were its length and gameplay repetition , along with expressing regret that it would not be localized . = = Legacy = = Kurt and Riela were featured in the Nintendo 3DS crossover Project X Zone , representing the Valkyria series . Media.Vision would return to the series to develop Valkyria : Azure Revolution , with Ozawa returning as director . Azure Revolution is a role @-@ playing video game for the PlayStation 4 that forms the beginning of a new series within the Valkyria franchise . = = = Adaptations = = = Valkyria Chronicles 3 was adapted into a two @-@ episode original video animation series in the same year of its release . Titled Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Taga Tame no Jūsō ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア３ 誰がための銃瘡 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 : The Wound Taken for Someone 's Sake ) , it was originally released through PlayStation Network and Qriocity between April and May 2011 . The initially @-@ planned release and availability period needed to be extended due to a stoppage to PSN during the early summer of that year . It later released for DVD on June 29 and August 31 , 2011 , with separate " Black " and " Blue " editions being available for purchase . The anime is set during the latter half of Valkyria Chronicles III , detailing a mission by the Nameless against their Imperial rivals Calamity Raven . The anime was first announced in November 2010 . It was developed by A @-@ 1 Pictures , produced by Shinji Motoyama , directed by Nobuhiro Kondō , and written by Hiroshi Ōnogi . Sakimoto 's music for the game was used in the anime . The anime 's title was inspired by the principle purpose of the Nameless : to suffer in battle for the goals of others . A subtitle attached to the project during development was " The Road to Kubinka " , which referenced the Kubinka Tank Museum in Moscow . The game 's main theme was how the characters regained their sense of self when stripped of their names and identities , along with general themes focused on war and its consequences . While making the anime , the production team were told by Sega to make it as realistic as possible , with the consequence that the team did extensive research into aspects such as what happened when vehicles like tanks were overturned or damaged . Due to it being along the same timeline as the original game and its television anime adaptation , the cast of Valkyria Chronicles could make appearances , which pleased the team . The opening theme , " Akari ( Light ) -Tomoshibi- " ( 灯 @-@ TOMOSHIBI- ) , was sung by Japanese singer Faylan . The ending theme , " Someday the Flowers of Light Will Bloom " ( いつか咲く光の花 , Itsuka Saku Hikari no Hana ) , was sung by Minami Kuribayashi . Both songs ' lyrics were written by their respective artists . Two manga adaptations were produced , following each of the game 's main female protagonists Imca and Riela . They were Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Namo naki Chikai no Hana ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 名もなき誓いの花 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 : The Flower of the Nameless Oath ) , illustrated by Naoyuki Fujisawa and eventually released in two volumes after being serialized in Dengeki Maoh between 2011 and 2012 ; and Senjō no Valkyria 3 : -Akaki Unmei no Ikusa Otome- ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 -赤き運命の戦乙女- , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 -The Valkyrie of the Crimson Fate ) , illustrated by Mizuki Tsuge and eventually released in a single volume by Kadokawa Shoten in 2012 .

= Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal = The Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal , also known as U.S. Arsenal Building , is a building located in MacArthur Park in downtown Little Rock , Arkansas . Built in 1840 , it was part of Little Rock 's first military installation . Since its decommissioning , The Tower Building has housed two museums . It was home to the Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities from 1942 to 1997 and the MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History since 2001 . It has also been the headquarters of the Little Rock Æsthetic Club since 1894 . The building receives its name from its distinct octagonal tower . Besides being the last remaining structure of the original Little Rock Arsenal and one of the oldest buildings in central Arkansas , it was also the birthplace of General Douglas MacArthur , who became the supreme commander of US forces in the South Pacific during World War II . It was also the starting place of the Camden Expedition . In 2011 it was named as one of the top 10 attractions in the state of Arkansas by Arkansas.com. = = Construction = = The arsenal was constructed at the request of Governor James Sevier Conway in response to the perceived dangers of frontier life and fears of the many Native Americans who were passing through the state on their way to the newly established Oklahoma Territory . Thirty @-@ six acres were appropriated on the outskirts of Little Rock by Major Robert B. Lee of the U.S. Army . The land had been previously used as a racetrack by the local jockey club . John Wormley Walker , a builder for the Federal Government , supervised the construction . Originally $ 14 @,@ 000 was allocated for the construction of the arsenal , but proved inadequate . The budget was later increased to $ 30 @,@ 000 . Work began on the Tower Building in 1840 , and it was the first permanent structure of the arsenal to be built . Being originally constructed to store ammunition , the building was designed with 3 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) exterior walls . The original plans called for it to be built of stone , however , masonry was used instead . The Arkansas Gazette referred to the structure as " A splendid specimen of masonry " . = = Civil War = = For several years the arsenal , which was owned by the federal government , served as a simple arms depot and was staffed with only a handful of soldiers . But in November 1860 , with the American Civil War on the horizon , a company of the Second United States Artillery , consisting of sixty @-@ five men , was transferred to Little Rock under the command of Captain James Totten . On January 15 , 1861 , the state legislature decided to hold a referendum to determine if a state convention should be held to consider the issue of secession and to elect delegates to such a convention . It was planned for February 18 ; however , events at the arsenal , would not wait . On January 28 , then Governor Henry Massey Rector informed Captain Totten that he and his soldiers would be " permitted to remain in the possession of the Federal officers until the State , by authority of the people , shall have determined to sever their connection with the General Government , " Totten responded to this by telling the Governor that his orders came from the United States Government and began a desperate but ultimately futile dispatch of letters and telegrams asking for reinforcements , although rumors were widely spread that they were already coming . The first telegraph wire to span between Little Rock and Memphis had recently been completed . Local attorney John M Harrel was asked to compose the first telegraph dispatched from Arkansas 's capital . In his message , Harrel reported unconfirmed rumors that more federal troops had been sent to reinforce the Little Rock Arsenal . The United States troops at the outposts of the western frontier of the state and in the Indian nation have all been recalled from winter quarters to reinforce the garrison at Fort Smith . The garrison at Fort Smith had been previously transferred to the United States Arsenal in this city ( Little Rock ) . The arsenal is one of the richest depositories of military stores in the United States and is supposed to be the ultimate destination of the tropps [ sic ] ordered from the frontier . -John M Harrel Telegram , January 31 , 1861 The item was intended simply as a piece of news , but telegraph lines quickly spread the news throughout the state , fueling procession sentiment . The rumor was interpreted by some Arkansans as a call from the governor to assemble to help expel the federal troops from the arsenal . By February 5 , six militia units , consisting of 1 @,@ 000 men , with a guarantee that the numbers could be increased to 5 @,@ 000 if the situations deemed it necessary , had assembled in Little Rock . Governor Rector vehemently denied ordering the troops to assemble or giving any order at all in connection with the troops . Faced with the fact that the military had assembled believing they were following his orders and the consensus of the citizens of Little Rock against any armed conflict between the civilian army and federal troops , Governor Rector was forced to take control of the situation . On February 6 , he sent a formal demand for surrender of the arsenal to Captain Totten , This movement is prompted by the feeling that pervades the citizens of this State that in the present emergency the arms and munitions of war in the Arsenal should be under the control of the State authorities , in order to their security . This movement , although not authorized by me , has assumed such an aspect that it becomes my duty , as the executive of this Sate , to interpose my official authority to prevent a collision between the people of the State and the Federal troops under your command . I therefore demand in the name of the State the delivery of the possession of the Arsenal and munitions of war under your charge to the State authorities , to be held subject to the action of the convention to be held on the 4th of March next . Perhaps because Abraham Lincoln had not yet been inaugurated as President , Captain Totten received no instructions from his superiors and was forced to withdraw his troops . He agreed to surrender the arsenal as long as the governor agreed to three provisions : The governor would take possession of the arsenal in the name of the United States . The soldiers would be allowed safe passage in any direction carrying any personal and public property besides munitions of war . The soldiers would be allowed to march away as men leaving under orders , not as conquered and surrendering soldiers . On the morning of February 8 , 1861 , Rector and Totten signed an agreement placing the arsenal in the hands of state officials . That afternoon , the citizen militia marched to the arsenal with Governor Rector at its head . All of the federal troops had left at this point , except Totten who had stayed behind to listen to the Governor 's speech and to hand the arsenal over in person . The Little Rock Arsenal was classified in 1860 as an " arsenal of deposit , " meaning that it was simply a warehouse for the storage of weapons intended for the use of the state militia in times of crisis . Thus there were no substantial operations for ordnance fabrication or repairs , nor for the manufacture of cartridges at the time the Arsenal fell into State hands . Most of these operations were started from scratch through the efforts of the Arkansas Military Board . Inside the Little Rock Arsenal after its seizure in February , 1861 , the Confederates inventoried some 10 @,@ 247 weapons , 250 @,@ 000 musket cartridges , and 520 @,@ 000 percussion caps , as well as the four bronze cannon of Totten 's battery . Long arms in the Arsenal 's inventory consisted of : M1822 .69 cal ( flintlock ) 5 @,@ 625 M1822 .69 cal ( percussion @-@ converted ) 53 M1842 .69 cal smoothbore ( percussion ) 357 M1855 .58 cal rifle @-@ muskets 900 M1817 common rifles 125 M1841 rifle ( " Mississippi Rifle " ) 54 M1847 musketoon 2 Hall 's carbines 267 Hall 's rifles ( flintlock ) 2 @,@ 864 Total 10 @,@ 247 Of this number , approximately 9600 weapons were serviceable , or ready @-@ for @-@ issue . Note there were only 1 @,@ 364 percussion weapons available . Disposition of the weapons found in the Arsenal is somewhat sketchy , but from various records it can be surmised that the 5th , 6th , 7th , and 8th Arkansas Infantry Regiments , mustered in June , 1861 , were issued M1816 / M1822 .69 caliber flintlocks . The 9th and 10th Arkansas , four companies of Kelly 's 9th Arkansas Battalion , and the 3rd Arkansas Cavalry Regiment were issued flintlock Hall 's Rifles . The units comprising the infantry force of Van Dorn 's Army of the West were the 1st and 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles were also armed with M1822 flintlocks from the Little Rock Arsenal . By the time the 11th and 12th Arkansas Infantry Regiments mustered in at Little Rock , the supply of arms had been almost completely exhausted , and only old " junker " weapons were left . Most of the equipment , arms , and machinery at the Little Rock Arsenal was removed to east of the Mississippi River by order of Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn in April and May 1862 , and accountability for it is lost at that point . By all appearances , the equipment was sent down the river to Napoleon , Arkansas , and from there to Jackson Mississippi , where it was probably destroyed during the Vicksburg campaign in the early summer of 1863 . Major General Thomas C. Hindman , sent to command the district of Arkansas in May , 1862 , found the state nearly destitute of military material . Hindman established another armory at Arkadelphia , and revived the Little Rock Arsenal as a collection point and depot for armaments and ammunition manufacture for small arms . Hindman recorded : " Machinery was made for manufacturing percussion caps and small arms , and both were turned out in small quantity , but of excellent quality . Lead mines were opened and worked , and a chemical laboratory was established and successfully operated in aid of the Ordnance Department and in the manufacture of calomel , castor oil , spirits of nitre , the various tinctures of iron , and other valuable medicines . Most of these works were located at or near Arkadelphia on the Ouachita River , 75 miles south from Little Rock . The tools , machinery , and the material were gathered piecemeal or else made by hand labor . Nothing of this sort had been before attempted on Government account in Arkansas to my knowledge , except for the manufacture of small arms , the machinery for which was taken away by General Van Dorn and there was neither capital nor sufficient enterprise among the citizens to engage in such undertakings � A further supply , along with lead and caps , was procured from the citizens of Little Rock and vicinity by donation , purchases , and impressments . This ammunition , and that which I brought with me , was rapidly prepared for use at the Laboratory established at the Little Rock Arsenal for that purpose . As illustrating as the pitiful scarcity of material in the country , the fact may be stated that it was found necessary to use public documents of the State Library for cartridge paper . Gunsmiths were employed or conscripted , tools purchased or impressed , and the repair of the damaged guns I brought with me and about an equal number found at Little Rock commenced at once . But , after inspecting the work and observing the spirit of the men I decided that a garrison 500 strong could hold out against Fitch and that I would lead the remainder - about 1500 - to Gen 'l Rust as soon as shotguns and rifles could be obtained from Little Rock instead of pikes and lances , with which most of them were armed . Two days elapsed before the change could be effected . " The Confederate ordnance establishment at Little Rock was reactivated in August , 1862 . Looking around for a suitable person to head this activity , General Hindman turned to the Confederate Navy and borrowed Lieutenant John W. Dunnington . Lt. Dunnington was the commander of the gunboat C.S.S. Ponchartrain , which had been brought to Little Rock in hopes of converting it to an ironclad . Dunnington was selected to head the ordnance works at Little Rock , and although he continued to draw his pay from the Confederate Navy Department , he was placed in charge of all Confederate ordnance activities ( which included artillery functions ) there with the rank of lieutenant colonel . Lt. Col. Dunnington 's " Returns for the month of August , 1862 , at Little Rock Arsenal , C.S.A. , " are found in Vol . 149 , Chapter IV of the " Captured Rebel Ordnance Records , " and are most enlightening as to the scope of Confederate ordnance activities at Little Rock during this crucial time . According to Dunnington , " When I assumed command at this Post , all material had been removed to Arkadelphia . There were no persons employed . No shops were open for repair of arms or for fabricating ammunition . Material , tools , etc . , had to be procured as well as the employment of laborers . Work commenced the last part of the month . " The military force at Little Rock under Dunnington 's command consisted of four officers : himself , Major John B. Lockman , Captain C.C. Green , and 2nd Lt. W.W. Murphy . In addition to these , he had 20 enlisted men and a civilian force composed of a foreman , 2 clerks , 3 gunsmiths for repairing small arms , a laboratorian , 26 laborers in the ammunition laboratory , and a carpenter for making packing boxes . During the month of August , 1862 , the following work was performed : " Fabricated : one pair of musket bullet moulds ; 10 @,@ 000 buck & ball shot cartridges ; repaired : 750 muskets , shotguns , and rifles ; received and repaired : ordnance stores and ordnances ; performed : guard , office , and police duties ; inspected : Posts at Camden and Arkadelphia . " Lt. Col. Dunnington continued to build up his works at Little Rock until November 1862 , when Captain Sanford C. Faulkner ( composer of The Arkansas Traveler ) was placed in charge of the Arsenal . Dunnington presumably returned to his naval duties and the Ponchartrain . A " Summary of the Work Done for November , 1862 , Little Rock Arsenal " shows : Fabrication : 75 @,@ 000 buck & ball cartridges - percussion 14 @,@ 000 buck & ball cartridges - flint 275 paper fuzes 117 rounds , 6 @-@ pounder canister shot 130 rounds , 6 @-@ pounder ball shot 96 ammunition packing boxes Repaired : 2 @,@ 236 shotguns and rifles ( repaired mostly for troops in service ) 23 pistols ( repaired mostly for troops in service ) Received & Issued : 752 packages of ordnance and ordnance stores received and mostly issued to troops in service . Repaired and painted : 4 gun carriages Performed : Guard , office , and police duties . Perhaps the most illuminating points of the above " Summary of Work " and those for following months are that the standard ammunition made was . " buck & ball " , indicating that the .69 caliber smoothbores and shotguns remained the predominant caliber weapon in use , and of this , nearly one sixth or more of all small arms ammunition was still for flintlock weapons , indicating that no less than a sixth of the Confederate troops in this vicinity were still armed with obsolete flintlock weapons . The " Summaries of Work done at Little Rock Arsenal , C.S.A. " continue at about the same pace and scale from August 1862 until August 1863 . Appended to the " Summary " for August , 1863 is the ominous notation , " During the last week in the month , nearly all stores at the Arsenal have been packed and sent to Arkadelphia , in obedience to orders from Chief of Ordnance , District of Arkansas . " This then marks the beginning of the evacuation of ordnance activities from Little Rock , with the city being surrendered to the advancing Federal troops of Frederick Steele 's Arkansas Expedition on September 11 , 1863 . In 1864 , after Little Rock fell to the Union Army and the arsenal had been recaptured , General Fredrick Steele marched 8 @,@ 500 troops from the arsenal beginning the Camden Expedition . The arsenal was briefly seized once more by Joseph Brooks loyalists during the Brooks @-@ Baxter War of 1874 . = = Decommissioning = = In 1873 , the building was renamed Little Rock Barracks and used as a barracks for married officers and their families . The building was drastically altered the inside and outside . Prior to renovation , a rear basement door provided the only entrance to the building , while the tower served as a hoist to move munitions between floors . By 1868 , front and rear porches had been added to the building , as well as interior walls and stairs , some of which remain today , including the central staircase . In 1880 , Douglas MacArthur was born on the northwest upper floor of this building while his father , Captain Arthur MacArthur , was stationed there . In the 1880s , the federal government began closing many small arsenals around the country in favor of smaller ones built near railroads for quick deployment . The arsenal commander received word from Washington that the Little Rock site must be abandoned " not later than October 1 , 1890 . " On April 12 , 1893 the tower building and the surrounding buildings were traded to the city of Little Rock for 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) in North Little Rock under the condition that the building and land be " forever exclusively devoted to the uses and purposes of a public park " for 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) in Big Rock Mountain on the north side of the Arkansas River , present day North Little Rock . That site later became Fort Logan H. Roots . All of the original buildings surrounding the Tower Building were demolished . = = Æsthetic Club = = In 1894 the Little Rock Æsthetic Club , one of the oldest women 's societies west of the Mississippi River , moved into the Tower Building . This was prompted due to increased membership and a need for larger , more permanent quarters . The previous year , club members working with women 's organizations throughout the state , raised money to furnish the Arkansas Building of the Columbian Exposition at The Chicago World 's Fair . At the fair 's conclusion , artifacts from the exhibit were displayed in the Tower Building , with the Æsthetic Club invited to meet in the " Columbian Room . " Except for Æsthetic Club meetings , the Tower Building remained largely unoccupied for almost fifty years and suffered significant deterioration . The Æsthetic Club provided much @-@ needed financial support during the period and even paid the electric bill during the Great Depression . The Æsthetic Club is still headquartered in the Tower Building . = = Public use = = The building and the surrounding park were used for many public purposes throughout the early 20th century . The Tower Building served as headquarters for the United Confederate Veterans Reunion , May 15 – 18 , 1911 . Over 106 @,@ 000 Civil War veterans , the largest popular gathering in the history of the city up to that time , attended and were housed in the building or camped in the park , which had also become a popular camping area . Later the building served as an armory for the Arkansas National Guard . In 1912 , the second floor of the Tower Building became Little Rock 's first public library . In 1917 , Little Rock built a fire station in the park , that building is now gone . A band shell named for H. H. Foster also was built in the park during this time , but also no longer exists . In 1936 , Works Progress Administration built the Museum of Fine Arts , now called the Arkansas Arts Center , just south of the Tower Building . The arsenal was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 . Due to its association with the Camden Expedition of 1864 , the arsenal may be included in the Camden Expedition Sites National Historic Landmark designated in 1994 . In 1942 , the Tower Building was renovated due to the efforts of the Æsthetic Club , Little Rock philanthropist Frederick W. Allsop , and the Works Progress Administration . It became the new home of The Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities , which had been located in Little Rock City Hall . The museum remained in the tower building for approximately fifty @-@ five years . The area surrounding the Tower Building had been known as Arsenal Park when the first decommissioned and then later renamed City Park . Due to the efforts of Bernie Babcock , however , the city finally named it MacArthur Park in 1942 in honor of Douglas MacArthur . In 1997 , the Museum of Science and Natural History merged with the Little Rock Children 's Museum , which had been located in Union Station , to form the Arkansas Museum of Discovery . The new museum was relocated to a historic building in the Little Rock River Market District . The MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History opened on May 19 , 2001 in the Tower Building . The new museum 's goal is to educate and inform visitors about the military history of Arkansas , preserve the Tower Building , honor servicemen and servicewomen of the United States and commemorate the birthplace of Douglas MacArthur .

= Cicely Mary Barker = Cicely Mary Barker ( 28 June 1895 – 16 February 1973 ) was an English illustrator best known for a series of fantasy illustrations depicting fairies and flowers . Barker 's art education began in girlhood with correspondence courses and instruction at the Croydon School of Art . Her earliest professional work included greeting cards and juvenile magazine illustrations , and her first book , Flower Fairies of the Spring , was published in 1923 . Similar books were published in the following decades . Barker was a devout Anglican , and donated her artworks to Christian fundraisers and missionary organizations . She produced a few Christian @-@ themed books such as The Children ’ s Book of Hymns and , in collaboration with her sister Dorothy , He Leadeth Me . She designed a stained glass window for St. Edmund 's Church , Pitlake , and her painting of the Christ Child , The Darling of the World Has Come , was purchased by Queen Mary . Barker was equally proficient in watercolour , pen and ink , oils , and pastels . Kate Greenaway and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites were the principal influences on her work . She claimed to paint instinctively and rejected artistic theories . Barker died in 1973 . Though she published Flower Fairy books with spring , summer , and autumn themes , it wasn 't until 1985 that a winter collection was assembled from her remaining work and published posthumously . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Barker was born the second daughter and youngest child of Walter Barker , a partner in a seed supply company and an amateur artist , and his wife Mary Eleanor ( Oswald ) Barker on 28 June 1895 at home at 66 Waddon Road in Croydon , Surrey , England . Barker was an epileptic as a child , and cared for at home by her parents . Later , her sister and elder by two years , Dorothy Oswald Barker , continued the care . The family of four was moderately well off , and belonged to the lower end of the upper middle class . A nanny , a governess , and a cook to prepare special meals for Barker were hired . She spent much time in bed at home amusing herself with painting books and a nursery library that included the works of Kate Greenaway and Randolph Caldecott – two artists who exerted strong influences on her later art . = = = Art education and first professional work = = = Barker took correspondence courses in art , probably until about 1919 . In 1908 at 13 years , she entered an evening class at the Croydon School of Art , and attended the school into the 1940s . In time , she received a teaching position . In 1911 , Raphael Tuck & Sons bought four of Barker 's " little drawings " for half a sovereign , and published them as postcards . In October 1911 , she won second prize in the Croydon Art Society 's poster competition , and shortly afterward was elected the youngest member of the Society . The art critic for the Croydon Advertiser remarked , " Her drawings show a remarkable freedom of spirit . She has distinct promise . " Following her father ’ s death in June 1912 , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Barker submitted art and poetry to My Magazine , Child ’ s Own , Leading Strings , and Raphael Tuck annuals in an effort to support both her mother and sister . Her sister Dorothy taught kindergarten in two private schools before opening a kindergarten at home . She brought in some money for the family 's support while supervising the household . = = = Flower Fairies of the Spring , 1923 = = = Fairies became a popular theme in art and literature in the early 20th century following the releases of The Coming of the Fairies by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Peter Pan by J.M. Barrie , and the fairy @-@ themed work of Australian Ida Rentoul Outhwaite . Queen Mary made such themes even more popular by sending Outhwaite postcards to friends during the 1920s . In 1918 , Barker produced a postcard series depicting elves and fairies . In 1923 , Barker sent her flower fairy paintings to various publishers . Blackie paid £ 25 for 24 paintings with accompanying verses , but it wasn 't until publication of Flower Fairies of the Summer in 1925 that Barker received royalties for her work . Mary Violet Clayton Calthrop , wife of author Dion Clayton Calthrop , wrote in April 1925 about Barker and Flower Fairies of the Spring : " She has such exquisite taste , besides draughtsmanship . " = = = The Waldrons = = = In 1924 , the family moved into a four @-@ level , semi @-@ detached Victorian house at 23 The Waldrons . Barker had a studio built in the garden and her sister conducted a kindergarten in a room at the back of the house . The family lived frugally and attended both St. Edmund 's and St. Andrew 's in Croydon – " low " churches for the less privileged . Barker sometimes incorporated portraits of her fellow parishioners in her religious works . She was described by Canon Ingram Hill as " one of the pillars " of St. Andrew 's . The children in the kindergarten modelled for the Flower Fairies until the kindergarten closed in 1940 . In an interview in 1958 , Barker said , " My sister ran a kindergarten and I used to borrow her students for models . For many years I had an atmosphere of children about me – I never forgot it . " She also painted the children of relatives as well as Gladys Tidy , the Barkers ' young housekeeper , who posed for the Primrose Fairy in 1923 . The plants were painted from life , and if a specimen was not readily at hand , Kew Gardens staff would provide her the specimens needed . Barker designed and built the Flower Fairy costumes , and based each on the flowers and leaves of the particular plant to be illustrated . The costumes were kept in a trunk in her studio along with wings made of twigs and gauze . Each was broken down after an illustration was completed and the parts recycled for other costumes . She often referred to Dion Clayton Calthrop 's English Costume . = = = Middle years = = = In the late 1920s , Barker began to doubt she was doing enough for the church and considered focusing solely on sacred works . Family and friends recommended she continue secular and sacred works , which she did . Barker continued to attend evening classes at the Croydon Art School between the 1920s and the 1940s , eventually receiving a teaching position . She took sketching trips to Amberley and Storrington in Sussex and to Cornwall and the southern coast with family and friends . She visited and stayed with artist Margaret Tarrant in Gomshall , Surrey and with family in Ugglebarnby , Near Whitby , North Yorkshire . In 1940 , the Barker 's live @-@ in maid retired , and Dorothy Barker closed her school at the back of the house in The Waldrons . She continued to supervise the household , and to give both her mother and sister the care they needed . Dorothy and her sister collaborated upon only two books : Our Darling 's First Book and the Christian @-@ themed , He Leadeth Me . In 1954 Dorothy Barker died of a heart attack . Barker was unable to pursue her art to any significant extent following her sister 's death , as all the care of her aged mother devolved upon her , but she did manage to begin planning a stained glass window design in her sister 's memory for St. Edmund 's , Pitlake . = = = Later life and death = = = Barker 's mother died in 1960 , and , in 1961 , Barker moved from 23 The Waldrons to 6 Duppas Avenue in Croydon . She restored a maisonette in Storrington , Sussex , England , bequeathed by her friend Edith Major , and named it St. Andrew 's . After taking up residence , her health began to deteriorate . She was in and out of nursing and convalescent homes , and tended by relatives and friends . Barker died at Worthing Hospital on 16 February 1973 , aged 77 years . Two funeral services were held – one in Storrington Church and one in Barker 's maisonette . Her ashes were scattered in Storrington churchyard . In 1989 , Frederick Warne , a division of Penguin Books since 1983 , acquired the Flower Fairies properties . = = Art = = Barker worked principally in watercolor with pen @-@ and @-@ ink , but she was equally competent in black @-@ and @-@ white , in oils , and in pastels . She carried a sketchbook with her for capturing interesting children . She once indicated , " I have always tried to paint instinctively in a way that comes naturally to me , without any real thought or attention to artistic theories . " Kate Greenaway was a childhood favorite and an influence on her art . Barker 's child subjects wear nostalgic clothing as Greenaway 's children do , though Barker 's children are less melancholy and less flat in appearance , due perhaps to advances in printing technology . Barker studied flowers with an analytical eye and was friend to children 's illustrator , Margaret Tarrant . Along with Greenaway , illustrator Alice B. Woodward also influenced Barker 's work . The Pre @-@ Raphaelites were a strong , lifelong influence on Barker . She once indicated , " I am to some extent influenced by them — not in any technical sense , but in the choice of subject matter and the feeling and atmosphere they could achieve . " She admitted a fondness for the early paintings of John Everett Millais and " the wonderful things " of Edward Burne @-@ Jones . = = = Depictions of children = = = Barker 's sketches , drawings , and paintings of children were given to friends or to the parents of the subjects , donated to charitable institutions and church sponsored events , or exhibited through various art organizations . She illustrated magazine covers , dust jackets , and produced series of postcards for Raphael Tuck and other publishers such as Picturesque Children of the Allies ( 1915 ) , Seaside Holidays ( 1918 ) , and Shakespeare 's Boy and Girl Characters ( 1917 , 1920 ) . Her own Old Rhymes for All Times ( 1928 ) and The Lord of the Rushie River ( 1938 ) , a tale about a girl who lives among swans on a riverbank , were critically well received . Set about 1800 , Groundsel and Necklaces ( 1943 ) tells of a girl named Jenny who rescues her family from poverty through the agency of the fairies . The story features an old Scrooge @-@ like man called Mr. Petercoo and tonally suggests a Dickensian social consciousness . Simon the Swan , intended as a sequel to Rushie River was outlined in 1943 with Groundsel , but only developed in 1953 . It was published posthumously in 1988 and is critically considered less successful than Groundsel . = = = Christian @-@ themed works = = = Barker was a devout Christian , and produced religious @-@ themed works throughout her life . She published eight postcards and five guardian angel birthday cards for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1916 and in 1923 respectively . Christmas cards were designed for The Girls ' Friendly Society over a 20 @-@ year period , and the first three designs sold out a combined printing of 46 @,@ 500 in 1923 . An original design for the society called The Darling of the World Has Come was purchased by Queen Mary for ₤ 5 @.@ 5 @.@ 0 in 1926 . The Croydon Art Society hung Barker 's booklet cover design for the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in its November 1919 exhibition . Religious @-@ themed books include The Children 's Book of Hymns ( 1929 ) and He Leadeth Me ( 1933 ) , the latter written in collaboration with her sister . Major religious works include the triptychs in oil , The Feeding of the Five Thousand ( 1929 ) , for the chapel in Llandaff House , a home for destitute women at Penarth , Wales , and The Parable of the Great Supper ( 1934 ) for St. George 's Chapel , Waddon . The Feeding has since disappeared , and only a black @-@ and @-@ white photograph dated 1929 reproduces the work . In 1941 , she completed oil panels on the subject of the seven sacraments for the baptismal font at St. Andrew 's , South Croydon . She designed baptismal rolls for the wall behind the font in 1948 and 1962 . In 1946 , she completed the 4 x 7 ft. oil painting , Out of Great Tribulation , for the Memorial Chapel of Norbury Methodist Church . Following the death of her sister in 1954 , Barker began designs for a stained glass memorial window depicting Christ preparing to wash the feet of his disciples . Her last religious @-@ themed work , it was installed in St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , in 1962 . = = Works = = = = = Cards = = = Picturesque Children of the Allies ; J. Salmon , 1916 National Mission ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1916 Shakespeare 's Boy Characters ; C. W. Faulkner , 1917 Shakespeare 's Girl Characters ; C. W. Faulkner , 1920 Seaside Holiday ; J. Salmon , 1918 , 1921 Elves and Fairies ; S. Harvey , 1918 Guardian Angel ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1923 Christmas cards ; Girls ' Friendly Society , 1920s , 1930s Christmas cards ( US ) ; Barton @-@ Colton , 1920s , 1930s Beautiful Bible Pictures ; Blackie , 1932 = = = Books = = = Flower Fairies of the Spring ; Blackie , 1923 Spring Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1923 Flower Fairies of the Summer ; Blackie , 1925 Child Thoughts in Picture and Verse ( by M. K. Westcott ) ; Blackie , 1925 Flower Fairies of the Autumn ; Blackie , 1926 Summer Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1926 The Book of the Flower Fairies ; Blackie , 1927 Autumn Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1927 Old Rhymes for All Times ; Blackie , 1928 The Children ’ s Book of Hymns ; Blackie , 1929 ; rep . 1933 Our Darling ’ s First Book ( written in collaboration with Dorothy Barker ) ; Blackie , 1929 The Little Picture Hymn Book ; Blackie , 1933 Rhymes New and Old ; Blackie , 1933 A Flower Fairy Alphabet ; Blackie , 1934 A Little Book of Old Rhymes ; Blackie , 1936 He Leadeth Me ( written in collaboration with Dorothy Barker ) ; Blackie , 1936 A Little Book of Rhymes New and Old ; Blackie , 1937 The Lord of the Rushie River ; Blackie , 1938 Flower Fairies of the Trees ; Blackie , 1940 When Spring Came In at the Window ; Blackie , 1942 A Child ’ s Garden of Verses ( Robert Louis Stevenson ) ; Blackie , 1944 Flower Fairies of the Garden ; Blackie , 1944 Groundsel and Necklaces ; Blackie , 1946 ; reprinted as Fairy Necklaces Flower Fairies of the Wayside ; Blackie , 1948 Flower Fairies of the Flowers and Trees ; Blackie , 1950 Lively Stories ; Macmillan , 1954 The Flower Fairy Picture Book ; Blackie , 1955 Lively Numbers ; Macmillan , 1957 Lively Words ; Macmillan , 1961 . The Sand , the Sea and the Sun ; Gibson , 1970 = = = = Posthumously published = = = = Flower Fairies of the Winter ; Blackie , 1985 Simon the Swan ; Blackie , 1988 Flower Fairies of the Seasons ; Bedrick / Blackie , 1988 A Little Book of Prayers and Hymns ; Frederick Warne , 1994 A Flower Fairies Treasury ; Frederick Warne , 1997 Fairyopolis ; Frederick Warne , 2005 Wild Cherry Makes A Wish ; ( collaboration with Pippa Le Quesne ) Frederick Warne , 2006 How to find Flower Fairies ; Frederick Warne , 2007 Return to Fairyopolis ; Frederick Warne , 2008 = = = Book covers = = = A New Epiphany ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1919 43 Annuals ; Blackie , 1920s , 1930s = = = Religious works = = = St. Cecily 's Garden ; 1920 Cradle roll design ; St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , 1922 Banner design ; St. Mary 's , Sanderstead , 1923 The Feeding of the Five Thousand ; reredos triptych , chapel at Penarth , Wales ; 1929 The Parable of the Great Supper ; triptych , St. George 's chapel , Waddon The Seven Sacraments ; baptismal font panels , St. Andrew 's , Croydon St. John the Baptist ; central banner panel , Abesford church , 1943 Lettering , sword , and shield ; mount for a list of men and woman serving in the Forces , St. Andrews , Croydon , 1943 Baptismal rolls ; St. Andrews , Croydon , 1948 , 1962 The font in St Andrew 's Church , South Croydon Out of Great Tribulation ; memorial chapel , Norbury Medthodist church , 1948 I Am Among You As He That Serveth ; stained glass window design , St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , 1962

= Gambia women 's national football team = The Gambia women 's national football team represents the Gambia in international football competition . The team , however , has not competed in a match recognised by FIFA , the sport 's international governing body , despite that organised women 's football has been played in the country since 1998 . The Gambia has two youth teams , an under @-@ 17 side that has competed in FIFA U @-@ 17 Women 's World Cup qualifiers , and an under @-@ 19 side that withdrew from regional qualifiers for an under @-@ 19 World Cup . The development of a national team faces challenges similar to those across Africa , although the national football association has four staff members focusing on women 's football . = = The team = = In 1985 , few countries had women 's national football teams . While the sport gained popularity worldwide in later decades , the Gambia 's national team only played its first game in 2007 . That game was not FIFA @-@ recognised . As of March 2012 , the team was unranked by FIFA , and as of the following month the Gambia had not played in a FIFA @-@ sanctioned match . The team has not participated in major regional and international tournaments , including the Women 's World Cup , the 2010 African Women 's Championship or the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . The country did not have a FIFA @-@ recognised youth national team until 2012 , when the Gambia under @-@ 17 women 's team competed in Confederation of African Football qualifiers for the FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup , to be held in Azerbaijan in September 2012 . The Gambia had fielded an under @-@ 17 team of 24 players , narrowed from an initial pool of 49 young women . Two girls from the SOS Children ’ s Village Bakoteh were chosen as a members of the team . The Gambia first played Sierra Leone in a pair of qualifying matches for the tournament . Gambia won the first match 3 @-@ 0 in Banjul , the Gambia 's capital . The return match was delayed in for 24 hours and played in Makeni . The Gambia beat Sierra Leone 4 @-@ 3 to qualify for the final round . The Gambia then beat Tunisia 1 @-@ 0 at home and won 2 @-@ 1 in Tunisia . Adama Tamba and Awa Demba scored the Gambia 's goals . Tunisia 's only goal was a Gambian own goal . The win qualified Gambia for the 2012 Azerbaijan World Cup . The Gambia also has an under @-@ 19 team that was to play in the African Women 's U @-@ 19 Championship in 2002 . The Gambia 's first match was against Morocco , but the team withdrew from the competition . = = Background and development = = The development of women 's football in Africa faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women , inequalities and human rights abuses targeting women . Funding is another issue impacting the game in Africa , where most financial assistance comes from FIFA and not national football associations . Another challenge is the retention of football players . Many women footballers leave the continent to seek greater opportunity in Europe or the United States . Gambia 's national football association was founded in 1952 , and became affiliated with FIFA in 1968 . Football is the most popular women 's sport in the country , and was first played in an organized system in 1998 . A national competition was launched in 2007 , the same year FIFA started an education course on football for women . Competition was active on both the national and scholastic levels by 2009 . There are four staffers dedicated to women 's football in the Gambia Football Association , and representation of women on the board is required by the association 's charter .

= Plain maskray = The plain maskray or brown stingray ( Neotrygon annotata ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is found in shallow , soft @-@ bottomed habitats off northern Australia . Reaching 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) in width , this species has a diamond @-@ shaped , grayish green pectoral fin disc . Its short , whip @-@ like tail has alternating black and white bands and fin folds above and below . There are short rows of thorns on the back and the base of the tail , but otherwise the skin is smooth . While this species possesses the dark mask @-@ like pattern across its eyes common to its genus , it is not ornately patterned like other maskrays . Benthic in nature , the plain maskray feeds mainly on caridean shrimp and polychaete worms , and to a lesser extent on small bony fishes . It is viviparous , with females producing litters of one or two young that are nourished during gestation via histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . This species lacks economic value but is caught incidentally in bottom trawls , which it is thought to be less able to withstand than other maskrays due to its gracile build . As it also has a limited distribution and low fecundity , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it as Near Threatened . = = Taxonomy and phylogeny = = The first scientific description of the plain maskray was authored by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) researcher Peter Last in a 1987 issue of Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria . The specific name annotatus comes from the Latin an ( " not " ) and notatus ( " marked " ) , and refers to the ray 's coloration . The holotype is a male 21 @.@ 2 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) across , caught off Western Australia ; several paratypes were also designated . Last tentatively placed the species in the genus Dasyatis , noting that it belonged to the " maskray " species group that also included the bluespotted stingray ( then Dasyatis kuhlii ) . In 2008 , Last and William White elevated the kuhlii group to the rank of full genus as Neotrygon , on the basis of morphological and molecular phylogenetic evidence . In a 2012 phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA , the plain maskray and the Ningaloo maskray ( N. ningalooensis ) were found to be the most basal members of Neotrygon . The divergence of the N. annotata lineage was estimated to have occurred ~ 54 Ma . Furthermore , the individuals sequenced in the study sorted into two genetically distinct clades , suggesting that N. annotata is a cryptic species complex . The two putative species were estimated to have diverged ~ 4 @.@ 9 Ma ; the precipitating event was likely the splitting of the ancestral population by coastline changes . = = Description = = The pectoral fin disc of the plain maskray is thin and diamond @-@ shaped with narrowly rounded outer corners , measuring 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 times longer than wide . The leading margins of the disc are gently concave and converge at a broad angle to the pointed tip of the snout . The small eyes are placed close together , and behind them are the spiracles . The nostrils are elongated and have a skirt @-@ shaped flap of skin between them . The small mouth bears prominent furrows at the corners and contains two slender papillae on the floor . Small papillae are also found around the outside of the mouth . There are five pairs of gill slits . The pelvic fins are fairly large and pointed . The tail is short , barely exceeding the length of the disc when intact , and has a broad and flattened base leading to usually two stinging spines . After the stings , the tail becomes slender and bears a long ventral fin fold and a much shorter , lower dorsal fin fold . Most of the body lacks dermal denticles ; a midline row of 4 – 13 small , closely spaced thorns is present behind the spiracles , and another row of 0 – 4 thorns before the stings . The dorsal coloration is grayish green , becoming pinkish towards the disc margins ; there is a dark mask @-@ like shape around the eyes and a pair of small dark blotches behind the spiracles . The tail behind the stings has alternating black and white bands of variable width , ending with black at the tip . The underside is plain white and the ventral fin fold is light grayish in color . This species grows to 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) across and 45 cm ( 18 in ) long . = = Distribution and habitat = = The plain maskray inhabits the continental shelf of northern Australia from the Wellesley Islands in Queensland to the Bonaparte Archipelago in Western Australia , including the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Timor and Arafura Seas . There are unsubstantiated reports that its range extends to southern Papua New Guinea . It is the least common of the several maskray species native to the region . This species is a bottom @-@ dweller that prefers habitats with fine sediment . It has been recorded from between 12 and 62 m ( 39 and 203 ft ) deep , and tends to be found farther away from shore than other maskrays in its range . = = Biology and ecology = = The plain maskray generally hunts at the surface of the bottom substrate , rather than digging for prey . Its diet consists predominantly of caridean shrimp and polychaete worms . Small bony fishes are also eaten , along with the occasional penaeid prawn or amphipod . Larger rays consume a greater variety of prey and relatively more polychaete worms when compared to smaller rays . This species is parasitized by the tapeworm Acanthobothrium jonesi . Like other stingrays , the plain maskray is viviparous with the developing embryos sustained to term by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Mature females have a single functional ovary and uterus , on the left . Litter size is one or two ; the newborns measure 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) across . Males and females reach sexual maturity at disc widths of 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) and 18 – 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) respectively . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 9 years for males and 13 years for females . = = Human interactions = = The main conservation threat to the plain maskray is incidental capture by commercial bottom trawl fisheries . In the present day , this is mostly caused by Australia 's Northern Prawn Fishery , which operates throughout its range . Although this species is discarded when caught , it is more delicate @-@ bodied than other maskrays and is thus unlikely to survive encounters with trawling gear . Historically , this species may also have been negatively affected by Japanese , Chinese , and Taiwanese trawlers that fished intensively off northern Australia from 1959 to 1990 . These factors , coupled with the plain maskray 's limited distribution and low reproductive rate , have resulted in its being assessed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .

= 2011 – 12 Columbus Blue Jackets season = The 2011 – 12 Columbus Blue Jackets season was the team 's 12th season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Blue Jackets ' record of 29 – 46 – 7 [ note 1 ] was the worst record in the NHL for 2011 – 12 and the first time in franchise history they finished in last place . It also marked the third straight year that they missed the playoffs . Consequently , they had the best chance to receive the first overall selection in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft lottery , but lost out to the Edmonton Oilers and received the second pick instead . The Blue Jackets began the year with the worst start in franchise history and the worst by any team in an NHL season in 19 years . After an 11 – 25 – 5 start , Head Coach Scott Arniel was fired and replaced by Assistant Coach Todd Richards . The poor season prompted several personnel changes including the trade of All @-@ Star forward Jeff Carter , who was acquired with much fanfare during the off @-@ season . With the prospect of another rebuild looming the Blue Jackets ' captain and best player , Rick Nash , requested to be traded , though he would remain with the team for the entire season . The team was involved in a controversial loss to the Los Angeles Kings , when the Staples Center clock appeared to freeze at 1 @.@ 8 seconds allowing the Kings time to score the tying goal , before winning in overtime . During the season Columbus managed only two winning streaks of three or more games . One of which came towards the end of the year helping the Blue Jackets finish with 65 points , the third worst point total in franchise history . = = Off @-@ season = = In the off @-@ season the Blue Jackets ' approach to building their team changed , moving from a team of young developing players into one with established players . The first deal General Manager Scott Howson made was the acquisition of All @-@ Star forward Jeff Carter on June 23 , 2011 . The deal sent Jakub Voracek , Columbus ' first @-@ round draft choice , the eighth overall , and their third @-@ round pick in the 2011 Draft to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for Carter . The trade received a positive response in Columbus from fans and management who felt they finally had a number one center to play alongside of their best player , Rick Nash . Next , they traded for the negotiating rights of soon to be free agent James Wisniewski . Wisniewski scored a career high 51 points during the 2010 – 11 season , splitting time between the New York Islanders and Montreal Canadiens . The point total was fifth @-@ highest in the league for defenseman scoring , tying Tobias Enstrom . The Blue Jackets came to terms with Wisniewski , just an hour prior to the start of free agency , signing him to a six @-@ year , $ 33 million deal . Columbus also traded former first round draft pick Nikita Filatov to the Ottawa Senators for a third @-@ round pick in the 2011 Draft . Filatov had failed to live up to expectations in Columbus , playing in only 44 games over three seasons scoring six goals . Prior to the start of the season , the Blue Jackets were questioned for not signing a veteran back @-@ up to starting goaltender Steve Mason , as the former Calder Memorial Trophy winner had struggled in consecutive seasons . The Blue Jackets signed Mark Dekanich as the back @-@ up who had only 50 minutes of NHL experience prior to the start of the season . Columbus did sign a veteran Curtis Sanford to be their third string goaltender and to start for their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Springfield Falcons . Sanford had not played in the NHL since 2009 . During training camp , Dekanich suffered a high ankle sprain that was expected to keep him out of the line @-@ up for a month . Additionally , Sanford suffered a groin injury , leaving Allen York as the back @-@ up . York had only played four professional games , all in the AHL , entering the season . = = Regular season = = = = = October – December = = = After the first five games , all losses , Jeff Carter suffered a broken foot that kept him out of the line @-@ up for 10 games . While Carter was injured , the Blue Jackets continued to lose games . In the eighth game of the year , they had a chance to end the losing streak against the Ottawa Senators . Columbus held a 3 – 2 lead with under a minute to play . Jason Spezza tied the game on a late power play , and with just 4 @.@ 7 seconds remaining , Milan Michalek notched the winning goal for the Senators . The loss helped set a franchise record for futility with a 0 – 7 – 1 record to start a season . [ note 1 ] The losing streak came to an end three days later with a win over the Detroit Red Wings . During the game , several milestones were reached . James Wisniewski made his Columbus debut , Ryan Johansen and John Moore scored their first career NHL goals and Grant Clitsome had a career @-@ high three assists . Columbus was unable to create any momentum from the win , however , and continued to struggle , culminating in a 2 – 12 – 1 record , which was the worst start to an NHL season for any team in 19 years . With the team struggling , management attempted to " shake things up " by making some roster moves . The first move was the acquisition of center Mark Letestu from the Pittsburgh Penguins . Next , they traded defenseman Kris Russell to the St. Louis Blues for Nikita Nikitin . As the clubs slow start continued , there were rumors that Head Coach Scott Arniel would be fired and replaced with Ken Hitchcock . Hitchcock had previously coached the Blue Jackets to their only playoff appearance in club history and was still under contract with the franchise through to the end of the season . Before any of these rumors came to fruition , the St. Louis Blues asked Columbus for permission to hire Hitchcock , which the Blue Jackets allowed . Hitchcock began his Blues coaching career with a 6 – 1 – 2 record in his first nine games , while Columbus amassed a 6 – 13 – 3 record to start the season . During the same time frame as the Hitchcock rumors , goaltender Curtis Sanford returned from his groin injury on November 13 . He made his first start of the season against the Boston Bruins , losing 2 – 1 in a shootout . Sanford continued his strong play , posting a 3 – 1 – 2 record , 1 @.@ 38 goals against average and .947 save percentage over his next six games . Sanford started 12 consecutive games before Steve Mason made his next start . The number of starts might not have been as numerous , but prior to the November 23 game , Mason was hit in the head by a shot from Rick Nash during pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups and suffered a concussion . Mason returned from his concussion after two games , making a start against the Vancouver Canucks . Mason allowed only one goal in the game despite suffering from cramping in the third period , temporarily being replaced by Sanford for just over three minutes . Columbus won the game 2 – 1 in a shootout , breaking a nine @-@ game losing streak to the Canucks . After the game , Arniel stated that Sanford was still seen as the team 's number one goaltender . However , Mason started four of the next six games with the Blue Jackets going 0 – 5 – 1 during that stretch . = = = January – February = = = With the losing continuing , more rumors began to surface . Unlike before , the rumors were about player moves rather than coaching changes . The majority of rumors were that the Blue Jackets would trade Rick Nash . While Howson stated that he had never brought up trading Nash in discussions , other teams had inquired about his availability . Nash stated that if Columbus felt it would make the franchise better than he would be willing to waive his no @-@ trade clause . Howson publicly stated that he had no intention of trading Nash . More rumors came to light when reports attributed to Réseau des sports stated that Carter was unhappy in Columbus and demanded a trade . Howson , Carter and his agent all denied that a trade request was ever made , and they were unsure where the reports were coming from . With the trade deadline approaching , speculation picked up on the Blue Jackets trading Carter . Reports were that Columbus was trying to trade Carter and that he was " 100 percent available . " At the halfway point of the season , with the Blue Jackets barely into double digit wins with an 11 – 25 – 5 record , worst in the league , and sitting 20 points out of playoff position , Columbus fired Arniel . He was replaced by Assistant Coach Todd Richards on an interim basis . Richards had previously coached the Minnesota Wild . He recorded his first coaching victory for the Blue Jackets in his second game , a 4 – 3 win over the Phoenix Coyotes . The change in coaching did not change the fortunes of the team , as they reached the All @-@ Star break with a 13 – 30 – 6 record . At the break , Blue Jackets ' owner John P. McConnell sent out a letter to fans stating his understanding of their frustration . He added that action would be taken around the trade deadline , the Entry Draft and free agency to take the team in a new direction . When speaking of the season , McConnell stated " disappointing is not a strong enough word " and that he was committed to giving fans a team of which they can be proud of . He also thanked them for their dedication and passion , while reiterating that the team goal was to " win consistently and compete for the Stanley Cup . " Days later , a 250 @-@ person protest occurred outside of Nationwide Arena . Fans were upset with the Blue Jackets ' management and were calling for changes at the top . The same day the fans protested , it was announced that the franchise would host the 2013 All @-@ Star Game . Columbus was without a representative for the 2012 All @-@ star Game , but Ryan Johansen represented the club as a rookie participant in the Super Skills Competition . In the competition , Johansen participated in the Allstate Insurance NHL Breakaway Challenge , a shootout themed event judged by the fans . He received just 1 % of the vote and finished last . Following the break , the Blue Jackets were on the road playing the Los Angeles Kings , and with the score tied late in the game , Kings ' defenseman Drew Doughty scored with just 0 @.@ 4 seconds remaining to win the game . Upon review of the goal it , was determined that the clock at Staples Center froze at 1 @.@ 8 seconds for over a full second , which would have resulted in time expiring prior to the goal being scored . Kings ' General Manager Dean Lombardi stated that the clock was correct and no extra time had been added due to the way the clock self @-@ corrects at various times . Howson stated on the team 's blog that " It is an amazing coincidence that with the Kings on a power play at Staples Center and with a mad scramble around our net in the dying seconds of the third period of a 2 – 2 hockey game that the clock stopped for at least one full second , " adding that , " Either there was a deliberate stopping of the clock or the clock malfunctioned . " NHL Senior Vice President of Hockey Operations Colin Campbell stated that the Blue Jackets were wronged , but that the outcome of the game could not be changed , and that the delay was not noticed by the off @-@ ice officials or the situation room in Toronto . To determine the true cause of the clock pause , the NHL launched an investigation , talking with the clock 's manufacturer and interviewing Staples Center staff . Two weeks prior to the NHL trade deadline , Columbus announced that unlike earlier in the season , they would listen to trade proposals involving Rick Nash , though they were not actively shopping him . Howson stated that the team was open to all options for improving the team , including trading Nash . Speculation was that in return for Nash the Blue Jackets would ask for a " combination of young , proven players , high @-@ end prospects and draft picks . " Leading up to the trade deadline , the Blue Jackets dealt Antoine Vermette to the Phoenix Coyotes for two draft picks and goaltender Curtis McElhinney . Despite being injured at the time , the acquisition of McElhinney was believed to give Columbus the flexibility to trade Curtis Sanford . The following day , on February 23 , Columbus traded Jeff Carter to the Kings . In the deal , Columbus acquired defenseman Jack Johnson and a first @-@ round draft pick ; the team was given the choice of taking the pick in either 2012 or 2013 . At the deadline , Columbus was unable to come to terms on a deal involving Nash , but they did make one more move ; they sent center Samuel Pahlsson to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for two fourth @-@ round draft picks and minor league defenseman Taylor Ellington . Following the trade deadline , Howson announced that the team had attempted to trade Nash at the player 's request . Nash stated that he had requested the trade after being informed that the franchise was going into another rebuilding phase . He further noted that he felt that he " could be a huge part of that towards bringing assets in , " and in his view " it was the best thing for the team , the organization , and personally for [ his ] career . " After the personnel changes , the Blue Jackets closed out the month with a three @-@ game losing streak . = = = March – April = = = Columbus started March with a 2 – 0 shutout against the Colorado Avalanche . They proceeded to win their next game against the Phoenix Coyotes 5 – 2 , which marked the first time that the Blue Jackets posted back @-@ to @-@ back regulation victories during the season . Columbus again defeated the Coyotes three days later to earn their first three @-@ game win streak of the season . They extended the streak to four with a win over the Los Angeles Kings before it came to an end with a 4 – 1 loss to the St. Louis Blues . It was the only four @-@ game win streak of the season for the Blue Jackets . They immediately matched their four @-@ game win streak with a four @-@ game losing streak and with ten games remaining , the Blue Jackets were the first team eliminated from playoff contention . Shortly after being eliminated , they were defeated by the Edmonton Oilers 6 – 3 ; the loss clinched last place in the NHL for Columbus . It was the first time in franchise history the Blue Jackets finished in 30th place . Three days later , on March 28 , goaltender Steve Mason was injured in the morning skate when a shot from Colton Gillies hit him in the mask . With Sanford again injured , York made an emergency start . Playing against the Detroit Red Wings , York made 29 saves , including 17 in the third period , helping Columbus to a 4 – 2 victory and giving York his first career NHL win . York remained the starter and led the Blue Jackets to a second three @-@ game winning streak . In his fourth start , Columbus was shutout by the Coyotes despite a franchise @-@ record 54 shots on goal , losing 2 – 0 . The 54 saves by Phoenix goaltender Mike Smith set an NHL record for a regulation shutout . Mason returned to the starter 's role for the final two games , winning both . The two victories gave Columbus 65 points for the year , their third @-@ lowest total in franchise history . The Blue Jackets struggled in shorthanded situations , allowing the most power @-@ play goals in the League , with 64 , and having the lowest penalty @-@ kill percentage , at 76 @.@ 64 % = = Post @-@ season = = Finishing with the worst record in the NHL , Columbus had the best chance of receiving the first overall pick in the 2012 draft . With the NHL 's weighted draft lottery the Blue Jackets had a 48 @.@ 2 % chance of drafting first overall . However , the lottery was won by the Edmonton Oilers , who proceeded to leapfrog Columbus and secure the number one draft pick for a third consecutive year . It was the fifth time that the Blue Jackets were dropped one draft position in the franchise 's 12 lottery participations . A month later , on May 14 , the Blue Jackets announced that Richards would remain as head coach and signed him to a two @-@ year contract . During the press conference , Howson noted , " Our team continuously improved under Todd and he has earned the opportunity to build upon the work he started . " Columbus posted an 18 – 21 – 2 record under Richards , including winning seven of their final 11 games . = = Standings = = Since being founded as an expansion team , the Blue Jackets have played in the Central Division of the Western Conference . Division rivals Chicago Blackhawks , Detroit Red Wings , Nashville Predators and St. Louis Blues , all made the playoff during the 2011 – 12 season , which helped Columbus finish 36 points behind fourth place Chicago and 44 points out of first . Divisions : CE – Central , NW – Northwest , PA – Pacific bold - qualified for playoffs , y – Won division , p – Won Presidents ' Trophy ( best record in NHL ) = = Schedule and results = = = = = Pre @-@ season = = = = = = Regular season = = = Green background indicates win ( 2 points ) . Red background indicates regulation loss ( 0 points ) . Silver background indicates overtime / shootout loss ( 1 point ) . = = Player statistics = = In ice hockey , a combination of a player 's goals and assists are collectively called points . Penalty minutes are the total number of minutes assigned to a player for infractions assessed during the season.Plus @-@ minus is a statistic that tracks when a player was on the ice while goals were scored , both for and against their team , though some in game situations will not effect the statistic . Below is a listing of all player statistics for the Blue Jackets during the season . = = = Skaters = = = Note : Pos

= Position ; GP = Games played in ; G

= Goals ; A = Assists ; Pts

= Points ; PIM = Penalty minutes ; + / - = Plus / minus = = = Goaltenders = = = Note : GP

= Games Played ; TOI = Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W

= Wins ; L = Losses ; OT

= Overtime Losses ; GA = Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; SA = Shots Against ; SV

= Saves ; Sv % = Save Percentage ; SO = Shutouts † Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Blue Jackets . Stats reflect time with the Blue Jackets only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season = = Milestones = = When Mason was injured in warm @-@ ups late in the year , Columbus was without an active goaltender on their roster . To remedy the situation , the team signed former University of Michigan goaltender Shawn Hunwick to a one @-@ day , amateur tryout contract . After being eliminated from the NCAA Tournament just days prior , Hunwick skipped an astronomy class and drove his worn down 2003 Ford Ranger to Columbus to make the game . He served as the back @-@ up to Allen York during the game , and the following day , he signed a contract for the remainder of the year . With Mason returning from injury , Hunwick was third on the team 's depth chart when an injury to York allowed Hunwick to remain as the back @-@ up for the final two games of the year . In the final game of the season , the Blue Jackets were leading the Islanders 7 – 3 with 2 : 33 remaining when , at the behest of his teammates , Head Coach Todd Richards put Hunwick in to finish the game . He did not face a shot . Hunwick was the franchise record ninth player to make his NHL debut during the season . Conversely , Vaclav Prospal played in his 1,000th NHL game during the year . = = Transactions = = During the off @-@ season the Blue Jackets parted ways with defensemen Jan Hejda , Anton Stralman , Sami Lepisto and Mike Commodore . Hejda , who played four of his first five NHL seasons with the Blue Jackets , was offered a contract by Columbus , but felt that the organization undervalued him and left via free agency . Columbus had offered him a three @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 5 million contract . He instead signed a four @-@ year , $ 13 million deal with the Colorado Avalanche . Stralman and Lepisto were not given qualifying offers which made them unrestricted free agents , and both signed with other teams . Commodore had originally signed a big contract with the Blue Jackets in 2008 , but fell out of favor . He was waived , sent to the minors and eventually had his contract bought out . In order to replace the departed players , Columbus not only acquired James Wisniewski , but also signed ten @-@ year NHL veteran Radek Martinek . Martinek played only seven games with the Blue Jackets before suffering a concussion and missing the remainder of the season . Brett Lebda was brought in to replace him .

= Gregorian Tower = The Gregorian Tower ( Italian : Torre Gregoriana ) or Tower of the Winds ( Italian : Torre dei Venti ) is a round tower located above the Gallery of Maps , which connects the Villa Belvedere with the Apostolic Palace in Vatican City . The tower was built between 1578 and 1580 to a design by the Bolognese architect Ottaviano Mascherino ( who was credited with building the Apostolic Palace ) mainly to promote the study of astronomy for the Gregorian Calendar Reform which was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII and promulgated in 1582 . It was then also known as the Tower of Winds . The tower is now called the " Specola Astronomica Vaticana " , the Vatican Observatory . Four stages of progressive development have occurred since it was first established . The tower was an edifice of great value for astronomical observations made using a sundial as they provided essential confirmation of the need to reform the Julian calendar . = = Early history = = The first stage of building of the tower , as recorded by Leo XIII in his motu proprio Ut mysticam of 1891 , is credited to Pope Gregory XIII , Pope from 1572 to 1585 . The directive was to build a tower at a suitable location in the Vatican and equip it with the " greatest and best instruments of the time " . The design was effected after a series of meetings of the experts who had been appointed to reform the Julian calendar , in use since 45 BC , to verify their proposed reforms . Fr . Christoph Clavius , a Jesuit mathematician from the Roman College , was the expert on the committee who suggested the new system for the observations . The 73 metres ( 240 ft ) tower was then built above the museum and library , flanked by the Belvedere and della Pigna courtyards . The instrumentation for the observation of the sun rays falling over it consisted of a meridian line designed by Ignazio Danti of Perugia . It was in the form of a circular marble plate in the centre , embellished with scientific designs . The tower still remains today , but has undergone improvements over the centuries . = = Second stage = = The second stage of construction in the 17th and 18th centuries , when the tower was under the charge of the Vatican librarian , involved Mgr . Filippo Luigi Gilii , a clergyman of St. Peter 's Basilica . Earlier in 1797 , Pius VI gave approval to placing a Latin inscription Specula Vaticana at the entrance to the upper part of the tower , which was implemented by Cardinal Zelada with plans to enhance the instrumentation system in the tower 's observatory . The original observatory was then set up above the second level of the tower with the agreement of Pope Pius VI . Its instrumentation , apart from many normal devices ( such as meteorological and magnetic equipment , with a seismograph and a small transit and pendulum clock , ) was noted for the Dolland Telescope . The instrumentation facilitated recording of occurrences of eclipse , appearance of comets , Satellites of Jupiter and Mercury ’ s transit . As an addition , under the patronage of Pope Pius X , four rotary observatory domes were also added at strategic locations on the 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) long fortification walls , more than a thousand years old . Mgr . Gilii , highly respected as a polyglot with a knowledge of physics , biology , archeology and the Hebrew language , was in charge of the observatory from 1800 to 1821 . He carried out continuous meteorological observations ( twice a day at 6 AM and 2 PM ) conforming to the programme of the Mannheim Meteorological Society . While the observation records for seven years were published , the balance data in a manuscript form was preserved in the Vatican Library . Subsequent to Gilii 's death in 1821 , the observatory on the tower was discontinued and the instruments were moved to the observatory at the Roman College . Established in 1787 , it was considered more suitable for making observations than the Vatican . = = Third stage = = The revival of the observatory on the Gregorian Tower was initiated by the Barnabite Francesco Denza with the approval of Pope Leo XIII . High quality instruments were procured , partly with generous donations from Hicks of London , and the automatic recording instruments were procured from Richard in Paris . A four @-@ inch equatorial , a three @-@ inch transit instrument , and four pendulum clocks with two chronometers , were also procured from the observatory at Modena . In 1888 , the gift of a 16 inch long telescope to Pope Leo XIII , became a part of the observatory . Father Denza joined the observatory in 1889 after it was upgraded with more modern instruments . The same year , a second tower was built some 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) away from the main Gregorian Tower , overlooking the Vatican Gardens behind St. Peter 's Basilica on the south @-@ west border . It was built to a diameter of 17 metres ( 56 ft ) with a lower wall thickness of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) , which could bear the load of a 13 inch photographic refractor , newly procured from Paris . Augustinian Father Rodriguez was the expert meteorologist who held the post of director from 1898 to 1905 . In 1891 , Pope Leo XIII , promulgating the motu proprio Ut mysticam , designated the second tower as the seat of the newly established Vatican Observatory , a decision which required altering the roof to provide a flat terrace for astronomical observations . = = Fourth stage = = The fourth stage involved remedying the problem of communicating between the two towers during the time of Pope Pius X. His plans were to make the Gregorian Tower into a historical tower and to record and carry out observations at the second tower by linking the two towers along the fortified wall with a 83 metres ( 272 ft ) iron bridge spanning the gap . At the west end of this bridge , a four @-@ inch equatorial was installed on semicircular bastion . The east end of the bridge , above the barracks of the gendarmes , had a heliograph , with a camera attached , used to photograph the Sun ( photoheliograph ) . A new 16 @-@ inch visual telescope , called Torre Pio X , was erected in the second tower . As a result of these modifications , the original library was moved to the Pontifical Academy Lincei , and the old meteorological and seismic instruments were shifted to the Valle di Pompei observatory . The new Astronomical Library was housed in two rooms of the building . The two new Repsold machines were used for recording on the astrographic plates . The recorded observations were published along with explanatory notes together with the last two series of the atlas of stars . Charts were printed on silver bromide paper . = = Features = = The tower had two floors and a mezzanine . On the first floor was the famous Sundial Room or Meridian Room , which was initially an open loggia . Pope Urban VIII had it enclosed and it was subsequently decorated with long sequences of frescoes painted between 1580 and 1582 by Simon Lagi and the two Flemish artists Paul and Matthijs Bril . Today the tower has paintings by Cristoforo Roncalli and Matteino da Siena . The Sundial Room , also called the Meridian Hall , was once the residence of Queen Christina of Sweden , then newly converted to Catholicism . The room was further modified by two additions which gave it its current name : a sundial , and a delicate but sophisticated anemoscope which was fixed to the ceiling of the Meridian Hall . These were created by Ignazio Danti , the papal cosmographer , in association with the Gregorian Calendar Reform . The sundial consisted of a straight line in white marble running across the floor in a north @-@ south direction , intended to measure the height of the Sun at noon according to the seasons of the year . The observations made with the sundial provided essential confirmation of the need to reform the Julian calendar . The anemoscope , in contrast , was a complex mechanism attached to the ceiling which was used to measure the strength and direction of the wind but soon stopped functioning . The instrument may have led to the other name of the tower , Tower of the Winds ; however , an ancient observatory at Athens was also called the Tower of the Winds and might have been the source for inspiration . The interior walls and ceiling of the hall were richly decorated , in some cases with gaudy frescoes of the hills and Roman countryside , the Pantheons , religious themes , the buildings surrounding the area , and naval shipwrecks with Jesus calming the storm and so forth .

= There 's Got to Be a Way = " There 's Got to Be a Way " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 1990 ) . Columbia released it as the fifth and final single from the album in the United Kingdom . It was one of four songs Carey wrote with Ric Wake during their first recording session together , but " There 's Got to Be a Way " was the only composition to make the final track listing . It is a socio @-@ political conscious R & B @-@ pop song which addresses the existence of poverty , racism and war in the world which gradually becomes more aspirational and positive as it progresses . The track garnered a mixed reception upon the album 's release in 1990 . While Carey 's vocals were praised , it was seen as too political . An accompanying music video highlights social injustices . The song reached number 54 on the UK Singles Chart . = = Background and release = = " There 's Got to Be a Way " was written by Mariah Carey and Ric Wake for Carey 's self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 1990 ) . It was written during Carey and Wake 's first recording session together . They composed four songs , but only " There 's Got to Be a Way " was chosen for the final track listing . Co @-@ produced by Wake and Narada Michael Walden , it appears as the second of ten songs on the track listing . The track was recorded and engineered by Bob Cadway at Cove City Sound Studios and The Power Station , both located in New York City . He was assisted by Dana Jon Chappelle . It was mixed by David Frazer at Tarpan Studios in San Rafael . The keyboards , bass and rhythm engineering was carried out by Louis Biancaniello , while Joe Franco performed the percussion , Vernon " Ice " Black played the guitar , and Rich Tancredo also performing on the keyboards . Walter Afanasieff played the synth horns . Carey provided her own background vocals along with Billy T. Scott , Jamiliah Muhammed and The Billy T. Scott Ensemble . The song was released as the fifth and final single from the album in the United Kingdom . It is available to purchase as a CD single while the remixes are available on vinyl . = = Composition = = " There 's Got to Be a Way " is an R & B @-@ pop music song with elements of gospel . The theme of social activism can be heard in the lyrics " There ’ s got to be a way / to connect this world today . " The song begins with Carey publicly denouncing the existence of poverty and racism in the world , and she uses the bridge to shift the lyrics towards an uplifting and aspirational tone . Carey suggests we should be more tolerant of each other and not resort so readily to war in the lyrics " Couldn 't we accept each other / Can 't we make ourselves aware . " = = Critical reception = = Music critic Robert Christgau felt that Carey was being too political in her " brave , young , idealistic attack " on war and destitution . Ralph Novak , David Hiltbrand and David Grogan of People wrote that it is a " testimony to her talent that she does so much with so little . " They continued to write that Carey 's " tone and clarity " makes " There 's Got to Be a Way " a " mesmerizing " track . To mark twenty @-@ five years since the release of Mariah Carey in June 1990 , Billboard writer Trevor Anderson wrote a track @-@ by @-@ track review of the album in June 2015 . He noted that " There 's Got to Be a Way " follows the same melodic tone as the album 's opener " Vision of Love " but highlighted their stark lyrical differences , as the former is about social activism and the latter is about love . Although he praised Carey 's vocals , writing that she " deploys " one of her best whistle notes of her career , he felt that " the aim for broad appeal comes at the expense of memorable lyrics . " = = Music video = = The accompanying music video begins with a shot of an empty street , followed by clips of disadvantaged and poorer members of society going about their daily activities . Two men play dominoes on a wooden crate outside a building , a gang make fun of an elderly man hanging newspapers outside his store and an obese woman walks down the street . Clips of Carey leaning against a wall and sitting on some steps looking on at what is happening are shown . As the first chorus begins , everyone starts to dance joyfully in the street and help those in need . A gospel choir comes out of one of the buildings as the street becomes more crowded with people of all ages and backgrounds rejoicing and getting along with each other . One of the shops in the background has a neon light outside the entrance which says " Jesus Saves " . = = Track listings = = " There 's Got to Be a Way " ( Original album version ) – 4 : 52 " There 's Got to Be a Way " ( 7 " remix ) " There 's Got to Be a Way " ( 12 " remix ) " There 's Got to Be a Way " ( Alternative Vocal Dub Mix ) = = Charts = =

= Nebraska Highway 88 = Nebraska Highway 88 ( N @-@ 88 ) is a highway in northwestern Nebraska . It has a western terminus at Wyoming Highway 151 ( WYO 151 ) at the Wyoming – Nebraska state line . The road travels eastward to N @-@ 71 , where it turns south . N @-@ 88 continues east to south of Bridgeport . The road turns north , ends at an intersection with U.S. Highway 385 ( US 385 ) and N @-@ 92 in Bridgeport . The route was designated in 1937 , before the official state highway system was created . It was extended to the state line in 1986 . = = Route description = = N @-@ 88 starts at the Nebraska – Wyoming state line in Banner County , where WYO 151 ends , and travels northeast . The road quickly bends east after less than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , and continues in a straight line . For the next twenty miles ( 32 km ) , N @-@ 88 intersects minor streets , through rural farmland . The route turns south at N @-@ 71 , and becomes concurrent . Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) later , N @-@ 88 turns east , ending the concurrency with N @-@ 71 . The route continues to travel through farmland for sixteen miles ( 26 km ) , where it enters Morrill County . The road crosses over Pumpkin Creek four times , and enters the unincorporated community of Redington . Two rock formations , Courthouse and Jail Rocks , become visible from the road . N @-@ 88 turns north toward Bridgeport soon after . The road crosses over Pumpkin Creek for the fifth time , and enters into Bridgeport five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) later . The road intersects a railroad owned by BNSF Railway . N @-@ 88 turns northeast soon after , and ends at the intersection of US 385 and N @-@ 92 . In 2012 , Nebraska Department of Roads ( NDOR ) calculated as many as 2 @,@ 410 vehicles traveling on the N @-@ 71 / N @-@ 88 concurrency , and as few as 315 vehicles traveling east of the Banner – Morrill county line . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . Only the N @-@ 71 / N @-@ 88 concurrency is part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . = = History = = N @-@ 88 was unofficially designated around 1937 , connecting from N @-@ 29 , to N @-@ 86 and N @-@ 19 in Bridgeport . The route remained relatively the same as the state highway system was officially designated . Before 1955 , Nebraska did not have an adequate legal instrument to define the state highway system . By 1960 , N @-@ 19 was renumbered to US 385 , and US 26 was rerouted north near Bridgeport . The old alignment became part of N @-@ 92 . Two years later , N @-@ 29 was renumbered to N @-@ 71 . Between 1981 @-@ 82 , a road appeared on the official state map , extending from WYO 151 to N @-@ 71 . That road became part of N @-@ 88 by 1986 . No significant changes have been made since . = = Major intersections = =

= USS Atlanta ( 1861 ) = Atlanta was a casemate ironclad that served in the Confederate and Union Navies during the American Civil War . She was converted from a Scottish @-@ built blockade runner named Fingal by the Confederacy after she made one run to Savannah , Georgia . After several failed attempts to attack Union blockaders , the ship was captured by two Union monitors in 1863 when she ran aground . Atlanta was floated off , repaired , and rearmed , serving in the Union Navy for the rest of the war . She spent most of her time deployed on the James River supporting Union forces there . The ship was decommissioned in 1865 and placed in reserve . Several years after the end of the war , Atlanta was sold to Haiti , but was lost at sea in December 1869 on her delivery voyage . = = Description and career as Fingal = = Fingal was designed and built as a merchantman by J & G Thomson 's Clyde Bank Iron Shipyard at Govan in Glasgow , Scotland , and was completed early in 1861 . She was described by Midshipman Dabney Scales , who served on the Atlanta before her battle with the monitors , as being a two @-@ masted , iron @-@ hulled ship 189 feet ( 57 @.@ 6 m ) long with a beam of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . She had a draft of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) and a depth of hold of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . He estimated her tonnage at around 700 tons bm . Fingal was equipped with two vertical single @-@ cylinder direct @-@ acting steam engines using steam generated by one flue @-@ tubular boiler . The engines drove the ship at a top speed of around 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . They had a bore of 39 inches ( 991 mm ) and a stroke of 30 inches ( 762 mm ) . The ship briefly operated between Glasgow and other ports in Scotland for Hutcheson 's West Highland Service before she was purchased in September 1861 by James D. Bulloch , the primary foreign agent in Great Britain for the Confederacy , to deliver the military and naval ordnance and supplies that he had purchased . To disguise his control of Fingal , and the destination of her cargo , Bulloch hired an English crew and captain and put out his destination as Bermuda and Nassau in the Bahamas . The cargo was loaded in Greenock in early October , although Bullock and the other passengers would not attempt to board until they rendezvoused with the ship at Holyhead , Wales . On the night 14 / 15 October , as she was slowly rounding the breakwater at Holyhead , Fingal rammed and sank the Austrian brig Siccardi , slowly swinging at anchor without lights . Bulloch and the passengers embarked in the steamer while Bulloch dispatched a letter to his financial agents instructing them to settle damages with the brig 's owners because he could not afford to take the time to deal with the affair lest he and Fingal be detained . The ship reached Bermuda on 2 November and , after leaving port on 7 November , Bulloch informed the crew that the steamer 's real destination was Savannah , Georgia ; he offered to take anyone who objected to the plan to Nassau . However , all of the crew agreed to join in the effort to run the Union blockade . Fingal was able slip safely into the Savannah estuary in a heavy fog on the night of 12 November without sighting any blockaders . While Fingal was discharging her cargo , Bulloch went to Richmond to confer with Stephen Mallory , Secretary of the Navy . Mallory endorsed Bulloch 's plan to load Fingal with cotton to sell on the Navy Department 's account to be used to purchase more ships and equipment in Europe . He returned to Savannah on 23 November and it took him almost a month to purchase a cargo and acquire enough coal . He made one attempt to break through the blockade on 23 December , but it proved impossible to do as the Union controlled every channel from Savannah , aided by their occupation of Tybee Island at the mouth of the Savannah River . Bulloch reported to Mallory in late January 1862 that breaking out was hopeless so Mallory ordered him to turn the ship over to another officer and to return to Europe some other way . = = As Atlanta = = The brothers Asa and Nelson Tift received the contract to convert the blockade runner into an ironclad in early 1862 with the name of Atlanta , after the city in Georgia . This was largely financed by contributions from the women of Savannah . Fingal was cut down to her main deck and large wooden sponsons were built out from the sides of her hull to support her casemate . After the conversion , Atlanta was 204 feet ( 62 @.@ 2 m ) long overall and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 m ) . Her depth of hold was now 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) and she now had a draft of 15 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 8 m ) . Atlanta now displaced 1 @,@ 006 long tons ( 1 @,@ 022 t ) and her speed was estimated at 7 – 10 knots ( 13 – 19 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 5 mph ) . The armor of the casemate was angled at 30 ° from the horizontal and made from two layers of railroad rails , rolled into plates 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and 7 inches ( 180 mm ) wide . The outer layer ran vertically and the inner layer horizontally . Her armor was backed by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of oak , vertically oriented , and two layers of 7 @.@ 5 inches ( 191 mm ) of pine , alternating in direction . The bottom of the casemate was some 20 inches ( 508 mm ) from the waterline and its top was 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) above the waterline . The pyramidal pilothouse was armored in the same way and had room for two men . The upper portion of Atlanta 's hull received two inches of armor . The rectangular casemate was pierced with eight narrow gun ports , one each at the bow and stern and three along each side . Each gun port was protected by an armored shutter made of two layers of iron riveted together and allowed the guns to elevate only to a maximum of + 5 to + 7 ° . Atlanta was armed with single @-@ banded , 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) Brooke rifles on pivot mounts at the bow and stern . The middle gun port on each side was occupied by a single @-@ banded , 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 163 mm ) Brooke rifle . The 17 @-@ caliber , seven @-@ inch guns weighed about 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) and fired 80 @-@ pound ( 36 kg ) armor @-@ piercing " bolts " and 110 @-@ pound ( 50 kg ) explosive shells . The equivalent statistics for the 18 @.@ 5 @-@ caliber , 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch gun were 9 @,@ 110 pounds ( 4 @,@ 130 kg ) with 80 @-@ pound bolts and 64 @-@ pound ( 29 kg ) shells . Atlanta was also armed with a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , solid iron , ram that was reinforced by a series of vertical steel bars . In front of the ram was a spar torpedo that carried 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) of black powder on a wooden pole connected to an iron lever that could be raised or lowered by means of pulleys . On 31 July 1862 , under the command of Lieutenant Charles H. McBlair , Atlanta conducted her sea trials down the Savannah River toward Fort Pulaski . The ship proved to be difficult to steer , and the additional weight of her armor and guns significantly reduced her speed and increased her draft . This latter was a real problem in the shallow waters near Savannah . She also leaked significantly , and her design virtually eliminated air circulation . One report said that " it was almost intolerable on board the Atlanta , there being no method of ventilation , and the heat was intense . " Scales commented in his diary , " What a comfortless , infernal and God @-@ forsaken ship ! ! " Attempts were made to fix the problems and were at least partially successful in stopping many of the leaks . The ship was commissioned on 22 November and became the flagship of Flag Officer Josiah Tattnall , commander of the naval defenses of Georgia . Under pressure from Mallory to engage the blockading ships , Tattnall attempted to engage them before any ironclads arrived on 5 January 1863 , but army engineers could not clear the obstacles blocking the channel in a timely manner , despite early coordination being made by Tattnall to do so . It took another month to actually clear the obstacles and two monitors arrived before the end of January . Nonetheless Tattnall attempted to pass through the obstructions during high tide on 3 February , but high winds prevented the water from rising enough to allow the ship to do so . After Atlanta successfully passed through them on 19 March , Tattnall planned to attack the Union base at Port Royal , South Carolina while the monitors were attacking Charleston . Deserters revealed Tatnall 's plan while he was waiting at the head of Wassaw Sound and he was forced to retreat when three monitors augmented the defenses at Port Royal . Dissatisfied with Tattnall 's perceived lack of aggressiveness , Mallory replaced Tattnall as commander of the Savannah squadron later that month with Commander Richard L. Page . Page , in his turn was relieved in May by Commander William A. Webb ; Atlanta remained the squadron flagship throughout this time . Webb demonstrated his aggressiveness when he attempted to sortie on the first spring tide ( 30 May ) after taking command , but Atlanta 's forward engine broke down after he had passed the obstructions , and the ship ran aground . She was not damaged although it took over a day to pull her free . He planned to make another attempt on the next full tide , rejecting Mallory 's idea that he wait until the nearly complete ironclad Savannah was finished before his next sortie . In the meantime , Rear Admiral Samuel F. Du Pont , commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron , had ordered the monitors Weehawken and Nahant into Wassaw Sound . Commander John Rodgers in Weehawken had overall command of the two ships . In the early evening of 15 June , Webb began his next attempt by passing over the lower obstructions in the Wilmington River and spent the rest of the night coaling . He moved forward the next evening to a concealed position within easy reach of the monitors for an attack early the following morning . Webb planned to sink one of the monitors with his spar torpedo and then deal with the other one with his guns . The gunboat Isondiga and the tugboat Resolute were to accompany him to tow one or both of the monitors back to Savannah . A lookout aboard Weehawken spotted Atlanta at 04 : 10 on the morning of 17 June . When the latter ship closed to within about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the two Union ships , she fired one round from her bow gun that passed over Weehawken and landed near Nahant . Shortly afterward , Atlanta ran aground on a sandbar ; she was briefly able to free herself , but the pressure of the tide pushed her back onto the sandbar . This time Webb was unable to get off and the monitors closed the range . When Weehawken , the leading ship , closed to within 200 – 300 yards ( 180 – 270 m ) she opened fire with both of her guns . The 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) shell missed , but the 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) shell struck the ironclad above the port middle gun port , penetrated her armor and broke the wooden backing behind it , spraying splinters and fragments that disabled the entire gun crew and half the crew of the bow gun , even though it failed to cleanly penetrate through the backing . The next shot from the 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren gun struck the upper hull and started a small leak even though it failed to penetrate the two @-@ inch armor there . The next shell from the 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren glanced off the middle starboard gun shutter as it was being opened , wounding half the gun 's crew with fragments . The final shell was also from the 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren and it struck the top of the pilothouse , breaking the armor there and wounding both pilots in it . By this time , Atlanta had been able to fire only seven shots , none of which hit either Union ship , and was hard aground with high tide not due for another hour and a half . Weehawken and Nahant were able to freely maneuver into positions from which the Atlanta 's narrow gun ports would not allow her to reply and the damage already inflicted by the former ship made further resistance futile . Webb surrendered his ship within 15 minutes of opening fire , before Nahant even had a chance to fire . Of the ironclad 's 21 officers and 124 enlisted men , one man was killed and another sixteen were wounded badly enough to require hospitalization . = = In the Union Navy = = Atlanta was easily pulled free by the Union ships and she reached Port Royal under her own power . Not badly damaged , she was repaired and bought by the Union Navy . The prize money of $ 350 @,@ 000 was shared between the crews of Weehawken , Nahant and the gunboat Cimarron , the only ships within signaling distance . The ship retained her name and was commissioned again on 2 February 1864 , rearmed with a pair of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) , 150 @-@ pound Parrott rifles in the bow and stern and 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch , 100 @-@ pound Parrott rifles amidships . The 150 @-@ pound Parrott rifle weighed 16 @,@ 500 pounds ( 7 @,@ 500 kg ) and was 17 calibers long . The 100 @-@ pounder weighed 9 @,@ 800 pounds ( 4 @,@ 400 kg ) and was 20 calibers long . It fired a 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shell a distance of 6 @,@ 900 yards ( 6 @,@ 300 m ) at an elevation of + 25 ° . All four of her Brooke rifles are currently located in Willard Park in the Washington Navy Yard . Atlanta was assigned to the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron and spent most of her time stationed up the James River where she could support operations against Richmond and defend against a sortie by the ironclads of the James River Squadron . On 21 May 1864 , she and the gunboat Dawn fired on and dispersed Confederate cavalry that was attacking Fort Powhatan and she was deployed further upriver in February 1865 after the Battle of Trent 's Reach to better blockade the Confederate ironclads at Richmond . After the end of the war in April , Atlanta was decommissioned in Philadelphia on 21 June 1865 and placed in reserve at League Island . She was sold to Sam Ward on 4 May 1869 for the price of $ 25 @,@ 000 and subsequently delivered to representatives of Haiti on 8 December by Sydney Oaksmith , a lawyer who had received an advance of $ 50 @,@ 000 on her purchase price of $ 260 @,@ 000 . The ship was briefly seized by the Customs Service , possibly for violations of neutrality laws as she had just loaded four large guns and a number of recruits for the forces of Sylvain Salnave , President of Haiti , who was embroiled in a civil war . Atlanta was released and sailed for Port @-@ au @-@ Prince three days later . She broke down in Delaware Bay and had to put in at Chester , Pennsylvania for repairs . The ship , now renamed either Triumph or Triumfo , departed on 18 December 1869 and vanished en route , apparently sinking with the loss of all hands , either off Cape Hatteras or the Delaware Capes .

= Jacqueline Fernandez = Jacqueline Fernandez ( born 11 August 1985 ) is a Sri Lankan actress , former model , and the winner of the 2006 Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant . As Miss Universe Sri Lanka she represented her country at the 2006 world Miss Universe pageant . She graduated with a degree in mass communication from the University of Sydney , and worked as a television reporter in Sri Lanka . While on a modelling assignment in India in 2009 , Fernandez successfully auditioned for Sujoy Ghosh 's fantasy drama Aladin , which marked her acting debut . Fernandez ' breakthrough role was in Mohit Suri 's psychological thriller Murder 2 ( 2011 ) , her first commercial success . This was followed by glamorous roles in the ensemble @-@ comedy Housefull 2 ( 2012 ) and its sequel Housefull 3 , and the action thriller Race 2 ( 2013 ) , all of which were box @-@ office successes . Her performance in the first of these garnered her an IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination . In 2014 , Fernandez played the leading lady in Sajid Nadiadwala 's Kick , which is one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time . One of the most popular actresses in India , she was the recipient of the IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year – Female in 2010 . Alongside her screen acting career , Fernandez has participated in stage shows , and is active in humanitarian work . = = Early life and modeling career = = Fernandez was born on 11 August 1985 , in Manama , Bahrain , and was raised in a multi @-@ ethnic family . Her father , Elroy , is Sri Lankan , and her mother , Kim , is of Malaysian descent . Her grandfather , on her mother 's side of the family , is Canadian and her great grandparents were from Goa , India . Her father , who was a musician in Sri Lanka , moved to Bahrain in the 1980s to escape civil unrest between the Tamils and Sinhalese and subsequently met her mother who was an air hostess . She is the youngest of four children with one elder sister and two elder brothers . She hosted television shows in Bahrain at the age of fourteen . After receiving her early education in Bahrain , she pursued a degree in mass communication from the University of Sydney in Australia . After graduating she worked as a television reporter in Sri Lanka . She also attended the Berlitz school of languages , where she learnt Spanish and improved her French and Arabic . According to Fernandez , she had aspired to become an actress at a young age and fantasized about becoming a Hollywood movie star . She received some training at the John School of Acting . Although , she was a television reporter , she accepted offers in the modeling industry , which came as a result of her pageant success . In 2006 , she was crowned the winner of the Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant and represented Sri Lanka at the world Miss Universe 2006 pageant held in Los Angeles . In a 2015 interview , Fernandez described the modeling industry as " a good training ground " and said : " It is a medium that is about shedding your inhibitions , knowing your body , confidence " . In 2006 , she appeared in a music video for the song " O Sathi " by music duo Bathiya and Santhush . = = Acting career = = = = = 2009 – 2013 = = = In 2009 , Fernandez traveled to India for a modeling assignment . She studied acting under the mentorship of theatre director Barry John , and successfully auditioned for Sujoy Ghosh 's fantasy film Aladin ( 2009 ) her acting debut . She played the love interest of Riteish Deshmukh 's character , a role based on the Princess Jasmine character . Fernandez garnered mixed reviews for her performance . Anupama Chopra of NDTV called her a " plastic debutant [ e ] " , and Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN felt that she was : " easy on the eyes and appears confident but has precious little to do " . Although the film was a critical and commercial failure , she won the IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year - Female . In 2010 , Fernandez appeared opposite Deshmukh in the science fiction romantic comedy Jaane Kahan Se Aayi Hai . She was cast as a girl from Venus , who lands on Earth in search of love . The film , along with Fernandez 's performance , received poor reviews ; Rediff.com 's Sukanya Verma noted : " She gamely makes a fool of herself whilst aping the actions of movie stars , ranging from Sridevi 's Naagin dance , Mithun Chakravarthy 's Disco Dancer moves , to Big B 's violent headshake in Hum . Her Tara could be a keeper if only Jaane Kahan Se Aayi Hai wasn 't so intent on turning her into a love @-@ struck Barbie . " Critic Anupama Chopra also criticized Fernandez , calling her " a pin @-@ prick on a balloon " . Later that year , she made a cameo appearance in Sajid Khan 's Housefull in the song " Dhanno " . Mahesh Bhatt 's thriller Murder 2 was Fernandez 's first commercial success and marker a turning point in her career . She took on the role of Priya , a lonely model who is in a confused relationship with Arjun Bhagwat ( played by Emraan Hashmi ) . Fernandez was praised for the her performance , and for the boldness and sex appeal she displayed in the film . Gaurav Malini of The Times of India stated that she was " tastefully tempting " but noted that her romance with Hashmi was " literally half @-@ baked " . The following year , Fernandez appeared in the ensemble comedy Housefull 2 alongside Akshay Kumar , John Abraham , and Asin . It became one of the top grossing productions of India that year and earned ₹ 1 @.@ 86 billion ( US $ 28 million ) worldwide . Fernandez received mostly negative reviews for her performance . While Gaurav Malini praised her for her looks , NDTV called her a " blathering bimbo " who " find [ s ] no pleasure in [ her role ] " . Despite the negative reviews , Fernandez received a Best Supporting Actress nomination at the 14th IIFA Awards for her performance . Fernandez 's first release of 2013 was Race 2 , an ensemble action thriller ( alongside Saif Ali Khan , John Abraham , Deepika Padukone , Ameesha Patel , and Anil Kapoor ) ) , described as the " cinematic equivalent of a trashy novel " by critic Rajeev Masand . She played Omisha , a femme fatale , a role which required her learn fencing and some acrobatics . The film emerged as a commercial success , with the domestic gross of more than ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) . In a particularly scathing review , Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote that both Fernandez and Padukone " strut around like wound @-@ up automatons that are all decked @-@ up but have nowhere to go . " Fernandez also appeared in an item number ( music video ) titled " Jaadu Ki Jhappi " for Prabhu Deva 's Ramaiya Vasta Vaiya . = = = 2014 – present = = = In 2014 , Fernandez appeared in Sajid Nadiadwala 's directorial debut — the action film Kick , a remake of a 2009 Telugu film of same name . She starred opposite Salman Khan , playing Shaina , a psychiatry student . She retained her real voice for the first time in Kick . While Sneha May Francis commented that she is : " incredibly dazzling , and moves like a magic " , Raja Sen of Rediff.com was more critical of her dialogue delivery , calling it " unfortunate . " The film received mixed reviews from critics , but with worldwide revenue of over ₹ 3 @.@ 75 billion ( US $ 56 million ) , it became the fourth highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film . The film established Fernandez as one of the most popular Bollywood actresses . In 2015 , Fernandez featured in Vicky Singh 's Roy , a romantic thriller , which critic Sarita A. Tanwar described as a " boring , exhausting and pretentious " film . Fernandez played dual roles , Ayesha Aamir , a filmmaker in a relationship with another filmmaker ( played by Arjun Rampal ) and Tia Desai , a girl in love with a thief ( played by Ranbir Kapoor ) . While India TV called it " her best act till date " , critic Rajeev Masand felt that she " appears miscast in a part that required greater range . " Roy failed to meet its box @-@ office expectations , and was a commercial failure . Later that year , she appeared in a guest appearance for the comedy @-@ satire Bangistan . Karan Malhotra 's action drama Brothers was Fernandez 's next release . Co @-@ starring alongside Akshay Kumar and Sidharth Malhotra , Fernandez played Jenny , a fearless mother struggling for her child , a role which she described as " challenging " , " intense " , and " difficult " . The role marked a departure from the glamorous characters that she had a reputation for portraying . Film critics praised her performance , though their response to the film was mixed . Dhriti Sharma of Zee News called her character " soft , timid and promising " , and praised her for : " convincingly pull [ ing ] off a pleasing character of a street fighter 's wife " . Film critic Subhash K. Jha noted that she : " ... in a limited role gives her finest emotive shot " , while critic Raja Sen remarked : " [ she ] plays Kumar 's long @-@ sobbing wife who gets so deliriously happy on seeing a text message that it may well have contained news about a Kick sequel . " As of September 2015 , Fernandez has several projects in various stages of production . She has completed shooting for Chandran Rutnam 's English @-@ Sri Lankan crime @-@ thriller According to Mathew , and the horror thriller Definition of Fear , which marks her Hollywood debut . Fernandez has also signed on to appear in three other projects — Rohit Dhawan 's Dishoom opposite Varun Dhawan and John Abraham as a part of three @-@ film deal with Nadiadwala Grandson Entertainment , Remo D 'Souza 's Flying Jat opposite Tiger Shroff , and in an Indo @-@ Chinese film starring opposite Abhay Deol , Amitabh Bachchan , and Jackie Chan titled Gold Struck . = = Personal life and other work = = Fernandez shares a close bond with her family , and admits to missing being around them . She says : " I miss them so much everyday . You don 't realise when you live away from home how difficult life can be [ ... ] At the same time , staying away from them has taught me to be more responsible . It has taught me so many things about myself , about priorities and time management . " In March 2012 , Fernandez turned vegetarian for a 40 @-@ day period to observe Lent , a period from Ash Wednesday to Holy Saturday . In 2008 , Fernandez started dating Bahraini prince Hassan bin Rashid Al Khalifa , whom she met at a mutual friend 's party ; they separated in 2011 . While filming Housefull 2 in 2011 , Fernandez began a romantic relationship with director Sajid Khan . The relationship attracted media coverage in India and there was speculation of an impending wedding . However , the relationship ended in May 2013 . In addition to acting in films , Fernandez has supported charitable organisations and a number of causes . In 2011 , on the behalf of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , she sent a letter to the Mumbai Municipal Commissioner asking for an end to horse @-@ drawn carriage rides in Mumbai . In early 2013 , she asked the consulate general of the Philippines , William John T Perera in Colombo , to hasten the transfer of an elephant from its inadequate housing at the Manila Zoo to a humane sanctuary . Later that year , she auctioned a breakfast in Mayfair , London , where she raised around £ 4000 for the Pratham NGO , which helps children 's primary education . In 2014 , Fernandez was named " Woman Of The Year " by PETA ( India ) for advocating the protection of animals . The following year , she auctioned her outfits on an online portal for a philanthropic cause . Some of her outfits included the ones she wore in the song " Party On My Mind " ( from Race 2 ) and " Hangover " ( from Kick ) . In March 2016 , she was part of " Jacqueline Builds " campaign that raised funds for the victims of the 2015 South Indian floods . Fernandez has participated in several concert tours and televised award ceremonies . In 2013 , she performed at the Temptations Reloaded in Auckland , Perth , and Sydney alongside Shah Rukh Khan , Rani Mukerji , and Madhuri Dixit . She also performed at the live talent show " Got Talent World Stage Live " with Khan , Priyanka Chopra and Varun Dhawan the following year . In July 2014 , Fernandez opened a restaurant in Colombo , Kaema Sutra , in collaboration with chef Dharshan Munidasa , which specialises in contemporary Sri Lankan cuisine . = = In the media = = In the early 2013 , Fernandez became the ambassador for HTC One , which she endorses in India . She was the face of Indian Bridal Fashion Week — IBFW of 2013 . Later that year , she became the spokesperson for Gareth Pugh 's designed Forevermark Diamonds in Mumbai , and was at the inaugural opening of the Forever 21 store in Mumbai . That year , she also launched Gillette Shaving System with Arbaaz Khan and Aditya Roy Kapur . While analysing Fernandez 's career , India TV noted : " Slowly and steadily Jacqueline Fernandez is climbing up the ladder of success [ ... ] Jacqueline is comfortably grasping every aspect of the work , which an actress is required to do and is accordingly giving results . " On the contrary , Charu Thakur of India Today criticized her acting skills , but remarked that : " [ she has ] managed to find her feet in Bollywood now by banking on glamorous roles " . In 2008 and 2011 , Fernandez featured in the UK magazine Eastern Eye 's " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list , ranking twelfth . She was ranked third on The Times of India 's listing of the " Most Desirable Woman " in 2013 and 2014 , after being ranked eighth , seventh and fourteenth , respectively , in the preceding three years . In 2013 , Rediff.com placed her on their list of " Bollywood 's Best Dressed Actresses " . The following year , she held the sixty second position in the Indian edition of the Forbes ' Celebrity 100 , a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She has been the cover model for many Indian editions of magazines , including : Vogue , FHM , Maxim , Cosmopolitan , Grazia , Elle , Verve , Harper 's Bazaar , Women 's Health , and L 'Officiel among others . = = Filmography = = = = TV Appearances = = = = Awards = =

= John Cullen = Barry John Cullen ( born August 2 , 1964 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Pittsburgh Penguins , Hartford Whalers , Toronto Maple Leafs and Tampa Bay Lightning . He was a standout player for Boston University and is the school 's all @-@ time leading scorer . After the Buffalo Sabres selected him in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft but chose not to offer him a contract , Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1987 – 88 season where he was named the IHL 's co @-@ Rookie of the Year and Most Valuable Player after leading the league in scoring . His career was halted in 1997 when he was diagnosed with Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . He attempted a brief comeback in 1998 after an 18 @-@ month battle with the disease , for which the NHL awarded him the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , before retiring to serve as an assistant coach for a year with the Lightning . Cullen played in two NHL All @-@ Star Games in his career . He joined his brother in the car dealership business after leaving the game , and briefly operated his own dealership until forced to close during the automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 10 . = = Early life = = Cullen was born in Puslinch @-@ Ontario on August 2 , 1964 . He is one of six children of Barry and Loretta Cullen . His father and uncles Brian and Ray all played in the NHL , and while Cullen and his three brothers all played as well , their father never pressured them , preferring that they enjoy the game . He idolized his elder brother Terry , who was considered a top NHL prospect until Terry 's career was ended when he suffered a broken neck after being hit from behind into the boards during a college game . While his brother was highly sought by American universities , John received only two scholarship offers , choosing to play for Boston University ( BU ) in 1983 . At the same time , his mother Loretta was diagnosed with skin cancer . Following her death early in his freshman year , Cullen contemplated returning to his Ontario home , but was convinced by his father to continue with both school and hockey . He used the game to cope with the loss and dedicated every game he played to his mother 's memory . Cullen felt that the inspiration he drew from his mother 's battle allowed him to become a better player . = = Playing career = = Cullen was a standout with BU ; he was named the East Coast Athletic Conference Rookie of the Year in 1983 – 84 after leading his team in scoring with 56 points . The National Hockey League passed him over , however , as he went unclaimed in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft . He was named to the Hockey East All @-@ Star Teams in 1985 , 1986 and 1987 , and a National Collegiate Athletic Association East Second Team All @-@ American in 1986 . He graduated as BU 's all @-@ time scoring leader with 241 points , and was named to BU 's Hockey East 25th anniversary team in 2009 . Passed over in the Entry Draft , Cullen was finally selected by the Buffalo Sabres in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft . When the Sabres failed to offer him a contract , Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1987 – 88 season . He led the league with 157 points , scoring 48 goals , and won the James Gatschene Memorial Trophy as league most valuable player while sharing the Gary F. Longman Memorial Trophy with Ed Belfour as rookie of the year . Cullen 's outstanding season in Flint caught the attention of the Sabres and the Pittsburgh Penguins . He signed a contract with the Penguins for the league minimum , passing up a superior contract offer from Buffalo as he remained upset at how they released him the year before . = = = National Hockey League = = = Cullen made his NHL debut in 1988 – 89 , appearing in 79 games with the Penguins and scoring 49 points . He was given a greater role with the Penguins the following year after Mario Lemieux missed 21 games due to a back injury and responded by scoring 32 goals and 92 points to finish third in team scoring . Additionally , he played for Team Canada at the 1990 World Championship , scoring four points in ten games . Cullen had his best season in 1990 – 91 . As one of the team 's top offensive centres , he scored 94 points in the Penguins ' first 65 games and played in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game . However , when Lemieux returned after missing an additional 50 @-@ games due to injury , Cullen 's playing time and production declined . The Penguins ' needs led them to complete a blockbuster trade on March 1 , 1991 . Cullen was sent to the Hartford Whalers , along with Zarley Zalapski and Jeff Parker in exchange for Hartford 's all @-@ time leading scorer , Ron Francis , along with Ulf Samuelsson and Grant Jennings . The Penguins almost turned down the deal as they were concerned about giving up Cullen 's playmaking and leadership abilities , while his former teammates credited Cullen as being the primary reason they were in a playoff position at the time the trade happened . After the Penguins won their first Stanley Cup that season , Phil Bourque later said it " broke his heart " that Cullen was not able to share in that championship . In Hartford , Cullen worked to overcome the team 's fans ' disappointment at losing Francis . The Hartford fans initially booed him to show their dissatisfaction with the trade . He scored 16 points in 13 regular season games to finish the season with 110 points combined between the Penguins and Whalers , and was the team 's best player in their first round loss to the Boston Bruins in the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs . He initially accepted an invitation to join the Canadian team at the 1991 Canada Cup , but subsequently chose not to participate as his contract had expired , leading to greater insurance concerns . Still without a contract when the 1991 – 92 season began , Cullen missed the first four games before signing a four @-@ year deal with Hartford worth a total of $ 4 million . He returned to score 77 points in 77 games in his first full season with the Whalers and represented the team at the 1992 All @-@ Star Game . Midway through the 1992 – 93 NHL season , the Whalers sent Cullen to the Toronto Maple Leafs for Toronto 's second round selection at the 1993 NHL Entry Draft . Cullen was excited to play for his father 's old team , but injuries reduced his ability to perform . His most significant injury was a herniated disc in his neck that doctors initially feared would end his career . A bulky neck brace allowed Cullen to return and play out his contract in Toronto . When the Leafs chose not to re @-@ sign him following the 1993 – 94 season , he returned to the Penguins for one season before Tony Esposito convinced him to sign with the Tampa Bay Lightning in 1995 . Cullen enjoyed immediate success with linemates Shawn Burr and Alexander Selivanov as the trio combined to score 130 points and helped lead the Lightning to the first playoff appearance in franchise history . They were eliminated by the Philadelphia Flyers in five games while Cullen led the team in playoff scoring with three goals and three assists . The Lightning looked to improve in 1996 – 97 ; Cullen was leading the team in scoring , but was suffering flu @-@ like symptoms that he could not shake . As Tampa was fighting for a playoff spot , he played through his condition for weeks . = = = Cancer and comeback = = = After two months of quietly dealing with his symptoms , Cullen 's wife finally called team trainers and asked them to check into his illness . The team took an x @-@ ray and found a large black shadow in his chest . He underwent a CAT scan which revealed Cullen had a baseball @-@ sized tumor ; he was diagnosed as having Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . The diagnosis ended his season , and he immediately began chemotherapy treatments that quickly reduced his cancer . The tumor was gone by September 1997 , but a precautionary test prior to training camp revealed that Cullen still had cancer cells in his body . He missed the entire 1997 – 98 NHL season as he continued to battle the disease , while his teammates wore a uniform patch with his # 12 in support throughout the year . On one day during his treatments , as his wife was wheeling him down a hospital corridor , Cullen went into cardiac arrest , requiring doctors to use a defibrillator to revive him . He underwent a bone marrow transplant that briefly reduced his immune system to the point that he could have very little human contact . Another examination in April 1998 revealed that the cancer was finally gone , and Cullen immediately began training for a comeback . The Lightning signed Cullen to a one @-@ year , $ 500 @,@ 000 contract for the 1998 – 99 season . He played his first game in nearly 18 months on September 18 , 1998 , in an exhibition game between the Lightning and Sabres at Innsbruck , Austria . Cullen scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 3 – 1 victory , after which he said he sat on the bench in disbelief over how he was given a second chance . He was named to the roster and was greeted with a loud standing ovation by the fans in Tampa Bay when he was introduced prior to their season opening game . Cullen appeared in four of the Lightning 's first eight games , but it was evident that he had lost much of his speed and strength . The Lightning assigned him to the IHL 's Cleveland Lumberjacks , but also gave him the option of retiring and taking up a position as an assistant coach . He chose to accept the demotion , giving himself one month to determine if he could continue playing . He appeared in six games for Cleveland , and in one game against the Chicago Wolves tied an IHL record when he scored seven points in a 7 – 3 victory . However , a bout of bronchitis led Cullen to fear that his cancer had returned . Tests came back negative , but after spending time with his family , he realized that neither he nor his family were interested in returning to Cleveland . Cullen announced his retirement on November 28 , 1998 , and accepted the Lightning offer to become an assistant coach . In recognition of his comeback attempt , the NHL named him the 1999 winner of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and perseverance , while the IHL renamed its Comeback Player of the Year award the John Cullen Award . Former Lightning head coach Terry Crisp has stated publicly that Cullen was a player that stood out as something special saying “ John Cullen ... beat cancer and came back to play and helped us win . ” = = Off the ice = = Cullen and his wife Valerie have three daughters , Kennedy and twins Karlyn and Kortland . Unwilling to spend so much time away from his family , he left the Lightning in 1999 and settled in the Atlanta area , joining his brother 's car dealership in Jonesboro , Georgia . He had always expected to become a car dealer after his hockey career , as his father , uncles and brother all worked in the industry . After apprenticing under his brother for five years , he bought a Dodge dealership in Newnan , Georgia in 2007 . However , he owned the dealership for less than two years before Chrysler closed him down as part of its recovery plan in response to the Automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 2010 . He has since returned to his brother 's dealership , serving as its general manager . Cullen 's battle with cancer inspired Timm Harmon of the Moffitt Cancer Centre to partner with the Lightning to raise awareness and money for cancer research . The NHL itself joined the cause in the winter of 1998 , creating the Hockey Fights Cancer program to raise money for research . Cullen has spent time promoting the initiative . Prior to marrying his wife Valerie , John dated Carolyn Bessette the future wife of John F. Kennedy , Jr . The two met while attending University in Boston . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = = = = International = = = = = Awards = = Cullen is the namesake of the John Cullen Award , previously given to key IHL players .

= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max = For the ironclad present at the Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) . SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty 's ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division . For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 . = = Design = = Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters were the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used . = = Service history = = At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations . A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters were stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise had been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port . Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships were handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .

= Ancient Egyptian deities = Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh , who claimed to be the gods ' representative and managed the temples where the rituals were carried out . The gods ' complex characteristics were expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities ' diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of different forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features . In different eras , various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars have argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power that lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC , when official religion focused exclusively on the impersonal sun god Aten . Gods were assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans ' relations with their gods were a fundamental part of Egyptian society . = = Definition = = The beings in ancient Egyptian tradition who might be labeled as deities are difficult to count . Egyptian texts list the names of many deities whose nature is unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods who are not even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian Leitz says there are " thousands upon thousands " of gods . The Egyptian language 's terms for these beings were nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars have tried to discern the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but none of these suggestions has gained acceptance , and the terms ' origin remains obscure . The hieroglyphs that were used as ideograms and determinatives in writing these words show some of the traits that the Egyptians connected with divinity . The most common of these signs is a flag flying from a pole . Similar objects were placed at the entrances of temples , representing the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods who were depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or with a cobra , reflecting the use of the cobra to depict many female deities . The Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may have applied to any being that was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans were called nṯr because they were considered to be like the gods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt 's lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also depicts places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities that were important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors . Confronting these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars have proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , says that a deity has a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to any being that was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , who was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , who entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them across Egypt . = = Origins = = The first written evidence of deities in Egypt comes from the Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 BC ) . Deities must have emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( before 3100 BC ) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork depicts a variety of animal and human figures . Some of these images , such as stars and cattle , are reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases there is not enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images that resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon that represents Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows that stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " that represents Set . Many Egyptologists and anthropologists have suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought the Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that the gods must have been envisioned in human form from the beginning . Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz ' hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment , are difficult to prove . Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times were strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars have suggested that the pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling the worship of the old local deities . But others have argued that the most important predynastic gods were , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across the country despite the political divisions within it . The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive right to interact with the gods , and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion . New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun are not known to have appeared until the Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities were sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings were said to be divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans were said to have the favor of the gods and were venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but the court architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu were regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as were some other officials . Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may have come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship . = = Characteristics = = Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation 's scribes and priests . These people were the elite of Egyptian society and were very distinct from the general populace , most of whom were illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas that the elite developed . Commoners ' perceptions of the divine may have differed from those of the priests . The populace may , for example , have mistaken the religion 's symbolic statements about the gods and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what little is known about popular religious belief is consistent with the elite tradition . The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature . = = = Roles = = = Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods were generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world 's air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and were involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river that was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the nation 's farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter 's wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But some deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society who could both fight disorder and foment it . Not all aspects of existence were seen as deities . Although many deities were connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way that Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , were not represented by gods ; neither were elements like fire and water or many other components of the world . The roles of each deity were fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods ' roles are difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos that he created , and even Isis , though she was said to be the cleverest of the gods , was not omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , argues that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the limits of the world in a way that other deities did not . The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although there is no firm definition for these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker draws a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and the harvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , who have a more dangerous character . Many demons are hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy is not fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence . = = = Behavior = = = Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities who disrupted the divine order , the gods ' actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They did this work using a force the Egyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form the world and the gods themselves . The gods ' actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly concerns the gods ' actions during a vaguely imagined past in which the gods were present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set the pattern for the events of the present . Periodic occurrences were tied to events in the mythic past ; the succession of each new pharaoh , for instance , reenacted Horus ' accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths are metaphors for the gods ' actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth are part of the Egyptians ' many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods . In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . Some have unique character traits . Set is aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , is prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods are more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior is inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about them lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling . The first divine act is the creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the Ogdoad , who represent the chaos that precedes creation , give birth to the sun god , who establishes order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , who embodies thought and creativity , gives form to all things by envisioning and naming them ; Atum produces all things as emanations of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation were not seen as contradictory . Each gives a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , is the setting for most myths . The gods struggle against the forces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the human world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place . A recurring theme in these myths is the effort of the gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into the present . Another prominent theme is the gods ' death and revival . The clearest instance where a god dies is the myth of Osiris ' murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Duat at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he comes into contact with the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts that depict Ra 's journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods who are enlivened along with him . Instead of being changelessly immortal , the gods periodically died and were reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the whole world . But it was always possible for this cycle to be disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest that this calamity is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the order of the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos . = = = Locations = = = Gods were linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world includes the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them is the dark formlessness that existed before creation . The gods in general were said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles were linked with other parts of the universe were said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time before the gods ' withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly setting . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods who dwell there have difficulty communicating with those in the world of the living . The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world . In the time after myth , most gods were said to be either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples were their main means of contact with humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods moved from the divine realm to their temples , their homes in the human world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues that depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples were the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city 's main temple was the patron god for the city and the surrounding region . Deities ' spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed over time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity 's main cult center in historical times is not necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) , they elevated Thebes ' patron gods — first the war god Montu and then Amun — to national prominence . = = = Names and epithets = = = In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping with this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . The name of the predatory goddess Sekhmet means " powerful one " , the name of the mysterious god Amun means " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess Nekhbet , who was worshipped in the city of Nekheb , means " she of Nekheb " . But many other names have no certain meaning , even when the gods who bear them are closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth . The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts renders the name of the funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid Texts says the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with the most important funerary deity . The gods were believed to have many names . Among them were secret names that conveyed their true natures more profoundly than others . To know the true name of a deity was to have power over it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis poisons the superior god Ra and refuses to cure him unless he reveals his secret name to her . Upon learning the name , she tells it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power . In addition to their names , gods were given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of the sky " , that describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of the gods ' multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and the same epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles expresses the gods ' multifarious nature . = = = Relationships = = = Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god 's connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as the mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as the patroness of kings . Such relationships were the base material from which myths were formed . Family relationships are a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern that connects divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of this type . The pattern they set grew more widespread over time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , were assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like these are changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the sun god 's daughter . Other divine groups were composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . There were sets of gods for the hours of the day and night and for each nome ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts that are part of a greater unity . Ra , who is dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , who is static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three are linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for the plurality of all gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of the Nineteenth Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon . Nine , the product of three and three , represents a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . The most prominent ennead was the Ennead of Heliopolis , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which incorporates many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt 's deities . This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or who were mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , who was usually identified with the creator deity . In different periods of Egyptian history , different gods were most frequently said to hold this exalted position . Horus was the most important god in the Early Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity . = = = Manifestations and combinations = = = The gods were believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods were composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul that affected the world around it . Any visible manifestation of a god 's power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel for that deity 's ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods that were the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals that represented certain deities , were believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which were sometimes given names representing different aspects of the god 's nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of the kas of Atum the creator god , who originally contained all things within himself , and one deity could be called the ba of another , meaning that the first god is a manifestation of the other 's power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which were personified as goddesses . Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could be treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods ' manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms were sometimes counted as independent deities . Gods were combined with each other as easily as they were divided . A god could be called the ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography . Local gods were linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions were combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; with his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with several solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes were joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which this term is used , the Egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . Syncretic combinations were not permanent ; a god who was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , who became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis . = = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = = In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 BC ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods ' names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the polytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may not have been full monotheism , which totally excludes belief in other deities . There is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picture is further complicated by Atenism 's apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For these reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In any case , Atenism 's aberrant theology did not take root among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten 's successors returned to traditional beliefs . = = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = = Scholars have long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods were , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that surpasses all other deities . Another point of contention is the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term does not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Egyptian commoners were polytheistic , but knowledge of the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , who wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history . In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting these views . He points out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , were described as superior to all others . He also argues that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader chooses to revere . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god were constantly shifting , they were always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung says , describes Egyptian religion better than other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . Hornung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence . Hornung 's arguments have greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods were more unified than he allows . Jan Assmann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians described the universal god in a different way , one that coexisted with traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods were aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated with Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen says that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He says that the Egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . " = = Descriptions and depictions = = Egyptian writings describe the gods ' bodies in detail . They are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair is lapis lazuli . They give off a scent that the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities ' true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians ' visual representations of their gods are therefore not literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity 's character , functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing . For this reason , the funerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring alludes to the color of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection . Most gods were depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman with bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . The gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , are common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress that was originally Hathor 's alone . Certain features of divine images are more useful than others in determining a god 's identity . The head of a given divine image is particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head represents the original form of the being depicted , so that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess is a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , is a man who has assumed the form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods ' heads , are another important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods ' hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , representing the Egyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power . The forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures that are widespread in Egypt were never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals that were absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history were not used as divine images . For instance , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented a god . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress for goddesses . The basic anthropomorphic form varies . Child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god Hapi alludes to the Nile flood he represents and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , have a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities . = = Interactions with humans = = = = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = = In official writings , pharaohs are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors were considered the successors of the gods who had ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings were equated with Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings were equated with these elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals were performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs were worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . For these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies . However much it was believed , the king 's divine status was the rationale for his role as Egypt 's representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them . These things were provided by the cults that the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh 's work , as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead . These acts were a part of the king 's fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live . = = = Presence in the human world = = = Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians were limited to more indirect means of communication . The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object that was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like the Apis bull , served as divine intermediaries in this way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature . Temples , where the state rituals were carried out , were filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues were usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials that were said to form the gods ' bodies . Many temples had several sanctuaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city 's primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household that the temple represented . The gods residing in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those that were minor or hostile — were never given temples of their own , although some were represented in the temples of other gods . To insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was during festival processions , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf that separated humanity from the divine , the Egyptians were surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods . = = = Intervention in human lives = = = Egyptian gods were involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples were traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations were under Egyptian control , foreigners were said to be under the sun god 's benign rule in the same way that Egyptians were . Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives , including Meskhenet , who presided over birth , and Shai , the personification of fate . Thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working through a person 's " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities were also believed to give commands , instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into a set of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way that did not interfere with the well @-@ being of other people . Because deities were the upholders of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans ' moral righteousness after death , and by the New Kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out . Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force that manifested the god 's power in the human world . Natural disasters and human ailments were seen as the work of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention were eventually represented by deities : Shed , who emerged in the New Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the late eras of Egyptian history who was believed to avenge wrongdoing . Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events . Some deities who were closely connected with isfet , such as Set , could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods ' defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god fights a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraws from the earth . Because of this human misbehavior , the creator is distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans ' direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods ' power to intervene in human events . People in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods ' favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs were regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods ' will . = = = Worship = = = Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all Egypt , were related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , who sought the gods ' help for their personal problems . Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites were performed every day , whereas others were festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues were clothed , anointed , and presented with food as hymns were recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities ' life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful . Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu . Rituals for a god were often based in that deity 's mythology . Such rituals were meant to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the Khoiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection were ritually reenacted at a time when crops were beginning to sprout . The returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god 's own life . Personal interaction with the gods took many forms . People who wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that were supposed to convey gods ' answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities were used to ward off the demons that might threaten human well @-@ being or to impart the god 's positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods ' power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . These practices used heka , the same force of magic that the gods used , which the creator was said to have given to humans so they could fend off misfortune . The performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal . Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers , and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help . Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety is scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which are theophoric , suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines that represented the gods they were praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to the god 's cult . These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess Bastet . Some of the major deities from myth and official religion were rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods were important in popular tradition . The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions were under pharaonic control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , were often syncretized with native gods , who in turn spread to Egypt . The Egyptian deities may not have had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there waned after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs were built in Nubia . After the end of Egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , were syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia 's independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods were incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they were in Egypt , so that Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses were linked with the Nubian queen , the kandake . Some deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun 's oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region . Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated the Egyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods were adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — were adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire 's complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , who was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus were both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition that grew from the Roman religious world . Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . The last formal cults , at Philae , died out in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , were adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern Coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors ' gods .

= South of Heaven = South of Heaven is the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the album was the band 's second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood had helped the band 's sound evolve . South of Heaven was Slayer 's second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records ' refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America . In order to offset the pace of the group 's previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album 's tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — were disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , have become permanent features of the band 's live setlist . = = Background = = South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin 's production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo 's drumming right up front in the mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman has since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on albums before , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer 's official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . " King has since been critical of his performance , which he describes as his " most lackluster . " King attributes this to the fact he had recently married , and moved to Phoenix , Arizona . Describing himself as " probably the odd man out at that point " , he admitted he " didn ’ t participate as much because of that . " Hanneman said : " We go through dry spells sometimes , but the good thing about having two guitar players that can write music is that you are never gonna go without . I guess at that time , Kerry was hitting a dry spell . " King has also been critical of the album in general , describing it as one of his least favorite Slayer albums . He feels vocalist Tom Araya moved too far away from his regular vocal style , and " added too much singing . " Drummer Dave Lombardo has since observed : " There was fire on all the records , but it started dimming when South of Heaven came into the picture . And that 's me personally . Again , I was probably wanting something else . " Judas Priest 's " Dissident Aggressor " is the only cover version to appear on a Slayer studio album . The song was chosen due to its war @-@ themed lyrics . Hanneman described the track as " more just like one of those odd songs that a lot of people didn 't know , but it was a favorite of Kerry and I , so we just picked that one . " Meanwhile , " Cleanse the Soul " has been heavily criticized by King who said that he hates the track : " That 's one of the black marks in our history , in my book . I just fucking think it 's horrible . [ Laughs ] I hate the opening riff . It 's what we call a ' happy riff . ' It 's just like ' la @-@ lala @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la . ' I can 't see myself playing it , but after that , where it gets heavier , I like that section . If we ever did a medley , I 'd put part of that in there . " The Slayer boxset Soundtrack to the Apocalypse featured , along with four songs of the album , an early version of the title track , recorded at Hanneman 's home . = = Photography and illustration = = Artist Larry Carroll and Illustrator Howard Schwartzberg designed the cover artwork for South of Heaven , having designed the artwork for Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood . Photographer Glen E. Friedman took the promotional shot which surfaced as the back cover of South of Heaven around the time of 1986 's Reign in Blood . Lombardo felt it made Slayer seem as though they " had matured a little bit " , while Friedman himself deemed it " a really cool back cover " and " one of the most classic shots of them [ Slayer ] ever . " = = Critical reception = = South of Heaven was released on July 5 , 1988 , and was the final Slayer album distributed via Def Jam Records . When label co @-@ founders Russell Simmons and Rubin parted ways , Slayer signed to Rubin 's newly founded Def American Recordings label . The album peaked at number 57 on the Billboard 200 album chart , and on November 20 , 1992 , became Slayer 's second album to be certified gold in the United States . South of Heaven was awarded silver certification in the United Kingdom on January 1 , 1993 , Slayer 's first record to do so in that country . Slayer 's official biography states that " some critics praised the album as demonstrating Slayer 's desire to grow musically and avoid repeating themselves . " Alex Henderson of AllMusic described the record as " disturbing and powerful , " while Joe Matera of Ultimate Guitar deemed the album a slight departure ; he wrote that while the pace was slowed down , it " didn 't sacrifice any of the heaviness inherent in Slayer 's music . " Reviewing the 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described the album as " their most underrated , and on this set , its five selections show how highly the band thinks of the record . " KNAC.com 's Peter Atkinson was also positive , saying the album has a " grandiosity and imposing presence " which makes the record " so magnificent . " Grave 's Ola Lindgren and Bolt Thrower 's Karl Willetts both rate South of Heaven as amongst the top five albums of all time , while Max Kolesne of Brazilian death metal group Krisiun remembers hearing the song " Silent Scream " for the first time : " It just blew me away . It was like fast double @-@ bass , fast kicks during the whole song . That was very inspiring for me . " When discussing Slayer in an October 2007 interview , Evile frontman Matt Drake stated that while Reign in Blood " was just speed " , South of Heaven proved that the group could write " slow material as well . " Metal Forces reviewer gives " the band credit for at least making an effort to try something new and not being afraid to experiment at such a crucial stage of their career " , creating " one of the more original sounding thrash / speed metal albums he heard in a long while " . He remarks , however , that " if you ’ re expecting to hear Reign in Blood Part Two , you ’ ll be in for a major disappointment " . Kim Neely of Rolling Stone dismissed the album as " genuinely offensive satanic drivel . " Slayer 's official biography states : " The new sounds disappointed some of the band 's fans who were more accustomed to the style of earlier releases . " Michael Roberts of Westworld Online said this was due to some of the numbers moving " at the sludgier speed of Black Sabbath . " Araya commented that the " album was a late bloomer — it wasn 't really received well , but it kind of grew on everybody later . " = = Cover versions = = The title track and the song " Mandatory Suicide " have received various cover interpretations , particularly on Slayer tribute albums . Toni Ferguson recorded string quartet adaptations of both tracks on the album The String Quartet Tribute to Slayer : The Evil You Dread , with the former cover being described as having " menacing chord shifts " by AllMusic 's Johnny Loftus . 1995 Slayer tribute album Slatanic Slaughter featured three tracks which originally appeared on South of Heaven , with the title track , " Mandatory Suicide " and " Spill the Blood " interpreted by Cemetary , Crown of Thorns and Grope respectively . Its 1998 follow up Slatanic Slaughter , Vol . 2 only featured two tracks originally from the album ; namely " Silent Scream " arranged by Vader and " Read Between the Lies " interpreted by Anathema . 1999 's Straight to Hell : A Tribute to Slayer collected four Slayer renditions which originated on the album , with versions of South of Heaven performed by Abaddon ( Venom ) and Electric Hellfire Club , " Mandatory Suicide " cut by Chapter 7 and " Behind the Crooked Cross " adapted by Gigantor . 2006 Argentine tribute album Al Sur Del Abismo ( Tributo Argentino A Slayer ) saw Nafak and Climatic Terra also respectively cover " South of Heaven " and " Mandatory Suicide " . Hatebreed covered the song " Ghosts of War " for their 2009 cover album For the Lions . They released a music video for it also . Korn has covered the title track at least twice live , once with Kid Rock on vocals and another using the intro to follow into one of their songs live . The title track itself has also been covered by Integrity 2000 , Modest Mouse and Califone , Pro @-@ Pain , and Universe Eye . Polish death metal band Decapitated covered the song " Mandatory Suicide " on their first full @-@ length album Winds of Creation . In 2003 , " Silent Scream " was covered by Children of Bodom for their album Hate Crew Deathroll in his UK version . Hardcore Punk band , The Mongoloids opened their set with the beginning of " South of Heaven " at Heartfest 7 on May 4 , 2013 = = Live performances = = Two songs taken from the album ( " Mandatory Suicide " and " South of Heaven " ) have become near constant fixtures in the band 's live setlist , notching up appearances on the following : the live DVDs Live Intrusion , War at the Warfield , Still Reigning , Soundtrack to the Apocalypse 's deluxe edition 's bonus live disc , and the live double album Decade of Aggression . Lombardo guested with Finnish cellist group Apocalyptica on a live medley of the two tracks at 1998 's Headbanger 's Heaven festival in the Netherlands . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described " South of Heaven " as " an unorthodox set opener in theory " , noting " the song went over like a megaton bomb detonating the place : dozens of inverted crosses projected behind the high drum riser , the sinewy opening notes kicked in , followed by an overture of bass , cymbal crashes , and tom fills , leading up to the slowly building crescendo " in a concert review . Lombardo remembers listening to a live rendition of " South of Heaven " and thinking " ‘ Man ! There 's just so much groove in that song . ’ To my kids I was saying , ‘ Listen to that ! Listen to how groovy that is ! ’ And it 's heavy . " A rare live version of the track featured on the JÄGERMUSIC Rarities 2004 promotional CD , given away to attendees at the Spring 2004 Jägermeister Music Tour . A live rendition of " South of Heaven " was also included on a bonus DVD which came with the group 's 2007 re @-@ release of ninth studio album Christ Illusion , shot in Vancouver , British Columbia during 2006 's Unholy Alliance tour . " Behind the Crooked Cross " is rarely played live as Hanneman hates the track , though King has always wanted to play it " because it 's got a cool intro " despite it not being his favorite song . King said " that 's fine " when speaking of the situation , noting " there are songs that he wants to play that I always shoot down . " " Ghosts of War " isn 't King 's favorite song either , which he attests " everybody always wants to hear " performed live . He confessed ; " I like the ending , you know , I like the big heavy part and I always say , ‘ Let 's put the heavy ending at the end of " Chemical Warfare " and just do the last half . ’ But I could never make that fly . " Slayer has toyed with the idea of creating a live set mixed with selections from the album and 1990 's Seasons in the Abyss , though Hanneman said it 's something which hasn 't been " seriously considered . " Metal Maniacs asked Slayer in a 2006 interview whether they would consider playing South of Heaven in the footsteps of the Still Reigning tour , to which Araya replied , " It 's becoming a trendy thing now . I don 't know . We have some really cool albums , but I don 't think we 'll ever do that again . " King was equally unsure , commenting , " Probably not . And I just don 't like enough songs off South of Heaven . " = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = = = = Slayer = = = Tom Araya – bass , lead vocals Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar , backing vocals Dave Lombardo – drums = = Charts and certifications = =

= General aviation in the United Kingdom = General aviation in the United Kingdom has been defined as a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule or military aviation . Although the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) excludes any form of remunerated aviation from its definition , some commercial operations are often included within the scope of general aviation ( GA ) in the UK . The sector operates business jets , rotorcraft , piston and jet @-@ engined fixed @-@ wing aircraft , gliders of all descriptions , and lighter than air craft . Public transport operations include business ( or corporate ) aviation and air taxi services , and account for nearly half of the economic contribution made by the sector . Other commercial GA activities are aerial work , such as surveying and air ambulances , and flight training , which plays an important role in the supply of pilots to the commercial air transport ( CAT ) industry . Private flying is conducted for personal transport and recreation . It includes a strong vintage aircraft movement , and encompasses a range of air sports , such as racing , aerobatics , and parachuting , at which British teams and individuals have succeeded in international competition . Of the 21 @,@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the UK , 96 per cent are engaged in GA operations , and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 35 million hours flown . The single most common class of aircraft is the fixed @-@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional GA , but the main area of growth over the last 20 years has been in the use of more affordable aircraft , such as microlights , amateur built aeroplanes , and smaller helicopters . There are 28 @,@ 000 Private Pilot Licence holders , and 10 @,@ 000 certified glider pilots . Some of the 19 @,@ 000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities . Although GA operates from more than 1 @,@ 800 aerodromes and landing sites , ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips , over 80 per cent of GA activity is conducted at 134 of the larger aerodromes . The GA industry , which is around 7 per cent the size of its CAT cousin , employs 12 @,@ 000 people , and contributes £ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the UK economy . GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) , although regulatory powers are being increasingly transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) . The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing , and the objective is to promote high standards of safety . At the lighter end of the GA spectrum some regulatory authority is devolved to representative bodies , and gliding is in transition from a self @-@ regulatory model to more formal governance by EASA . Airspace regulation necessary to protect an increasing number of CAT operations has reduced the area in which GA flights can be freely conducted . The growth in CAT is also making access to larger airports more difficult for the GA sector , and smaller aerodromes are vulnerable to closure and re @-@ development for more profitable uses . The UK planning system has no remit to consider the national significance of GA public transport operations , and generally does not favour the development of smaller aerodromes catering to the GA market . The planning process has become a mechanism for addressing local aerodrome @-@ related environmental issues which , particularly regarding noise , are the main subjects of public criticism levelled at GA . = = Definitions = = The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) defines general aviation ( GA ) as " an aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation . " It defines commercial air transport ( CAT ) as " an aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers , cargo or mail for remuneration or hire " , and aerial work as " an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture , construction , photography , surveying , observation and patrol , search and rescue , aerial advertisement , etc . " Organisations in the United Kingdom ( UK ) describe GA in less restrictive terms that include elements of commercial aviation . The British Business and General Aviation Association interprets it to be " all aeroplane and helicopter flying except that performed by the major airlines and the Armed Services " . The General Aviation Awareness Council applies the description " all Civil Aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non @-@ scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire " . For the purposes of a strategic review of GA in the UK , the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) defined the scope of GA as " a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule " , and considered it necessary to depart from the ICAO definition and include aerial work and minor CAT operations . = = History = = The first aerodrome in the UK was established by the Aero Club at Muswell Manor on the Isle of Sheppey , and in May 1909 it was the venue of the first flight conducted in the country by a British pilot , John Moore @-@ Brabazon . In 1910 the Aero Club was granted the Royal prefix , took responsibility for controlling all private flying in the UK , and started issuing the first British pilot licences . The introduction of the de Havilland DH.60 Moth in 1925 revolutionised light aviation , and the Royal Aero Club , recognising the " vital necessity of promoting civil flying " , formed the Light Aeroplane Club scheme . Between 1925 and 1939 around 60 flying clubs were started , and more than 5 @,@ 000 pilots were trained . During World War II civil aerodromes were taken over for military use , existing military airfields were expanded , and new ones were built . This resulted in a significant inventory of facilities becoming available after the war . Pre @-@ war civil aerodromes , for example Sywell , were returned to civilian use . Surplus military airfields were closed , and in some cases , for example Beccles , subsequently re @-@ opened as civil aerodromes . The Ministry of Civil Aviation was created to regulate all civil aviation in the UK , and this task remained the responsibility of government departments until the establishment of the independent CAA in 1972 . With an expanded infrastructure in place , GA became established after the war when manufacturers such as Cessna and Piper introduced light aircraft designed for the private market . The Cessna 172 , developed from the late 1940s Cessna 170 , was introduced in 1956 , and became the world 's best selling single @-@ engine aeroplane . Single piston @-@ engine aircraft are still the most common class of aircraft in the UK GA fleet . The development of the Rogallo wing in the 1950s fostered the development of hang @-@ gliding during the 1960s and 1970s . The 1960s also saw experiments with motorised hang gliders , but it was not until the 1970s that this blend of technologies started to mature , resulting in the birth of the microlight movement . Another milestone in the development of GA was the 1964 introduction of the Learjet 23 . Although it was not the first business jet , it popularised corporate aviation , and established the personal jet as a " whole new class of aircraft " . = = Activities = = The GA sector operates a range of aircraft , including balloons and airships , gliders , hang gliders , paragliders , microlights , gyrocopters , helicopters , amateur built and mass @-@ produced light aircraft , ex @-@ military aircraft , and business jets . Flights can be broadly categorised as public transport , aerial work , and private flying , the first two of which are commercial activities . = = = Commercial operations = = = Commercial operations are remunerated activities which fall within the ICAO definition of CAT . Some are , however , closely aligned to , and considered part of , the GA sector . Public transport operations are non @-@ scheduled , on @-@ demand services flying between points specified by the customer , providing a more flexible service than airline travel . Air taxi operations offer charter services for third parties , and business or corporate aviation uses company @-@ owned aircraft to transport employees and clients . Aircraft used in these operations include business jets , helicopters , and twin piston @-@ engine aeroplanes carrying between six and ten people . An example of this type of operation is the transport by helicopter of spectators to the British Formula One grand prix at Silverstone . This involves so many flights that , according to Cranfield Aviation Services , on race day the heliport is temporarily the world 's busiest airport . Aerial work is a small but important component of the commercial GA sector , characterised in its simplest form as remunerated non @-@ transport activities , such as surveying , crop spraying , and emergency services work ( air ambulance and police ) . = = = Flying schools = = = Flying schools are commercial businesses engaged in the training of pilots , both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally . They make widespread use of fixed @-@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional GA , not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pilots for recreational flights . School @-@ owned aircraft account for a significant amount of GA activity , both in terms of hours flown and aircraft movements . The pilot training element is regarded by the GA community as a key benefit that is critical to the supply of pilots for the airline industry . It is claimed by the General Aviation Awareness Council that 60 – 70 per cent of professional pilots have self @-@ financed their flight training at GA schools , and one UK airline operator has stated that the industry must rely on 70 – 80 per cent of new pilots coming from the GA sector . The CAA estimates that between 1996 and 2006 the number of new professional pilots following the unsponsored training route rose from 48 per cent to 59 per cent . The counter argument to this claim is that pilots can be trained outside of the UK , and that the airline industry is not therefore dependent on a healthy GA sector in the UK for its supply of pilots . The CAA concludes that a severe reduction in GA would give " some merit to the argument that pilot recruitment would be threatened " , but that the data on flying hours " does not support such a gloomy outlook . " Of course , reliance on other countries for pilot training means that the UK foregoes the economic benefit of the training activity . = = = Private flying = = = Private flying can be for both recreational purposes and personal transport , using aircraft that are owned individually , collectively as part of a syndicate , or rented from a flying club . A survey of pilots conducted between 2001 and 2002 indicated that the most common purposes of recreational flights were local flights near the base aerodrome , visits to other aerodromes , and day trips away . Half of all flights landed at the same aerodrome they departed from , and only 9 per cent involved an overnight stay away from home . Private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory @-@ produced two and four @-@ seater , single piston @-@ engine training and touring aircraft . Examples of these are the Cessna 152 , Cessna 172 , and Piper PA28 Cherokee , all with their origins in the 1950s , and the more modern designs of Cirrus . The average cost per hour to fly such aircraft has been estimated to be £ 133 , compared to an estimated £ 77 per hour for gliders , and a reported £ 35 per hour for microlights . Recent trends have seen an increase in the use of microlights , and also in recreational helicopter flying following the introduction of smaller and cheaper machines such as the Robinson R22 and R44 . Another growth area in private flying in recent years has been in the use of amateur built aircraft , such as the Van 's Aircraft RV @-@ 4 and the Europa . There is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the UK , with two @-@ thirds of the 500 registered historic aircraft active . These cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation , examples being the de Havilland Dragon Rapide airliner of the 1930s , and the World War II ( WWII ) Spitfire fighter . There are many post @-@ WWII aircraft which could also be considered historic under a looser definition , including for example 60 ex @-@ military jets such as the Hawker Hunter . Historic aircraft are regular exhibits at air displays , which are claimed to be the second most popular spectator activity after football in the UK . = = = Sports = = = Competitive gliding in the UK takes place between May and September . Regionals are local competitions , organised and run by one of the bigger gliding clubs in the region , and represent the entry level to glider racing . Races are handicapped according to glider performance , and normally take place over nine days . Success in the regionals allows pilots to progress to the nationals , where there are five classes of competition . These are based on glider performance , the lowest being club class , and then progressing through standard ( maximum 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wingspan , and flaps not permitted ) , 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ( as standard , but flaps are permitted ) , 18 metres ( 59 ft ) ( maximum 18 metres ( 59 ft ) wingspan ) , and finally open @-@ class ( no restrictions ) . Success at national level can lead to a place in the national team and competition at international level . In 2007 the British gliding team was ranked number one , and British pilots took two women 's world championships and the open class European championship . Handicapped air racing is open to any propeller @-@ driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles ( 160 km ) per hour in level flight . Races are a case of " fly low , fly fast , turn left " , consisting of 4 – 5 laps round a 20 – 25 mile ( 32 – 40 km ) circuit . Faster aircraft are handicapped by starting after slower aircraft , the intention being that the race concludes with all aircraft diving for the finish line together . There are up to 16 races per year , conducted at airfields in the UK , France and the Channel Islands , for prizes that include the Schneider Trophy and King 's Cup , and the season culminates with the British Air Racing and European Air Racing Championships . Aerobatic competitions take place for both powered aircraft and gliders , with up to 30 events each year in the UK and Ireland . Starting at the Beginner level , pilots can move up to Standard ( powered aircraft ) or Sports ( glider ) levels , and then on to Intermediate , Advanced , and finally Unlimited classes . Each step up requires a wider repertoire of aerobatic figures and progressively more performance from the aircraft . National championships are awarded annually at Standard / Sports , Intermediate , Advanced ( powered aircraft only ) , and Unlimited levels , and pilots who have reached Advanced and Unlimited levels are eligible for selection to represent the UK in international competition . Parachute competitions are held at club , regional , national and international levels , and include the disciplines of accuracy landings , freefall gymnastics , formation skydiving , canopy formation , freestyle and freeflying , and skysurfing . British teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships , and a British team took the 2006 world championship in women 's 4 @-@ way formation skydiving . = = Aerodromes = = Aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place , although more specific terminology can be used to characterise its purpose . The CAA strategic review of GA applies the term airport to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations , and airfield to locations which predominantly support GA operations . The General Aviation Small Aerodrome Research Study ( GASAR ) analysed 687 aerodromes in England which come under the scope of GA , classifying 374 into six types . These range in size from regional airports to the smallest farm strip , although 84 per cent of GA flights operate from 134 of the larger aerodromes in the first four categories . = = = GASAR aerodrome classification = = = The factors used in determining how an individual aerodrome is categorised by the GASAR study are based broadly on size and facilities . The six types of aerodrome are described , in size order , as : regional airports ( e.g. East Midlands ) ; major GA airports ( e.g. Oxford ) ; developed GA airfields ( e.g. Andrewsfield ) ; basic GA airfields ( e.g. Rufforth ) ; developed airstrips ( e.g. Tilstock ) ; and basic airstrips ( e.g. Chilbolton in Hampshire ) . The actual criteria used to categorise aerodromes were complex , using 28 different parameters , backed up with a peer review by experienced GA pilots . Airports generally have long , fully lit , hard @-@ surfaced runways , full air traffic control , and navigation and landing aids . They are usually located on urban fringes , support commercial and business operations , and often exclude certain types of light aircraft . At the more rurally located airfields , the lighter end of aviation , such as microlight and gliding activities , becomes increasingly prevalent , and there are few or no commercial operations other than flying schools . At this level runways are generally shorter , and grass surfaces are increasingly common . Navigation aids are increasingly scarce , being more basic where they are available , and informal ground to air radio communication replaces air traffic control . The smallest airfields are too small to feature on general purpose Ordnance Survey ( OS ) maps , and lack basic facilities such as fuel and maintenance . The majority of airstrips are basically single short grass runways with no supporting facilities , although the presence of a hangar is not uncommon at the larger examples . They do not feature on OS maps , and are owned by private clubs or , more commonly , individuals . = = = Aerodrome licensing = = = Most aerodromes used for public transport operations are required to be licensed by the CAA . To be granted a licence an aerodrome operator must satisfy the CAA that : the physical conditions at the aerodrome , and its environs , are acceptable ; the scale of equipment , and facilities provided , are adequate for the flying activities which are expected to take place ; an effective safety management system is in place ; and that staff are competent and , where necessary , suitably qualified . Aerodromes classified as developed GA airfields or larger by the GASAR study are , with few exceptions , licensed . Only two basic GA airfields , Silverstone and Duxford , are licensed , and all airstrips are unlicensed . The Light Aviation Airports Study Group , a joint CAA @-@ industry initiative , was established in 2005 to review the regulation of light aviation aerodromes . A particular focus of this group was a review of the restrictions placed on unlicensed aerodromes . The group concluded that the requirement for public transport operations to be conducted only from licensed aerodromes should be further reviewed in the context of corresponding international and European requirements . It also recommended that restrictions on flight training at unlicensed aerodromes should be lifted , and this was permitted from April 2010 = = Scale of the sector = = There are an estimated 27 @,@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the UK , 96 per cent of which are engaged in GA activities . In 2005 the GA fleet comprised 9 @,@ 000 fixed @-@ wing aircraft , 4 @,@ 100 microlights , 1 @,@ 300 helicopters , 1 @,@ 800 airships / balloons , 2 @,@ 500 gliders and some 7 @,@ 000 hang gliders . Estimates put the number of foreign @-@ registered GA aircraft based in the UK at 900 . The number of pilots licensed by the CAA to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47 @,@ 000 , of whom 28 @,@ 000 held a Private Pilot Licence . The remainder held professional pilot licences , either a Commercial Pilot Licence or an Airline Transport Pilot Licence , although not all of these would be engaged in GA activities . In addition , there are 10 @,@ 000 active glider pilots , and estimates put the membership of aviation @-@ related sport and recreational associations at 36 @,@ 000 . The number of aerodromes that support GA in the UK is difficult to establish with certainty . Pooleys 2008 United Kingdom Flight Guide lists 355 , and the Airplan Flight Equipment UK VFR Flight Guide 2008 lists nearly 500 . Lockyears Farm ' Strips ' and Private Airfields Flight Guide lists more than 300 landing sites . The GASAR study estimates 1 @,@ 100 formal flying sites in England alone , a figure which includes 400 sites known to planning authorities but not included in flight guides . It estimates another 759 informal sites known only to land owners , customs , and members of the enthusiast group Air @-@ Britain . The sector was estimated to employ nearly 12 @,@ 000 people and directly contribute £ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the UK economy in 2005 , making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the CAT industry . Nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation . = = Trends = = Most sectors of GA for which data are available have experienced growth in aircraft numbers and hours flown over the last two decades . The lighter end of the GA spectrum : microlights , amateur built , and airships and balloons , have in particular shown strong growth , although the last of these activities was severely curtailed during the foot @-@ and @-@ mouth outbreak in 2001 , when access to farmland was denied . After strong growth in the late 1980s , traditional flying has shown a slight decline recently , reflecting a move amongst recreational flyers towards microlight aircraft , and increased numbers of foreign @-@ registered aircraft . Recreational helicopter usage has grown primarily due to the introduction of smaller and cheaper aircraft . Glider activity has remained relatively static , although there has been a gradual increase in the number of self @-@ launching motor gliders . Business aviation has shown strong growth , although the numbers of aircraft on the UK register have declined . This reflects a shift away from turboprop aircraft towards foreign @-@ registered business jets based in the UK , which are estimated to be growing in numbers . However , twin piston @-@ engined aircraft numbers have declined significantly , reflecting pressures on the light air @-@ taxi segment from increasingly flexible and cheaper scheduled services , and a more sophisticated corporate charter business . The amount of flight training conducted by UK schools has declined , largely at the hands of competition from foreign schools , which benefit from lower costs and better weather . Since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the GA sector has remained in the range 1 @.@ 25 – 1 @.@ 35 million , the dominant sector being traditional GA flying , which accounts for 0 @.@ 6 million per year . An overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with nil growth in hours flown has brought the annual average utilisation per aircraft down from 157 hours in 1984 to 103 hours in 2002 . The decline in asset utilisation has led to speculation that the economic health of the GA industry is weakening , though the lack of data on profitability makes this difficult to confirm . = = Regulation = = The objective of regulation is to " promote high standards of safety in all aspects of aviation " , and this is the main area of interaction between the CAA and the GA sector . Efforts focus on assuring appropriate standards of airworthiness , pilot qualification , the rules for the movement of aircraft , and equipment to be carried . The CAA was established as the primary regulatory body for all aviation in the UK in 1972 . In 1991 it started working within the Joint Aviation Authorities ( JAA ) framework to implement agreed common standards , known as the Joint Aviation Requirements ( JAR ) , throughout the European Union ( EU ) . In 2003 this was taken a step further when the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) was established as the central EU regulator , taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities . The CAA acts as an agency of EASA on these issues , retaining its original regulatory powers in areas not yet transferred to EASA . Proposed developments seek to establish EASA as the single authority throughout the EU , taking over from individual member states the power to regulate all aviation other than that specifically excluded from the scope of EASA . = = = Devolved and self @-@ regulation = = = Within this framework certain sectors of GA are governed on a devolved basis . In all cases the CAA / EASA retains responsibility for safety regulation , but representative bodies , particularly of sectors that are not included in the scope of EASA , are granted greater oversight of their activities . The majority of microlight aircraft are regulated by the British Microlight Aircraft Association ( BMAA ) , although a significant number are regulated by the Light Aircraft Association ( LAA ) , formerly known as the Popular Flying Association . The LAA is the primary regulator for amateur built aircraft , as well as vintage and classic aircraft . Parachuting is governed by the British Parachute Association , although the aircraft used in this activity are generally CAA @-@ regulated . Balloon and airship flying is overseen by the British Balloon and Airship Club . The UK @-@ specific National Private Pilot Licence ( NPPL ) is administered by the National Pilots Licensing Group Ltd . , supported by the LAA , the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association UK , the British Gliding Association , and the British Microlight Aircraft Association . Separate from these devolved groups , gliding in the UK is self @-@ regulated . The British Gliding Association was until recently responsible for glider airworthiness , now formally regulated as a result of EASA legislation , and still retains control of pilot certification . Hang gliding and paragliding activities ( i.e. foot @-@ launched gliders ) are governed by the British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association . = = = Airworthiness = = = Under CAA and EASA rules , all aircraft are required to meet certain standards of airworthiness to fly safely and legally . Aircraft that meet these standards are issued with a Certificate of Airworthiness . However , British @-@ registered aircraft which are excluded from the scope of EASA , and which cannot satisfy the requirements for the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness , may be issued with a Permit to Fly . This allows them to fly in UK airspace subject to certain limitations , for example being restricted to day @-@ time flights under visual flight rules only . A number of organisations ( e.g. the British Microlight Aircraft Association and the Light Aircraft Association ) have obtained a standing over @-@ flight permission for Permit to Fly aircraft within their area of interest with some European countries , notably France . Permits are typically issued to vintage and historic aircraft , amateur built aircraft , and microlights . = = = Pilot licensing = = = The pilot qualification most relevant to GA is the Private Pilot Licence ( PPL ) , which permits the holder to fly for recreational purposes without remuneration . In addition to the European @-@ wide Joint Aviation Regulations Flight Crew Licensing ( JAR @-@ FCL ) standard , the CAA also issues UK @-@ specific national licences . In the absence of European standards for gyroplane , balloon , and airship pilots , the CAA licenses these according to the original UK PPL standard . As a response to the perception that JAR pilot licensing standards are excessively bureaucratic and expensive for the purposes of recreational pilots , the National Private Pilot Licence ( NPPL ) was introduced in 2002 . The NPPL is easier to obtain than the JAR @-@ FCL licence , has less stringent medical requirements , is more restrictive in the privileges it grants , and is valid only for flights in British @-@ registered aircraft flying in UK and French airspace . Although there are plans to bring glider pilot licensing within the regulatory framework of EASA , the gliding sector is currently self @-@ regulating in this respect . The British Gliding Association is responsible for defining the standards of initial training , and certifying , via a badge system , pilots who meet those standards . Pilots working in sectors of GA that are commercial operations , such as aerial work and business aviation , are required to hold a professional pilot licence which , at a minimum , is the Commercial Pilot Licence . = = Safety = = Between 1995 and 2004 there were 2 @,@ 630 accidents involving GA aircraft , of which 139 were fatal , resulting in the loss of 317 lives . The majority of accidents involved small fixed @-@ wing aircraft engaged in private flights , and analysis attributes the most common causes of these to : flight handling skills ; poor judgement or airmanship ; lack of training or experience ; and omission of , or inappropriate , action . There were 27 fatal accidents involving GA aircraft in 2007 , resulting in the loss of 48 lives . These compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year , and although the 2007 statistics are higher than average , they are not exceptional . = = Issues = = The growth in Commercial Air Transport ( CAT ) has eroded the operational freedom of GA , both in the air and on the ground at larger airports . Difficulty with access to larger airports is compounded by a decline in the number of aerodromes generally , and existing sites are often threatened with closure and re @-@ development for more profitable uses . The UK planning system is designed to focus on local issues , and consideration of the national impact of GA operations is not within its remit . This makes aerodrome development difficult , often subjecting those that successfully negotiate the process to restrictions in use . = = = Airspace access = = = Airspace is shared by CAT , military and GA users . It is divided into controlled airspace , in which aircraft must always be under the control of an air traffic controller , and uncontrolled airspace , in which aircraft can operate autonomously . Although GA flights can under certain conditions enter controlled airspace , they operate mainly outside of it . Controlled airspace is essential for the provision of a known air traffic environment necessary for the safe operation of CAT . A CAA review found that " mixing [ commercial ] operations with other users is considered undesirable , even untenable " by commercial operators . However this position has resulted in extensive Class A controlled airspace with complex boundaries , including some running down to the ground , prohibiting VFR access to airspace , resulting in high numbers of GA flights operating close to the borders of controlled airspace who could not get formal receipt of an air traffic service . Coupled with pilot navigation errors , hundreds of airspace infringements have been recorded every year . Increases in the number of CAT operations , and in the number of airports they operate from , has resulted in a corresponding increase in Class A controlled airspace . Between 1997 and 2006 this area grew in size from 13 per cent of all airspace to 22 per cent nationally , and from 24 per cent to 43 per cent in airspace above England and Wales , leading to a perception within the GA community of being squeezed out . There are particular problems for GA around large airports , where Class A controlled airspace extends to ground level . The concentration of commercial operations and high demand for GA in the South East of England have also resulted in extensive areas of Class A controlled airspace there , which serve to channel uncontrolled GA operations through high @-@ collision @-@ risk hot spots . = = = Aerodrome access = = = Regional airports , such as Edinburgh Airport , have experienced strong growth in CAT operations in recent years . These operations are commercially and operationally incompatible with GA , and although there is no evidence of deliberate discrimination , the effect has been to discourage or exclude it . GA aircraft are being subject to significant increases in charges , including the imposition of handling fees in some cases . Some airports restrict or deny GA parking , and others limit or refuse certain GA activity . As a result , light GA aircraft are now rarely or never seen at large , busy international airports such as Heathrow , Stansted , Gatwick and Manchester . In addition to this de facto loss of facilities , the number of aerodromes in the UK has been in decline over the last 50 years , as a result of increasing urbanisation and the closure of airfields built during WWII . Alternative and more profitable uses for land can also lead to existing aerodromes being threatened with closure , for example North Weald , or actually being closed , as happened to Ipswich Airport. and Bristol Filton Airport . Referring to the importance of a " functioning national network of GA airfields " , especially where GA performs an air transport role , the CAA states that " there could be cause for concern if a significant further loss of airfields were to continue , especially if crucial nodes on the transport network were to be lost . " = = = Planning system = = = The planning system is critical to the viability and operation of GA aerodromes . With many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them , and with GA access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive , a viable network of aerodromes supporting GA air transport operations is regarded as an important national issue . However , there is no unified national planning policy specific to GA aerodromes , and planning decisions relating to these are based on local issues that are not required to consider the national impact . Because aircraft are excluded from noise control legislation , the only recourse for people affected by aircraft noise is through the planning process , and this issue is the principal factor on which the majority of planning decisions relating to GA land use are made . GA is a specialist subject often unfamiliar to Local Planning Authorities , and most planning decisions relating to GA either refuse permission , or grant it with restrictive conditions . Little Gransden is just one example of a GA airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted , thereby inhibiting further development . Such restrictions , if poorly conceived , can make GA operations unviable or even unsafe . = = Criticism = = Public opinion towards aviation generally is worsening , based on increasing environmental concerns relating to emissions and noise , and private flying has been criticised by respondents to a government consultation on aircraft noise as a frivolous or selfish activity . In terms of environmental complaints and enquiries made to the CAA that relate specifically to GA , noise is " by far " the most common subject . Half of the 2 @,@ 000 noise complaints made annually to the CAA concern GA operations , most of which relate to aerobatics , helicopters using private sites , air balloon incidents , parachute dropping , and alleged low flying . Planning guidance on aircraft noise advises that " in some circumstances the public perceive general aircraft noise levels as more disturbing than similar levels around major airports . " This is a result of the tonal characteristics of light aircraft engines and the activities they are engaged in , including : repetitive circuit flying at low @-@ altitude near an aerodrome , during which aircraft are audible for long periods ; slow climbing aircraft engaged in parachute drop or glider tug activities concentrated around the drop zone or aerodrome , also audible for long periods ; erratic and repetitive engine noise from aircraft engaged in aerobatics ; and piston @-@ engines on full power in areas of low background noise , leading to the perception that such noise is more intrusive . In an attempt to alleviate these problems , the majority of aerodromes implement noise abatement procedures designed to route aircraft away from noise sensitive areas , and more than 50 are required by the government to provide consultative facilities in which local concerns can be raised with aerodrome operators .

= SMS Zrínyi = SMS Zrínyi ( " His Majesty 's ship Zrínyi " ) was a Radetzky @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship ( Schlachtschiff ) of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) , named for the Zrinski , a noble Croatian family . Zrínyi and her sisters , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and Radetzky , were the last pre @-@ dreadnoughts built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . During World War I , Zrínyi saw action in the Adriatic Sea . She served with the Second Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's battleships and shelled Senigallia as part of the bombardment of the key seaport of Ancona , Italy , during May 1915 . However , Allied control of the Strait of Otranto meant that the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was , for all intents and purposes , effectively bottled up in the Adriatic . Nonetheless , the presence of the Zrínyi and other battleships tied down a substantial force of Allied ships . With the war going against the Austrians by the end of 1918 , Zrínyi was prepared to be transferred to the new State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . On 10 November 1918 — just one day before the end of the war , navy officers sailed the battleship out of Pola ( Pula ) and eventually surrendered to a squadron of American submarine chasers . Following the handover to the United States Navy , she was briefly designated USS Zrínyi . In the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , the transfer was not recognized ; instead , Zrínyi was given to Italy and broken up for scrap . = = Design and construction = = Zrínyi was built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino dockyard in Trieste , the same place where her sister ships were built earlier . She was laid down on 15 November 1908 and launched from the slipway on 12 April 1910 . The teak used on Zrínyi 's deck was the only material Austria @-@ Hungary had to purchase abroad to build the ship . The ship was completed by 15 July 1911 , and on 22 November 1911 she was commissioned into the fleet . She was the last ship of the class to be completed and had a crew of 880 to 890 officers and men . Zrínyi was 138 @.@ 8 m ( 455 ft 4 in ) long , and had a beam of 24 @.@ 6 m ( 80 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 26 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 508 long tons ( 14 @,@ 741 t ) normally , and up to 15 @,@ 845 long tons ( 16 @,@ 099 t ) with a full combat load . She was powered by two @-@ shaft four @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower . The ship had a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . Zrínyi was the first warship in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to use fuel oil to supplement her 12 Yarrow @-@ type coal @-@ fired boilers . She had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . This was augmented by a heavy secondary battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets . The tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm L / 50 guns in casemated single mounts , four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) L / 44 and one 47 mm L / 33 quick @-@ firing guns . Furthermore , the ship 's boats were equipped with two 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) landing guns for operations shore . Three 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried , one on each broadside and one in the stern . = = Service history = = The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet 's 1st Battle Squadron after her 1911 commissioning . In 1912 , Zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , Zrínyi and her sister ships were accompanied by the cruiser SMS Admiral Spaun and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the Balkans . In 1913 , Zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force . During that year , the first of four new dreadnoughts , SMS Viribus Unitis , that made up the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy — came into active service . With the commissioning of these dreadnoughts , Zrínyi and her sisters were moved from the 1st Division to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron . = = = World War I = = = At that time of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , the battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , the Tegetthoff class ( which still had one ship , SMS Szent István , under construction ) , the Erzherzog Karl class and finally , the older Habsburg class . Along with the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Zrínyi was mobilized in late July 1914 to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships broke out of Messina , which was surrounded by the British navy and reached Turkey . The flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy when news of the successful breakout reached Vienna . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were then recalled before seeing action . On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after news of the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . The bombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against the Kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , who were members of the Entente , during the first half of 1915 . The attack on Ancona was an immense success , and the ships were unopposed during the operation . The bombardment of the province and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an Italian steamer in the port of Ancona itself , and an Italian destroyer , Turbine , was severely damaged further south . On the shore , the infrastructure of the port of Ancona , as well as the surrounding towns , were severely damaged . The railroad yard in Ancona , as well as the port facilities in the town , were damaged or destroyed . The local shore batteries were also suppressed . During the bombardment , Zrínyi also helped to destroy a train , a railway station , and a bridge at Senigallia . Additional targets that were damaged or destroyed included wharves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . Sixty @-@ three Italians , both civilians and military personnel , were killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived on the scene , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were safely back in Pola . The objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the Alps for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and re @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts . Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships were largely confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations were limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the Dalmatian coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw Zrínyi and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy acting as a fleet in being . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otranto Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adriatic Sea , and with a shortage of coal , Haus followed a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numerical superiority of the Allied navies . = = = Post @-@ war fate = = = After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire collapsed in 1918 , the Austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the Italians from claiming the ships as spoils of war . However , the victorious Allies refused to acknowledge the conversations between the Austrians and the south Slavs and , in due course , reallocated the ships . The ship had been boarded by a scratch Yugoslav crew on 10 November 1918 , one day before the Armistice , and had left Pola with her sister ship , Radetzky . They were soon spotted by heavy Italian ships , so the two battleships hoisted American flags and sailed south along the Adriatic coast to Castelli Bay near Spalato ( also known as Split ) . They appealed for American naval forces to meet them and accept their surrender , which a squadron of United States Navy ( USN ) submarine chasers in the area did . She had apparently been turned over to the fledgling south Slav state , as it was a Croat naval officer , Korvettenkapitän Marijan Polić , who presented the ship as a prize of war to representatives of the United States Navy on the afternoon of 22 November 1919 at Spalato ( Split ) in Dalmatia . Simultaneously she was commissioned as USS Zrínyi and Lieutenant E.E. Hazlett , USN , assumed command . The initial American complement consisted of four officers and 174 enlisted men — the latter entirely composed of United States Navy Reserve Force personnel . The ship remained at anchor at Spalato for nearly a year while the negotiations that would determine her ultimate fate dragged on . Only once did she apparently turn her engines over , and that occurred during a severe gale that struck Spalato on 9 February 1920 . On the morning of 7 November 1920 , Zrínyi was decommissioned . USS Chattanooga took her in tow and , assisted by Brooks and Hovey , towed the battleship to Italy . Under the terms of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain , Zrínyi was ultimately turned over to the Italian government at Venice . She was broken up for scrap later that year and into 1921 .

= Geopyxis carbonaria = Geopyxis carbonaria is a species of fungus in the genus Geopyxis , family Pyronemataceae . First described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @-@ cup , dwarf acorn cup , stalked bonfire cup , or pixie cup . The small , goblet @-@ shaped fruitbodies of the fungus are reddish @-@ brown with a whitish fringe and measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) across . They have a short , tapered stalk . Fruitbodies are commonly found on soil where brush has recently been burned , sometimes in great numbers . The fungus is distributed throughout many temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . It is found in Europe , Turkey , and North America . Although it is primarily a saprotrophic species , feeding on the decomposing organic matter remaining after a fire , it also forms biotrophic associations with the roots of Norway spruce . = = Taxonomy = = The fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by Johannes Baptista von Albertini and Lewis David de Schweinitz as Peziza carbonaria . Mordecai Cubitt Cooke illustrated the fruitbodies , spores , and asci in his 1879 work Mycographia , seu Icones fungorum . Figures of fungi from all parts of the world . In 1889 , Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the fungus to the genus Geopyxis , giving the species its current name . Pustularia carbonaria , published by Heinrich Rehm in 1884 , is a synonym of G. carbonaria . Louis @-@ Joseph Grélet proposed the variety Geopyxis carbonaria var. sessilis in 1937 , referring to forms producing fruitbodies without a stalk , but the taxon is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance . In 1860 Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis described the species Peziza lepida from collections made in Japan as part of the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition ( 1853 – 1856 ) . This taxon was synonymized with G. carbonaria by Mien Rifai in 1968 , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Donald Pfister about a decade later . The specific epithet carbonaria derives from the Latin word for " charcoal " . Common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @-@ cup " , " dwarf acorn cup " , " pixie cup " , and the British Mycological Society approved " stalked bonfire cup " . = = Description = = The fruitbodies ( ascocarps ) of Geopyxis carbonaris are cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and have fringed whitish margins . The inner spore @-@ bearing surface of the cup , the hymenium , is brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface is a dull yellow , and may be either smooth or have blister @-@ like spots ( pustules ) . The stipe is small ( 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm long and 1 – 2 mm wide ) , whitish in color , and expands abruptly into the cup . The brownish flesh of the fungus is thin and brittle . It does not have any distinctive taste , but has an unpleasant smell when crushed in water . The edibility of the fungus is not known , but the fruitbodies are insubstantial and unlikely to be harvested for eating . = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = In mass , the spores are whitish . The spores are elliptical , smooth , hyaline , devoid of oil droplets ( eguttulate ) , and have dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µm . They are thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external stimuli . The asci are 190 – 225 by 9 – 10 µm . The paraphyses are slightly club @-@ shaped , unbranched , and have irregular orange @-@ brown granules , with tips up to 5 µm wide , and are not forked or lobed . The hypothecium , the layer of cells below the hymenium , is made of densely packed , small irregular cells . = = = Similar species = = = The closely related vulcan elf cup ( Geopyxis vulcanalis ) has a pale orange to yellowish fruitbody that is deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity , and its crushed flesh often has an odor of sulfur . It may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses , which lack the orange @-@ brown granules characteristic of G. carbonaria . It also has larger spores , measuring 14 – 22 by 8 – 11 µm . Unlike G. carbonaria , it grows on substrates other than burned wood , including mosses , and needle duff . Tarzetta cupularis , which grows habitats similar to G. carbonaria , is distinguished microscopically by its spores that contain two oil droplets . Other genera with similar species with which G. carbonaria may be confused in the field include Aleuria , Caloscypha , Melastiza , and Sowerbyella . = = Habitat and distribution = = Geopyxis carbonaria is widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season . It is one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground . The charred litter on the forest floor increases the underlying soil pH as well as the availability of minerals . Fruitbodies are produced from 16 to 139 weeks after a forest fire in areas with coniferous trees . Most fruitbodies are produced in the first year after a burn . The fungus prefers fruiting in microhabitats with thin postfire duff near standing burned tree trunks . Geopyxis carbonaria fruitbodies are often found in the same post @-@ fire stands as morels , although the former is usually more abundant . Because the pixie cup fruits earlier than morels , it may serve as an indicator of imminent morel fruiting . Other cup fungi often found fruiting in the same area as G. carbonaria include those from the genera Aleuria , Anthracobia , Peziza , and Tarzetta . The fungus is found in Europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and is widespread throughout North America . The North American distribution extends north to Alaska . In 2010 , it was reported for the first time from Turkey . = = Ecology = = Although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @-@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots , Geopyxis carbonaria has been shown to be capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) . It had been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus has a biotrophic interaction with lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ) . The hyphae of G. carbonaria were able to infect the cortex of the tree seedling , but did not penetrate the endodermis . These traits suggest that the fungus is a moderate pathogen , with limited ability to cause reductions in seed germination . Additionally , the fungus produces the enzyme polyphenol oxidase , and can break down the complex organic polymer lignin — features characteristic of saprotrophic fungi . The formation of a rudimentary Hartig net , a characteristic of mycorrhizal fungi , indicated that G. carbonaria might be capable of forming mutualistic relationships under the right conditions . Vrålstad and colleagues suggest that its below @-@ ground association with spruce roots protects it from physical damage in the event of a fire , and the extensive fruitbody production after a fire may reflect " a successful fungal escape from a dying host where the fungus no longer can maintain its biotrophic association " . Large fruitings of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree , such as that which occurs with burning . A field study conducted in Norway demonstrated that fruit bodies were more likely to be found in areas that were heavily burned , compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees remained viable , or in clearcut areas . Fruiting was much denser in spruce forests — with up to 700 – 1000 fruitbodies per square meter — than in pine forests , where fruitbodies were sporadic . Fruitbodies grew by the millions in the year following the Yellowstone fires of 1988 .

= Gold dollar = The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 . The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The Type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any United States coin ever minted . A gold dollar had been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s , but was not initially adopted . Congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of bullion caused by the California gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . In its early years , silver coins were being hoarded or exported , and the gold dollar found a ready place in commerce . Silver again circulated after Congress in 1853 required that new coins of that metal be made lighter , and the gold dollar became a rarity in commerce even before federal coins vanished from circulation because of the economic disruption caused by the American Civil War . Gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did , the gold dollar did not regain its place . In its final years , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by hoarders . It was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . The regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; the following year , Congress ended the series . = = Background = = In proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @-@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender . Congress followed Hamilton 's recommendation only in part , authorizing a silver dollar , but no coin of that denomination in gold . In 1831 , the first gold dollar was minted , at the private mint of Christopher Bechtler in North Carolina . Much of the gold then being produced in the United States came from the mountains of North Carolina and Georgia , and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by Bechtler circulated through that region , and were now and then seen further away . Additional one @-@ dollar pieces were struck by August Bechtler , Christopher 's son . Soon after the Bechtlers began to strike their private issues , Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury became an advocate of having the Mint of the United States ( " Mint " , when described as an institution ) strike the one @-@ dollar denomination in gold . He was opposed by the Mint Director , Robert M. Patterson . Woodbury persuaded President Andrew Jackson to have pattern coins struck . In response , Patterson had Mint Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht break off work on the new design for the silver one @-@ dollar coin and work on a pattern for the gold dollar . Gobrecht 's design featured a Liberty cap surrounded by rays on one side , and a palm branch arranged in a circle with the denomination , date , and name of the country on the other . Consideration was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the revisionary legislation that became the Mint Act of 1837 . The Philadelphia newspaper Public Ledger , in December 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating that " the dollar is the smallest gold coin that would be convenient , and as it would be eminently so , neither silver nor paper should be allowed to take its place . " Nevertheless , after Mint Director Patterson appeared before a congressional committee , the provision authorizing the gold dollar was deleted from the bill . = = Inception = = In January 1844 , North Carolina Representative James Iver McKay , the chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means , solicited the views of Director Patterson on the gold dollar . Patterson had more of Gobrecht 's pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin that if issued would be only about a half inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter . He told Treasury Secretary John C. Spencer that the only gold coins of that size in commerce , the Spanish and Colombian half @-@ escudos , were unpopular and had not been struck for more than twenty years . This seemed to satisfy the committee as nothing more was done for the time , and when a gold dollar was proposed again in 1846 , McKay 's committee recommended against it . Even before 1848 , record amounts of gold were flowing to American mints to be struck into coin , but the California Gold Rush vastly increased these quantities . This renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then the largest gold coin . In January 1849 , McKay introduced a bill for a gold dollar , which was referred to his committee . There was much discussion in the press about the proposed coin ; one newspaper published a proposal for an annular gold dollar , that is , with a hole in the middle to increase its small diameter . McKay amended his legislation to provide for a double eagle ( $ 20 gold coin ) and wrote to Patterson , who replied stating that the annular gold dollar would not work , and neither would another proposal to have dollar piece consisting of a gold plug in a silver coin . Nevertheless , Gobrecht 's successor as chief engraver , James B. Longacre , prepared patterns , including some with a square hole in the middle . McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version into the House on February 20 ; debate began the same day . The dollar was attacked by congressmen from the Whig Party , then in the minority , on the grounds that it would be too small , would be counterfeited and in bad light might be mistakenly spent as a half dime , the coins being similar in size . McKay did not respond substantively , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would not be called for at the Mint , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph Ingersoll , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting that Patterson opposed the new denominations , and that the idea had been repeatedly turned down , whenever considered . Another Whig , Massachusetts 's Charles Hudson , related that Patterson had sent a real and a counterfeit gold dollar to his committee and the majority of members had been unable to tell the difference . McKay made no answer to these claims , but others did , including New York Congressman Henry Nicoll , who assured the House that the counterfeiting allegations were greatly exaggerated . The point was , he indicated , that the double eagle and gold dollar were wanted by the public , and , in the case of the gold dollar could help money circulate in small communities where banknotes were not accepted . Connecticut Representative John A. Rockwell , a Whig , tried to table the bill , but his motion was defeated . The bill passed easily , and met only minimal opposition in the Senate , becoming law on March 3 , 1849 . = = Preparation = = The officers at the Philadelphia Mint , including Chief Coiner Franklin Peale , were mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The outsider in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre had been appointed through the political influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun . When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist him . Longacre wrote the following year that he had been warned by a Mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly Peale ) planned to undermine the chief engraver 's position by having the work of preparing designs and dies done outside Mint premises . Accordingly , when the gold coin bill became law , Longacre apprised Patterson that he was ready to begin work on the gold dollar . The Mint Director agreed , and after viewing a model of the head on the obverse , authorized Longacre to proceed with preparation of dies . According to Longacre , The engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks . I made the original dies and hubs for making the working dies twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery . I had a wish to execute this work single handed , that I might thus silently reply to those who had questioned my ability for the work . The result , I believe , was satisfactory . = = Original design = = The Type 1 gold dollar depicts a head of Liberty , facing left , with a coronet or tiara on her head bearing her name . Her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states . The reverse features the date and denomination within a wreath , with the name of the nation near the rim . Contemporary reviews of the Type 1 design were generally favorable . The New York Weekly Tribune on May 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the neatest , tiniest , lightest , coin in this country ... it is too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes , and sauerkraut , and salt pork . Oberon might have paid Puck with it for bringing the blossom which bewitched Titania . " Willis ' Bank Note List stated that " there is no probability of them ever getting into general circulation ; they are altogether too small . " The North Carolina Standard hoped that they would be struck at the Charlotte Mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @-@ denomination bank notes from out of state . Coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers notes that the head of Liberty on the Type 1 dollar is a scaled @-@ down version of that on the double eagle , and " a nicely preserved gold dollar is beautiful to behold " . = = Modifications = = Mint records indicate the first gold dollars were produced on May 7 , 1849 ; Longacre 's diary notes state instead that the first were struck on May 8 . A few coins in proof condition were struck on the first day , along with about 1 @,@ 000 for circulation . There are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from Philadelphia , made as Longacre continued to fine @-@ tune the design . Mintmarked dies were sent by Longacre 's Engraving Department at the Philadelphia Mint to the branch mints at Charlotte , Dahlonega ( in Georgia ) , and New Orleans ; coins struck at the branches resemble some of the types issued from Philadelphia , depending on when the dies were produced . Of the coins struck at the branch mints in 1849 , only pieces struck at Charlotte ( 1849 @-@ C ) exist in multiple varieties ; most are of what is dubbed the " Closed Wreath " variety . Approximately five of the 1849 @-@ C Open Wreath are known ; one , believed the finest surviving specimen , sold at auction for $ 690 @,@ 000 in 2004 , remaining a record for the gold dollar series as of 2013 . One of the changes made during production was the inclusion of Longacre 's initial " L " on the truncation of Liberty 's neck , the first time a U.S. coin intended for full @-@ scale production had borne the initial of its designer . All issues beginning in 1850 bear the Closed Wreath . Beginning in 1854 , the gold dollar was also struck at the new San Francisco Mint . The continued flow of gold from California made silver expensive in terms of gold , and U.S. silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 , a flow that accelerated over the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise . By 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @,@ 042 worth of bullion . As silver coins vanished , the gold dollar became the only federal coin in circulation between the cent and the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 piece ) . As such , it was struck in large numbers and widely circulated . According to Bowers in his book on the denomination , " the years 1850 to 1853 were the high @-@ water mark of the gold dollar , the glory years of the denomination when the little gold coins took the place of half dollars and silver dollars in everyday transactions . " This time came to an end in 1853 when Congress passed an act reducing the weight of most silver coins , allowing new issues of them to circulate . As early as 1851 , New York Congressman William Duer alleged that that Patterson had made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . Patterson retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , George N. Eckert , annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns were struck . Public Ledger reported that although gold dollars would not be struck in annular form , gold half dollars would be , to help fill the need for change . With the new Pierce administration , Thomas M. Pettit took office as Mint Director on March 31 , 1853 . In April , Treasury Secretary James Guthrie wrote to Pettit that there were complaints that the gold dollar was too small , often lost or mistaken for a small silver coin , and enquiring about reports the Mint had experimented with annular dollars . Pettit replied , stating that none had been preserved , but enclosed a silver piece of equivalent size . He noted that while there would be technical difficulties in the production of the annular dollar , these could be overcome . In a letter dated May 10 , Pettit proposed an oval @-@ shaped holed piece , or an angular @-@ shaped coin , which would lessen the production problems . Pettit died suddenly on May 31 ; Guthrie did not let the issue fall , but queried Pettit 's replacement , James Ross Snowden , concerning the issue on June 7 . As U.S. coins were required to bear some device emblematic of liberty , the secretary hoped that artists could be found who could find some such design for an annular coin . The Act of February 21 , 1853 , that had lightened the silver coins also authorized a gold three @-@ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . To ensure that the three @-@ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins , it had been made thinner and wider than it would normally be , and Longacre put a distinctive design with an Indian princess on it . Longacre adapted both the technique and the design for the gold dollar , which was made thinner , and thus wider . An adaptation of Longacre 's princess for the larger gold coin was placed on the dollar , and a similar agricultural wreath on the reverse . The idea of making the gold dollar larger in this way had been suggested in Congress as early as 1852 , and had been advocated by Pettit , but Guthrie 's desire for an annular coin stalled the matter . In May 1854 , Snowden sent Guthrie a letter stating that the difficulties with an annular coin , especially in getting the coins to eject properly from the press , were more than trivial . Nevertheless , the Type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details were brought out . This was due to the high relief of the design — the three Southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece . Many of the Type 2 pieces quickly became illegible , and were sent back to Philadelphia for melting and recoinage . On most surviving specimens , the " 85 " in the date is not fully detailed . The Type 2 gold dollar was struck only at Philadelphia in 1854 and 1855 , at the three Southern branch mints in the latter year , and at San Francisco in 1856 , after the design was designated for replacement . To correct the problems , Longacre enlarged the head of Liberty , making it a scaled @-@ down version of the three @-@ dollar piece , and moved the lettering on the obverse closer to the rim . This improved the metal flow and design sharpness so much that early numismatic scholars assumed the reverse was also altered , though in fact no change was made and the Type 2 and Type 3 reverses are identical . = = = Design of Type 2 and 3 dollars = = = The Type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict Liberty as a Native American princess , with a fanciful feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any Indian tribe . This image is an inexact copy of the design Longacre had made for the three @-@ dollar piece , and is one of a number of versions of Liberty Longacre created based on the Venus Accroupie or Crouching Venus , a sculpture then on display in a Philadelphia museum . For the reverse , Longacre adapted the " agricultural wreath " he had created for the reverse of the three @-@ dollar piece , composed of cotton , corn , tobacco , and wheat , blending the produce of North and South . This wreath would appear , later in the 1850s , on the Flying Eagle cent . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule deprecated the Indian princess design used by Longacre for the obverses of the Types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the three @-@ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a banknote engraver 's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of the Prince of Wales than anything that saw the Western frontiers , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . " = = War years = = The gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s , though mintages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . Only about 51 @,@ 000 gold dollars were produced in 1860 , with over two @-@ thirds of that figure at Philadelphia , just under a third at San Francisco , and 1 @,@ 566 at Dahlonega . Roughly a hundred are known of the last , creating one of the great rarities from Dahlonega in the series . The other candidate for the rarest from that mint is the 1861 @-@ D , with an estimated mintage of 1 @,@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . Two pairs of dies were shipped from Philadelphia to Dahlonega on December 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on January 7 , 1861 , two weeks before Georgia voted to secede from the Union , as the American Civil War began . Under orders from Governor Joseph E. Brown , state militia secured the mint , and at some point , small quantities of dollars and half eagles were produced . Records of how many coins were struck and when have not survived . Since dies crack in time , and all the mints were supplied with them from Philadelphia , coining could not last , and in May 1861 , coins and supplies remaining at Dahlonega were turned over to the treasury of the Confederate States of America , which Georgia had by then joined . Gold coins with a face value of $ 6 were put aside for assay . Normally , they would have been sent to Philadelphia to await the following year 's meeting of the United States Assay Commission , when they would be available for testing . Instead , these were sent to the initial Confederate capital of Montgomery , Alabama , though what was done with them there , and their ultimate fate , are unknown . The rarity of the 1861 @-@ D dollar , and the association with the Confederacy , make it especially prized . Dahlonega , like the other two branch mints in the South , closed its doors after the 1861 strikings . It and the Charlotte facility never reopened ; the New Orleans Mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold dollars again . After 1861 , the only issuance of gold dollars outside Philadelphia was at San Francisco , in 1870 . The outbreak of the Civil War shook public confidence in the Union , and citizens began hoarding specie , gold and silver coins . In late December 1861 , banks and then the federal Treasury stopped paying out gold at face value . By mid @-@ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , had vanished from commerce in much of the country . The exception was the Far West , where for the most part , only gold and silver were acceptable currencies , and paper money traded at a discount . In the rest of the nation , gold and silver coins could be purchased from banks , exchange agents , and from the Treasury for a premium in the new greenbacks the government began to issue to fill the gap in commerce and finance the war . = = Final years , abolition , and collecting = = Since gold did not circulate in the United States ( except on the West Coast ) in the postwar period , much of the production of coins of that metal in the United States was double eagles for export . Accordingly , although 1 @,@ 361 @,@ 355 gold dollars were struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a million — the mintage fell to 6 @,@ 200 in 1863 and remained low for the rest of the coin 's existence , excepting 1873 and 1874 . The Mint felt it improper to suspend coinage of a coin authorized by Congress , and issued proof coins ( generally a few dozen to the tiny numismatic community ) from specially @-@ polished dies , also producing enough circulation strikes so that the proof coins would not be unduly rare . In 1873 and 1874 , old and worn gold dollars held by the government were melted and recoined , generating large mintages of that denomination . This was done in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments , which did not occur until the end of 1878 . Once specie again circulated at face value , the gold dollar found no place in commerce amid large quantities of silver coinage , either released from hoarding or newly struck by the Mint . The government expected that the resumption of specie payments would cause the dollar and other small gold coins to circulate again , but the public , allowed to redeem paper currency , continued to use it as more convenient than coins . In the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @-@ mintage gold dollar . Collecting coins was becoming more popular , and a number of numismatists put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . The Mint most likely channeled its production through some favored Philadelphia dealers , though proof coins could be purchased for $ 1 @.@ 25 at the cashier 's window at the Philadelphia facility . Banks charged a premium for circulation strikes . They were popular in the jewelry trade , mounted into various items . The coins were often exported to China or Japan , where such jewelry was made . The dollars were often damaged in the process ; the Mint refused to sell into this trade and did its best to hinder it . Nevertheless , Mint officials concluded that jewelers were successful at getting the majority of each issue . Proof mintages exceeded 1 @,@ 000 by 1884 , and remained above that mark for the remainder of the series , numbers likely inflated by agents of jewelers , willing to pay the Mint 's premium of $ .25 per coin . Another use for the gold dollar was as a holiday gift ; after its abolition the quarter eagle became a popular present . James Pollock , in his final report as Mint Director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to depositors who specifically requested it . " The gold dollar is not a convenient coin , on account of its small size , and it suffers more proportionately from abrasion than larger coins . " His successors called for its abolition , with James P. Kimball , before he left office in 1889 , writing to Congress that except as jewelry , " little practical use has been found for this coin " . Later that year , the new director , Edward O. Leech , issued a report stating that the gold dollar " is too small for circulation , and ... [ is ] used almost exclusively for the purposes of ornament . The last year in which the gold dollar was struck was 1889 . Congress abolished the gold dollar , along with the three @-@ cent nickel and three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 . A total of 19 @,@ 499 @,@ 337 gold dollars were coined , of which 18 @,@ 223 @,@ 438 were struck at Philadelphia , 1 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 at New Orleans , 109 @,@ 138 at Charlotte , 90 @,@ 232 at San Francisco and 72 @,@ 529 at Dahlonega . According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of The Numismatist , gold dollars brought $ 1 @.@ 80 each , still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry . That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold dollars into a bank ; the teller , aware of the value , credited the account with $ 1 @.@ 60 per coin . In 1908 , a dealer offered $ 2 each for any quantity . As coin collecting became a widespread pastime in the early 20th century , gold dollars became a popular specialty , a status they retain . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins rates the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition ( VF @-@ 20 ) at $ 300 , a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853 . Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the Type 2 , with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $ 350 in that condition ; the other two types have dates valued at $ 300 in that grade . = = Commemorative gold dollars = = The gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of Early United States commemorative coins . Between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues were produced , with a total mintage of 99 @,@ 799 . These were minted for various public events , did not circulate , and none used Longacre 's design .

= Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction = The Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the Corey – Chaykovsky reaction or CCR ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of epoxides , aziridines , and cyclopropanes . It was discovered in 1961 by A. William Johnson and developed significantly by E. J. Corey and Michael Chaykovsky . The reaction involves addition of a sulfur ylide to a ketone , aldehyde , imine , or enone to produce the corresponding 3 @-@ membered ring . The reaction is diastereoselective favoring trans substitution in the product regardless of the initial stereochemistry . The synthesis of epoxides via this method serves as an important retrosynthetic alternative to the traditional epoxidation reactions of olefins . The reaction is most often employed for epoxidation via methylene transfer , and to this end has been used in several notable total syntheses ( See Synthesis of epoxides below ) . Additionally detailed below are the history , mechanism , scope , and enantioselective variants of the reaction . Several reviews have been published . = = History = = The original publication by Johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @-@ dimethylsulfonium fluorenylide with substituted benzaldehyde derivatives . The attempted Wittig @-@ like reaction failed and a benzalfluorene oxide was obtained instead , noting that " Reaction between the sulfur ylid and benzaldehydes did not afford benzalfluorenes as had the phosphorus and arsenic ylids . " The subsequent development of ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SOCH2 and ( dimethylsulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SCH2 ( known as Corey – Chaykovsky reagents ) by Corey and Chaykovsky as efficient methylene @-@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon . = = Mechanism = = The reaction mechanism for the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction consists of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to the carbonyl or imine group . A negative charge is transferred to the heteroatom and because the sulfonium cation is a good leaving group it gets expelled forming the ring . In the related Wittig reaction , the formation of the much stronger phosphorus @-@ oxygen double bond prevents oxirane formation and instead , olefination takes place through a 4 @-@ membered cyclic intermediate . The trans diastereoselectivity observed results from the reversibility of the initial addition , allowing equilibration to the favored anti betaine over the syn betaine . Initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine with adjacent charges ; density functional theory calculations have shown that the rate @-@ limiting step is rotation of the central bond into the conformer necessary for backside attack on the sulfonium . The degree of reversibility in the initial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) depends on four factors , with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity : Stability of the substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by favoring the starting material over the betaine . Stability of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility . Steric hindrance in the betaine with greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by disfavoring formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @-@ limiting rotation of the central bond . Solvation of charges in the betaine by counterions such as lithium with greater solvation allowing more facile rotation in the betaine intermediate , lowering the amount of reversibility . = = Scope = = The application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction in organic synthesis is diverse . The reaction has come to encompass reactions of many types of sulfur ylides with electrophiles well beyond the original publications . It has seen use in a number of high @-@ profile total syntheses , as detailed below , and is generally recognized as a powerful transformative tool in the organic repertoire . = = = Types of ylides = = = Many types of ylides can be prepared with various functional groups both on the anionic carbon center and on the sulfur . The substitution pattern can influence the ease of preparation for the reagents ( typically from the sulfonium halide , e.g. trimethylsulfonium iodide ) and overall reaction rate in various ways . The general format for the reagent is shown on the right . Use of a sulfoxonium allows more facile preparation of the reagent using weaker bases as compared to sulfonium ylides . ( The difference being that a sulfoxonium contains a doubly bonded oxygen whereas the sulfonium does not . ) The former react slower due to their increased stability . In addition , the dialkylsulfoxide by @-@ products of sulfoxonium reagents are greatly preferred to the significantly more toxic , volatile , and odorous dialkylsulfide by @-@ products from sulfonium reagents . The vast majority of reagents are monosubstituted at the ylide carbon ( either R1 or R2 as hydrogen ) . Disubstituted reagents are much rarer but have been described : If the ylide carbon is substituted with an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( EWG ) , the reagent is referred to as a stabilized ylide . These , similarly to sulfoxonium reagents , react much slower and are typically easier to prepare . These are limited in their usefulness as the reaction can become prohibitively sluggish : examples involving amides are widespread , with many fewer involving esters and virtually no examples involving other EWG 's . For these , the related Darzens reaction is typically more appropriate . If the ylide carbon is substituted with an aryl or allyl group , the reagent is referred to as a semi @-@ stabilized ylide . These have been developed extensively , second only to the classical methylene reagents ( R1 = R2 = H ) . The substitution pattern on aryl reagents can heavily influence the selectivity of the reaction as per the criteria above . If the ylide carbon is substituted with an alkyl group the reagent is referred to as an unstabilized ylide . The size of the alkyl groups are the major factors in selectivity with these reagents . The R @-@ groups on the sulfur , though typically methyls , have been used to synthesize reagents that can perform enantioselective variants of the reaction ( See Variations below ) . The size of the groups can also influence diastereoselectivity in alicyclic substrates . = = = Synthesis of epoxides = = = Reactions of sulfur ylides with ketones and aldehydes to form epoxides are by far the most common application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction . Examples involving complex substrates and ' exotic ' ylides have been reported , as shown below . The reaction has been used in a number of notable total syntheses including the Danishefsky Taxol total synthesis , which produces the chemotherapeutic drug taxol , and the Kuehne Strychnine total synthesis which produces the pesticide strychnine . = = = Synthesis of aziridines = = = The synthesis of aziridines from imines is another important application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction and provides an alternative to amine transfer from oxaziridines . Though less widely applied , the reaction has a similar substrate scope and functional group tolerance to the carbonyl equivalent . The examples shown below are representative ; in the latter , an aziridine forms in situ and is opened via nucleophilic attack to form the corresponding amine . = = = Synthesis of cyclopropanes = = = For addition of sulfur ylides to enones , higher 1 @,@ 4 @-@ selectivity is typically obtained with sulfoxonium reagents than with sulfonium reagents . Many electron @-@ withdrawing groups have been shown compatible with the reaction including ketones , esters , and amides ( the example below involves a Weinreb amide ) . With further conjugated systems 1 @,@ 6 @-@ addition tends to predominate over 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition . = = = Other reactions = = = In addition to the reactions originally reported by Johnson , Corey , and Chaykovsky , sulfur ylides have been used for a number of related homologation reactions that tend to be grouped under the same name . With epoxides and aziridines the reaction serves as a ring @-@ expansion to produce the corresponding oxetane or azetidine . The long reaction times required for these reactions prevent them from occurring as significant side reactions when synthesizing epoxides and aziridines . Several cycloadditions wherein the ylide serves as a " nucleophilic carbenoid equivalent " have been reported . Living polymerizations using trialkylboranes as the catalyst and ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide as the monomer have been reported for the synthesis of various complex polymers . = = Enantioselective variations = = The development of an enantioselective ( i.e. yielding an enantiomeric excess , which is labelled as " ee " ) variant of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction remains an active area of academic research . The use of chiral sulfides in a stoichiometric fashion has proved more successful than the corresponding catalytic variants , but the substrate scope is still limited in all cases . The catalytic variants have been developed almost exclusively for enantioselective purposes ; typical organosulfide reagents are not prohibitively expensive and the racemic reactions can be carried out with equimolar amounts of ylide without raising costs significantly . Chiral sulfides , on the other hand , are more costly to prepare , spurring the advancement of catalytic enantioselective methods . = = = Stoichiometric reagents = = = The most successful reagents employed in a stoichiometric fashion are shown below . The first is a bicyclic oxathiane that has been employed in the synthesis of the β @-@ adrenergic compound dichloroisoproterenol ( DCI ) but is limited by the availability of only one enantiomer of the reagent . The synthesis of the axial diastereomer is rationalized via the 1 @,@ 3 @-@ anomeric effect which reduces the nucleophilicity of the equatorial lone pair . The conformation of the ylide is limited by transannular strain and approach of the aldehyde is limited to one face of the ylide by steric interactions with the methyl substituents . The other major reagent is a camphor @-@ derived reagent developed by Varinder Aggarwal of the University of Bristol . Both enantiomers are easily synthesized , although the yields are lower than for the oxathiane reagent . The ylide conformation is determined by interaction with the bridgehead hydrogens and approach of the aldehyde is blocked by the camphor moiety . The reaction employs a phosphazene base to promote formation of the ylide . = = = Catalytic reagents = = = Catalytic reagents have been less successful , with most variations suffering from poor yield , poor enantioselectivity , or both . There are also issues with substrate scope , most having limitations with methylene transfer and aliphatic aldehydes . The trouble stems from the need for a nucleophilic sulfide that efficiently generates the ylide which can also act as a good leaving group to form the epoxide . Since the factors underlying these desiderata are at odds , tuning of the catalyst properties has proven difficult . Shown below are several of the most successful catalysts along with the yields and enantiomeric excess for their use in synthesis of ( E ) -stilbene oxide . Aggarwal has developed an alternative method employing the same sulfide as above and a novel alkylation involving a rhodium carbenoid formed in situ . The method too has limited substrate scope , failing for any electrophiles possessing basic substituents due to competitive consumption of the carbenoid .

= Treaty of Ciudad Juárez = The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was a peace treaty signed between the then President of Mexico , Porfirio Díaz , and the revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21 , 1911 . The treaty put an end to the fighting between forces supporting Madero and those of Díaz and thus concluded the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution . The treaty stipulated that Díaz , as well as his vice president Ramón Corral , were to step down by the end of May , and that he was to be replaced by Francisco León de la Barra as interim president and hold presidential elections . Those who had suffered losses due to the revolution would be the indemnified , and there would be a general amnesty . Díaz resigned on May 25 , and interim president Francisco León de la Barra was the new incumbent . Díaz and his family , his vice president Corral , plus José Yves Limantour and Rosendo Pineda left Mexico for exile . Significantly , the treaty did not mention or institute any social reforms that Madero had vaguely promised on previous occasions . It also left the Porfirian state essentially intact . Additionally , Madero supported the unpopular idea that all land disputes were to be settled through the courts , staffed by the old judges , a decision that led to outbreaks of sporadic violence , particularly in rural areas . On June 7 , 1911 , Madero entered Mexico City . In October 1911 he was elected president , under the banner of the Partido Constitucional Progresista , along with José María Pino Suárez , his new running mate as vice @-@ president . Madero pushed aside Francisco Vázquez Gómez , the vice presidential candidate for the Anti @-@ Reelectionist Party in 1910 , as being too moderate . = = Military developments leading up to the treaty = = The rebellion against the government of Porfirio Díaz broke out in late 1910 , after Díaz had his rival Francisco Madero imprisoned and had announced his own victory in a falsified election . Madero 's earlier vague promises of agrarian reforms had attracted many supporters . He himself escaped from prison and fled to Texas , from where he issued his famous Plan of San Luis Potosí . This manifesto called for an armed uprising against the Porfiriato and establishment of free and democratic elections . As a response to Madero 's proclamation , violent clashes began throughout Mexico in November 1910 . In the Guerrero district of Chihuahua , Pascual Orozco attacked Federal troops and sent dead soldiers ' clothing back to Díaz with the message , " Ahí te van las hojas , mándame más tamales " ( " Here are the wrappers , send me more tamales . " ) He then began operations which threatened Ciudad Juárez . Additionally , political support for Madero 's rebellion came from Abraham González , who accepted the Plan of San Luis Potosí . At roughly the same time , agrarian unrest in the state of Morelos turned into a full blown rebellion under the leadership of the Zapata brothers , Emiliano and Eufemio . = = = Orozco and Villa take Ciudad Juárez = = = Encouraged by the news of the uprisings , Madero crossed the border back into Mexico in February 1911 . He was joined by Pancho Villa and Orozco and in April the army began approaching Ciudad Juárez . Orozco and Villa led the way with 500 men each , while Madero followed up with 1 @,@ 500 riders . The city was besieged by the end of the month , after Madero 's army encountered some resistance in the Chihuahuan countryside . Madero asked the commander of the city 's garrison to surrender but the latter refused , hoping that the fortifications he had constructed would allow him to defend the city until reinforcements arrived . Concerned also with the possibility that a direct attack on the town would cause artillery shells to cross the border into the United States which could provoke an outside intervention , and faced with a series of peace proposals from Díaz , Madero hesitated in attacking the city . He in fact ordered his commanders to lift the siege . Orozco , however disregarded the order and , joined by Villa , attacked . After two days of fighting the city fell to the insurrectionists . Madero intervened personally to spare the life of the city 's commander , Gen. Navarro , whom both Orozco and Villa wanted executed for his previous killing of rebel POWs . This , coupled with the fact that both leaders were ignored by Madero in his political appointments , outraged and estranged them from him . = = = Zapata in south and central Mexico = = = At about the same time that Villa and Orozco were marching on Ciudad Juárez , the Zapatista revolt gathered strength and spread to the states of Puebla , Tlaxcala , Mexico , Michoacán and Guerrero . On April 14 , Madero had Emiliano Zapata officially designated as his representative in the region . However , Zapata was worried that if he did not fully control all the major towns in Morelos by the time that Madero concluded negotiations with Díaz , the demands of his agrarian movement and the issue of the autonomy of Morelos would be ignored or sidelined . Zapata 's first military action was to take the town of Chinameca where he obtained essential supplies . Subsequently Zapata , for political and strategic reasons , decided to attack the city of Cuautla . In order to mislead his opponents however , he initially attacked and captured the towns of Izúcar de Matamoros ( which was subsequently retaken by federal forces ) and Chietla . From there he made a wide circle around Cuautla and captured Yautepec and Jonacatepec where he gathered more supplies , munitions and soldiers . By May , out of all the major urban centers in the region , only Cuautla and the capital of Morelos , Cuernavaca , remained outside of his control . Zapata began the attack on Cuautla on May 13 with 4000 troops against 400 elite soldiers of the so @-@ called " Golden Fifth " ; the Fifth Cavalry Regiment of the Federal Army . The battle took almost a week and has been described as " six of the most terrible days of battle in the whole Revolution " . It consisted of house to house fighting , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and no quarter given by either side . General Victoriano Huerta arrived in nearby Cuernavaca with 600 reinforcements , but decided not to come to the relief of Cuautla as he was afraid that the capital would revolt in his absence . On May 19 , the remains of the " Golden Fifth " pulled out of the town which was then occupied by Zapata 's soldiers . The successful capture of Cuautla made Zapata a hero to ordinary people throughout Mexico and new corridos were written about him . After Zapata 's taking of Cuautla , the federal government controlled only five states and some urban areas . Porfirio Díaz himself later stated that , while he felt that he could defend against Villa and Orozco in Chihuahua , the fall of Cuautla was the event which persuaded him to agree to peace with Madero . = = The compromise = = As early as March 1911 , Madero 's representatives met in New York with Díaz 's finance minister , José Yves Limantour , and the Mexican ambassador to the US in order to discuss the possibility of peace between the two sides . Limantour proposed an end to the hostilities and offered an amnesty for all revolutionaries , the resignation of the then vice president Ramón Corral , the replacement of four Díaz cabinet ministers and ten state governors by ones chosen by Madero , and the establishment of the principle of " no @-@ reelection " which would prevent Díaz from seeking yet another term as president ( which would have been his ninth ) . Madero responded positively although he also stated that any kind of peace deal had to include an immediate resignation by Díaz . Faced with the siege of Ciudad Juárez and the outbreak of rebellion in Morelos , Díaz and members of his cabinet became more willing to negotiate and launched a " skillful peace offensive " aimed at Madero . This was largely a result of panic among the large landowners associated with the Díaz regime ( the hacendados ) and the financial elite , which represented a " moderate " wing within the government . Some among the Porfiristas in fact , expected that Zapata would soon march on Mexico City itself , unless peace was concluded with Madero . The moderate view within the Díaz government was represented by Jorge Vera Estañol who in a memo to the minister of foreign affairs wrote that there were two revolutions taking place in Mexico : a political revolution , based mostly in the north , whose aim was mostly to establish free elections and remove Díaz himself from power , and a social revolution whose aim was " anarchy " which was spreading throughout the Mexican countryside . Estañol recommended coming to terms with the first group of revolutionaries , by agreeing to the principle of no re @-@ election and a general amnesty , in order to prevent the second group from succeeding . In addition to his fear of " anarchy " , Estañol was also worried that the social revolution would lead to a military intervention by the United States . Estañol 's views represented those of the portion of the upper class which was willing to come to terms with at least a portion of the middle class in order to crush the peasant uprisings , as exemplified by those of Zapata , which were erupting throughout Mexico . Limantour , who broadly agreed with Estañol , had the support of the Mexican financiers , who feared the downgrading of Mexican international credit and a general economic crisis as a result of ongoing social unrest , as well as that of the large landowners who were willing to come to terms with Madero if it would put an end to the agrarian uprisings . These social group were in turn opposed by the more reactionary elements within Díaz 's government , mostly concentrated in the federal army , who though that the rebels should be dealt with through brute force . This faction was represented by General Victoriano Huerta , who would later carry out an attempted coup d 'état against Madero . Likewise , the general , and potential successor to Díaz , Bernardo Reyes stated in a letter to Limantour that " the repression ( against the insurrectionists ) should be carried out with the greates energy , punishing without any pity anyone participating in the armed struggle " . In the end however , Díaz dismissed the advice from his generals as " Custer @-@ like bluster " and chose to seek peace with the moderate wing of the revolution . Limantour had finally managed to persuade him to resign . At the same time there was also disagreement among the rebels . The " left wing " of the revolutionary movement , represented by Zapata and Orozco ( Villa for the time being tended to support Madero ) , warned against any possible compromises with Díaz . In the end their suspicions proved correct as the treaty that was eventually signed neglected issues of social and agrarian land reform that were central to their struggle . = = The treaty 's terms = = The most significant point of the treaty was that Porfirio Díaz , and his vice president , Ramón Corral , resign and that de la Barra , acting as interim president organize free elections as soon as possible . Additionally , the treaty stipulated that : An amnesty for all revolutionaries be declared , with the option for some of them to apply for membership in the rurales . The revolutionary forces were to be demobilized as soon as possible and the federal forces were to be the only army in Mexico . This was in order to appease the army , which had opposed a compromise with Madero . Madero and his supporters had the right to name fourteen provisional state governors , and to approve la Barra 's cabinet . Pensions were to be established for relatives of the soldiers who had died fighting the rebels . Policemen and judges , as well as state legislators , that had been appointed or " elected " under Díaz were to retain their offices . = = Implementation and results = = The treaty was signed on May 21 . Díaz resigned accordingly on May 25 . Francisco de la Barra became the interim president . Madero entered Mexico City on June 7 . Zapata however refused to recognize the interim government of de la Barra , and for the time being the fighting in Morelos continued . Madero met with Zapata on several occasions during June . While initially Zapata trusted Madero , with time he became increasingly concerned that the goals of " his revolution " were not being fulfilled . He was particularly angry that Madero did not plan on carrying out any kind of agrarian reform , or the breakup of large hacendias . Additionally , the press in Mexico City , controlled by the landowners began referring to Zapata as a bandit and federal generals , such as Huerta , continued attacking his troops under the pretext that Zapata failed to demobilize in violation of the treaty . Sporadic fighting in southern Mexico continued . In November 1911 , shortly after Madero 's inauguration , Zapata issued the famous Plan of Ayala , in which the Zapatistas denounced Madero and instead recognized Pascual Orozco as the rightful president and leader of the revolution . Madero also earned the great displeasure of other revolutionaries , including , Pascual Orozco . Madero 's first act after the treaty was signed was a gesture of reconciliation with the Díaz regime . As a result of the treaty he was given the right to appoint members of the la Barra cabinet . He chose mostly upper class Maderistas , including his wife for the post in the treasury . He also maintained the existing federal system , by keeping the sitting judges of the Supreme Court , the legislators in federal and state assemblies and the bureaucrats of the various federal agencies . Venustiano Carranza , who was going to become a major revolutionary in his own right and a future president of Mexico , stated that , after the treaty , Madero had " deliver ( ed ) to the reactionaries a dead revolution which will have to be fought over again " . Díaz , after leaving for exile in France , observed that " Madero has unleashed a tiger , let us see if he can control him " . Orozco , who saw himself as being instrumental in Madero 's victory over Díaz , was merely appointed as a commander of the rurales in Chihuahua , which increased his resentment . When he tried to run for governor of the state , Madero supported his opponent , Abraham González and eventually pressured Orozco to drop out of the race . When , in the aftermath of the Plan of Ayala , Madero ordered Orozco to lead federal troops to suppress Zapata , Orozco refused . In March 1912 , Orozco issued his Plan of Empacadora and formally declared himself in rebellion against Madero .

= The Feast of the Goat = The Feast of the Goat ( Spanish : La fiesta del chivo , 2000 ) is a novel by the Peruvian Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Mario Vargas Llosa . The book is set in the Dominican Republic and portrays the assassination of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo , and its aftermath , from two distinct standpoints a generation apart : during and immediately after the assassination itself , in May 1961 ; and thirty five years later , in 1996 . Throughout , there is also extensive reflection on the heyday of the dictatorship , in the 1950s , and its significance for the island and its inhabitants . The novel follows three interwoven storylines . The first concerns a woman , Urania Cabral , who is back in the Dominican Republic , after a long absence , to visit her ailing father ; she ends up recalling incidents from her youth and recounting a long @-@ held secret to her aunt and cousins . The second story line focuses on the last day in Trujillo 's life from the moment he wakes up onwards , and shows us the regime 's inner circle , to which Urania 's father once belonged . The third strand depicts Trujillo 's assassins , many of whom had previously been government loyalists , as they wait for his car late that night ; after the assassination , this story line shows us the assassins ' persecution . Each aspect of the book 's plot reveals a different viewpoint on the Dominican Republic 's political and social environment , past and present . Readers are shown the regime 's downward spiral , Trujillo 's assassination , and its aftermath through the eyes of insiders , conspirators , and a middle @-@ aged woman looking back . The novel is therefore a kaleidoscopic portrait of dictatorial power , including its psychological effects , and its long @-@ term impact . The novel 's themes include the nature of power and corruption , and their relationship to machismo and sexual perversion in a rigidly hierarchical society with strongly gendered roles . Memory , and the process of remembering , is also an important theme , especially in Urania 's narrative as she recalls her youth in the Dominican Republic . Her story ( and the book as a whole ) ends when she recounts the terrible events that led to her leaving the country at the age of 14 . The book itself serves as a reminder of the atrocities of dictatorship , to ensure that the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation . Vargas Llosa interlaces fictional elements and historical events : the book is not a documentary , and the Cabral family , for instance , is completely fictional . On the other hand , the characters of Trujillo and Trujillo 's assassins are drawn from the historical record ; Vargas Llosa weaves real historical incidents of brutality and oppression into these people 's stories , to further illuminate the nature of the regime and the responses it provoked . In Vargas Llosa 's words , " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . [ . . . ] I have respected the basic facts , but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive — and I have not exaggerated . " The Feast of the Goat received largely positive reviews , with several reviewers commenting on the book 's depiction of the relationship between sexuality and power , and on the graphic descriptions of violent events . A film version of the novel was released in 2005 , starring Isabella Rossellini , Paul Freeman , and Tomas Milian . Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana wrote a theatrical adaptation in 2003 . = = Background = = The Feast of the Goat is only the second of Vargas Llosa 's novels to be set outside Peru ( the first being The War of the End of the World ) . It is also unusual because it is the first to have a female protagonist : as critic Lynn Walford writes of the leading character in The Feast of the Goat , and also Vargas Llosa 's subsequent book The Way to Paradise , " both are utterly unlike any of the other female characters in his previous novels " . The novel examines the dictatorial regime of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina in the Dominican Republic . Trujillo was , in historian Eric Roorda 's words , " a towering influence in Dominican and Caribbean history " who presided over " one of the most durable regimes of the twentieth century " during the thirty @-@ one years between his seizure of power in 1930 and his assassination in 1961 . Trujillo had trained with the United States Marine Corps during the United States occupation of the island , and graduated from the Haina Military Academy in 1921 . After the U.S. departed in 1924 , he became head of the Dominican National Police which , under his command , was transformed into the Dominican National Army and Trujillo 's personal " virtually autonomous power base " . Trujillo was officially dictator only from 1930 to 1938 , and from 1942 to 1952 , but remained in effective power throughout the entire period . Though his regime was broadly nationalist , Daniel Chirot comments that he had " no particular ideology " and that his economic and social policies were basically progressive . The novel 's title is taken from the popular Dominican merengue Mataron al chivo ( " They Killed the Goat " ) , which refers to Trujillo 's assassination on May 30 , 1961 . Merengue is a style of music created by Ñico Lora in the 1920s and actively promoted by Trujillo himself ; it is now considered the country 's national music . Cultural critics Julie Sellers and Stephen Ropp comment about this particular merengue that , by envisaging the dictator as an animal who could be turned into a stew ( as frequently happened with goats struck down on the Dominican Republic 's highways ) , the song " gave those performing , listening to and dancing to this merengue a sense of control over him and over themselves that they had not experienced for over three decades . " Vargas Llosa quotes the lyrics to Mataron al chivo at the beginning of the novel . = = Plot summary = = The novel 's narrative is divided into three distinct strands . One is centred on Urania Cabral , a fictional Dominican character ; another deals with the conspirators involved in Trujillo 's assassination ; and the third focuses on Trujillo himself . The novel alternates between these storylines , and also jumps back and forth from 1961 to 1996 , with frequent flashbacks to periods earlier in Trujillo 's regime . The Feast of the Goat begins with the return of Urania to her hometown of Santo Domingo , a city which had been renamed Ciudad Trujillo during Trujillo 's time in power . This storyline is largely introspective and deals with Urania 's memories and her inner turmoil over the events preceding her departure from the Dominican Republic thirty @-@ five years earlier . Urania escaped the crumbling Trujillo regime in 1961 by claiming she planned to study under the tutelage of nuns in Michigan . In the following decades , she becomes a prominent and successful New York lawyer . She finally returns to the Dominican Republic in 1996 , on a whim , and finds herself compelled to confront her father and elements of her past she has long ignored . As Urania speaks to her ailing father , Agustin Cabral , she recalls more and more of the anger and disgust that led to her thirty @-@ five years of silence . Urania retells her father 's descent into political disgrace , and the betrayal that forms the crux of both Urania 's storyline and that of Trujillo himself . The second and third storylines are set in 1961 , in the weeks prior to and following Trujillo 's assassination on 30 May . Each assassin has his own background story , explaining his motivation for his involvement in the assassination plot . Each has been wronged by Trujillo and his regime , by torture and brutality , or through assaults on their pride , their religious faith , their morality , or their loved ones . Vargas Llosa weaves the tale of the men as memories recalled on the night of Trujillo 's death , as the conspirators lie in wait for " The Goat " . Interconnected with these stories are the actions of other famous Trujillistas of the time : Joaquín Balaguer , the puppet president ; Johnny Abbes García , the merciless head of the Military Intelligence Service ( SIM ) ; and various others — some real , some composites of historical figures , and some purely fictional . The third storyline is concerned with the thoughts and motives of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina himself . The chapters concerning The Goat recall the major events of his time , including the slaughter of thousands of Dominican Haitians in 1937 . They also deal with the Dominican Republic 's tense international relationships during the Cold War , especially with the United States under the presidency of John F. Kennedy , and Cuba under Castro . Vargas Llosa also speculates upon Trujillo 's innermost thoughts and paints a picture of a man whose physical body is failing him . Trujillo is tormented by incontinence and impotence ; and this storyline intersects with Urania 's narrative when it is revealed that Urania was sexually assaulted by Trujillo . He is unable to achieve an erection with Urania , and in frustration and anger he rapes her with his hands . This event is the core of Urania 's shame , and her hatred towards her father . In addition , it is the cause of Trujillo 's repeated anger over the " anemic little bitch " that witnessed his impotence and emotion , and the reason he is en route to sleep with another girl on the night of his assassination . In the novel 's final chapters , the three storylines intersect with increasing frequency . The tone of these chapters is especially dark as they deal primarily with the horrific torture and death of the assassins at the hands of the SIM , the failure of the coup , the rape of Urania , and the concessions made to Trujillo 's most vicious supporters allowing them to enact their horrific revenge on the conspirators and then escape the country . The book ends as Urania prepares to return home , determined this time to keep in touch with her family back on the island . = = Characters = = = = = Modern day = = = Urania Cabral and her father Agustín Cabral appear in both the modern day and historical portions of the novel . In the year 1996 , Urania returns to the Dominican Republic for the first time since her departure at the age of 14 . She is a successful New York lawyer who has spent most of the past 35 years trying to overcome the traumas of her childhood , a goal she pursues through an academic fascination with Trujillo and Dominican history . Urania is deeply troubled by the events of her past , and is compelled to confront her father Agustín about his role in those events . Urania visits her father , finding him weakened by age and a severe stroke , so much so that he is barely able to respond physically to her presence , let alone speak . Agustín listens helplessly as Urania recounts his past as " Egghead Cabral " , a high @-@ ranking member of Trujillo 's inner circle , and his drastic fall from grace . Urania details Agustín 's role in the events that led to her rape by the Dominican leader , and to her subsequent lifetime of celibacy and emotional trauma . Agustín 's character in the modern day portion of the novel serves primarily as a sounding board for Urania 's recollections of the Trujillo era and the events that surrounded both Agustín Cabral 's disgrace and Urania 's escape from the country . His responses are minimal and non @-@ vocal , despite the ardency of Urania 's accusations and the enormity of his own actions during Trujillo 's reign . = = = The Trujillo regime = = = Rafael Trujillo , known also as The Goat , The Chief , and The Benefactor , is a fictionalized character based on the real dictator of the Dominican Republic from 1930 to 1961 and the official President of the Republic from 1930 to 1938 and 1943 to 1952 . In The Feast of the Goat , Vargas Llosa imagines the innermost thoughts of the dictator , and retells The Goat 's last hours from his own perspective . Trujillo 's character struggles with aging and the physical problems of incontinence and impotence . Through fictional events and first person narrative , the reader is given insight into the man who , during his " thirty @-@ one years of horrendous political crimes " , modernized the country 's infrastructure and military , but whose regime 's attacks against its enemies overseas ( particularly the attempted assassination of Rómulo Betancourt , president of Venezuela ) led to the imposition of economic sanctions on the Dominican Republic by the Organization of American States in the 1950s . The resultant economic downturn , in conjunction with other factors , leads to the CIA supported assassination plot that ends Trujillo 's life on May 30 , 1961 . Trujillo 's regime is supported by Johnny Abbes García , the head of the Military Intelligence Service ( SIM ) , a brutal man to whom many " disappearances , ... executions , ... sudden falls into disgrace " are attributed . Abbes and his intelligence officers are notorious for their cruelty , particularly their habit of killing dissidents by throwing them into shark @-@ infested waters . Colonel Abbes " may be the devil , but he 's useful to the Chief ; everything bad is attributed to him and only the good to Trujillo " . Trujillo 's son , Ramfis Trujillo , is a loyal supporter of the Chief . After unsuccessful attempts at schooling in the United States , Ramfis returns to the Dominican Republic to serve in his father 's military . He is a well @-@ known womanizer . Upon Trujillo 's death , Ramfis seeks revenge , even going so far as to torture and kill his uncle by marriage , General Jose Roman , for his part in the assassination conspiracy . Joaquín Balaguer , Trujillo 's puppet president is also a supporter , and initially his seemingly innocuous character holds no real power . Following Trujillo 's death , the calm and serenity of Balaguer bring about real change in his character , and General Román comments that " this insignificant man whom everyone had always considered a mere clerk , a purely decorative figure in the regime , began to acquire surprising authority " . It is Balaguer who guides much of the action in the last sections of the book . = = = Conspirators = = = The storyline concerning the assassination primarily follows the four conspirators who directly participate in Trujillo 's death . Antonio Imbert Barrera is one of the few conspirators who survives the violent reprisals that follow Trujillo 's assassination . Imbert is a politician who becomes disillusioned with the deception and cruelty of the Trujillo regime . His first plan to kill Trujillo was foiled by the unsuccessful attempted overthrow of the regime by Cuban paramilitary forces . Now convinced of the difficulty of his task , Imbert joins the other conspirators in plotting Trujillo 's death . Among the others is Antonio de la Maza , one of Trujillo 's personal guards . Antonio 's brother is killed as part of a government cover @-@ up and Antonio swears revenge upon Trujillo . Salvador Estrella Sadhalá , known as " Turk " , is a devout Catholic who , in indignation at the regime 's many crimes against God , swears an oath against Trujillo . Turk eventually turns himself in for fear that the regime was torturing his family . Both Turk and his innocent brother are then tortured for months . His father remains loyal to Trujillo and disowns Turk to his face . Despite all of this , Turk refuses to commit suicide and does not lose faith in God . He is later executed by Ramfis and other high level government men . Turk 's close friend , Amado García Guerrero , known as Amadito , is a Lieutenant in the army who gave up his beloved as proof of his loyalty to Trujillo , and then later was forced to kill her brother to prove himself to Trujillo . Amadito 's disgust with himself and disillusionment with the regime lead to his decision to help to kill Trujillo . Following the assassination he hides out with de la Maza and dies fighting . In the aftermath of the assassination , Amadito and Antonio de la Maza choose to fight the members of SIM who come to arrest them , opting to die in battle rather than be captured and tortured . = = Major themes = = The Feast of the Goat 's major themes include political corruption , machismo , memory , and writing and power . Olga Lorenzo , reviewer for The Melbourne Age , suggests that overall Vargas Llosa 's aim is to reveal the irrational forces of Latin tradition that give rise to despotism . = = = Political corruption = = = The structure of Dominican society was hierarchical , with strongly gendered roles . Rafael Trujillo , the ruler , was a cruel dictator who haunts the people of Santo Domingo even 35 years after his death . He is a true caudillo , ruling with brutality and corruption . He creates a personality cult in his capitalist society and encourages decadence within his regime . Prior to promotion to a position of responsibility , an officer is required to pass a " test of loyalty " . His people are to remain loyal to him all cost , and are periodically tested by public humiliation and censure even though acts of disloyalty were rare . Trujillo violates women and children as an expression of political and sexual power , and in some cases takes the wife or child of his lieutenants , many of whom still remain blindly loyal . Even the church and military institutions are employed to give women to the tyrant for pleasure . Many of the assassins had belonged to the Trujillo regime or had at one point been its staunch supporters , only to find their support for him eroded by the state 's crimes against its people . Imbert , one of the assassins , sums up this realization in a comment prompted by the murder of the Mirabal sisters : " They kill our fathers , our brothers , our friends . And now they 're killing our women . And here we sit , resigned , waiting our turn . " In an interview , Vargas Llosa describes the corruption and brutality of Trujillo 's regime : " He had more or less all the common traits of a Latin American dictator , but pushed to the extreme . In cruelty , I think he went far far away from the rest — and in corruption , too . " = = = Machismo = = = According to literary scholar Peter Anthony Niessa , the two important components of machismo are aggressive behaviour and hyper @-@ sexuality . Aggressive behaviour is exhibited by displays of power and strength , while hyper @-@ sexuality is revealed through sexual activity with as many partners as possible . These two components shape the portrayal of Trujillo and his regime in The Feast of the Goat . As Lorenzo observes , Vargas Llosa " reveals traditions of machismo , of abusive fathers , and of child @-@ rearing practices that repeat the shaming of children , so that each generation bequeaths a withering of the soul to the subsequent one . " In a display of both aspects of machismo , Trujillo demanded of his aides and cabinet that they provide him with sexual access to their wives and daughters . Mario Vargas Llosa wrote of Trujillo 's machismo and treatment of women , " [ h ] e went to bed with his ministers ' wives , not only because he liked these ladies but because it was a way to test his ministers . He wanted to know if they were ready to accept this extreme humiliation . Mainly the ministers were prepared to play this grotesque role — and they remained loyal to Trujillo even after his death . " Trujillo 's sexual conquests and public humiliations of his enemies also serve to affirm his political power and machismo . In Niessa 's words , " The implication is that maximum virility equals political dominance . " Trujillo 's attempted sexual conquest of Urania is an example of both political manipulation of Agustín Cabral and sexual power over young women . However , as Trujillo 's penis remains flaccid throughout the encounter and he is humiliated in front of the young girl , the encounter fails to satisfy his requirements for machismo . = = = Memory = = = All of the novel 's storylines concern memory in some sense or another . The most apparent confrontation of memory is on the part of Urania Cabral , who has returned to the Dominican Republic for the first time in 30 years , and is forced to confront her father and the traumas that led her to leave the country at 14 . She was the victim of sexual abuse at the hands of the dictator himself , a sacrifice her father made to try to gain favor with the dictator again , a fact to which she alludes throughout the book , but which is only revealed at the very end : the book concludes with her recounting the memory of that night to her aunt and cousins , who never knew the true reason she left the country . When her aunt is surprised that she remembers all these details , she responds that while she forgets many things , " I remember everything about that night . " For Urania , forgetting the atrocities committed by the regime is unacceptable . Her father , on the other hand , is not capable of joining her in this process of remembering , since he has suffered a stroke and is not capable of speaking ; however , Urania is angry that he chose to forget these things while he was still capable of acknowledging them . Memory is also important in the sections of the novel that deal with the assassins . Each recalls the events that led him to take part in the assassination of Trujillo . These incidents included the 1956 Galindez kidnapping and murder , the 1960 murder of the Mirabal sisters , and the 1961 split with the Catholic Church . These historical events are used by Vargas Llosa to connect the assassins with specific moments that demonstrate the violence of Trujillo 's regime . Trujillo , too , is shown reflecting on the past , not least his own formation and training at the hands of the US Marines . But above all Mario Vargas Llosa uses the fictional Urania to facilitate the novel 's attempt at remembering the regime . The novel opens and closes with Urania 's story , effectively framing the narrative in the terms of remembering the past and understanding its legacy in the present . In addition , because of her academic study of the history of the Trujillo regime , Urania is also confronting the memory of the regime for the country as a whole . This is in keeping with one purpose of the book , which is to ensure that the atrocities of the dictatorship and the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation . = = = Writing and power = = = In her treatment of the novel , María Regina Ruiz claims that power gives its wielder the ability to make prohibitions ; prohibitions that are reflected in history , the study of which reveals what is and what is not told . The government 's actions in The Feast of the Goat demonstrate the discourse of prohibition : foreign newspapers and magazines were prohibited from entering Trujillo 's country as they were seen as a threat to the government 's ideas . Mario Vargas Llosa takes part in this discourse by recounting what was prohibited . Ruiz notes that writing also has the power to transform reality . It brings the reader back to the past , allowing the reader to comprehend myths or distorted stories told by historians . Ruiz contends that knowing the past is crucial to one 's understanding of the present that takes us to postmodernism , and argues that The Feast of the Goat can thus be seen as a postmodern discourse that gives power to history recreation . The construction of fictions surrounding the events of Trujillo 's regime allow a degree of freedom from the horrors that took places . Author Julia Alvarez contends that these events can " only finally be understood by fiction , only finally be redeemed by the imagination " , while Richard Patterson claims that Vargas Llosa " reconfigures , and to a large degree demythologizes " Trujillo and his brutal reign through use of narrative structure . Vargas Llosa 's writing acts as a cathartic force for this period in history . = = Fact and fiction = = The novel is a combination of fact and fiction . Blending together these two elements is important in any historical novel , but especially in The Feast of the Goat because Vargas Llosa chose to narrate an actual event through the minds of both real and fictional characters . Some characters are fictional , and those that are non @-@ fictional still have fictionalized aspects in the book . The general details of the assassination are true , and the assassins are all real people . While they lie in wait for the Dictator to arrive , they recount actual crimes of the regime , such as the murder of the Mirabal sisters . However , other details are invented by Vargas Llosa , such as Amadito 's murder of the brother of the woman he loved . Those within the regime are also a mix of fictional characters and real people . President Balaguer is real , but the entire Cabral family is completely fictional . According to Wolff , Vargas Llosa " uses history as a starting point in constructing a fictionalized account of Trujillo 's " spiritual colonization " of the Dominican Republic as experienced by one Dominican family . The fictional Cabral family allows Vargas Llosa to show two sides of the Trujillo regime : through Agustin , the reader sees ultimate dedication and sacrifice to the leader of the nation ; through Urania , the violence of the regime and the legacy of pain it left behind . Vargas Llosa also fictionalized the internal thoughts of the characters who were non @-@ fictional , especially those of the Goat himself . According to literary scholar Richard Patterson , " Vargas Llosa 's expands all the way into the very " dark area " of Trujillo 's consciousness ( as the storyteller dares to conceive it ) . " Vargas Llosa also built an image of the regime with the troubled historical events . With regard to the historical accuracy of the book , Vargas Llosa has said " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . The only limitation I imposed on myself was that I was not going to invent anything that couldn 't have happened within the framework of life in the Dominican Republic . I have respected the basic facts , but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive — and I have not exaggerated . " = = Critical reception = = The realist style of The Feast of the Goat is recognized by some reviewers as being a break from a more allegorical approach to the dictator novel . The novel received largely positive reviews , most of which were willing to accept sacrifices of historical accuracy in favour of good storytelling . A common comment on the novel is the graphic nature of the many acts of torture and murder which are depicted in the novel . Vargas lets the reader see the realities of an oppressive regime with a degree of detail not often used by his compatriots in Latin American literature , as Michael Wood suggests in the London Review of Books : " Vargas Llosa ... tells us far more about the details of day @-@ to @-@ day intrigue , and the sordid , sadistic minutiae of torture and murder . " Walter Kirn of the New York Times suggests that the " grisly scenes of dungeon interrogations and torture sessions " cast other aspects of the novel in a pale light , draining them of their significance and impact . Similarly , Kirn implies that the " narrative machinery " mentioned by Wood as being somewhat unwieldy also produces a largely superfluous storyline . The plot line centered on Urania Cabral is described by Sturrock as being an emotional centre that focuses the novel , and Wood agrees that her confrontations with past demons hold the readers attention . In contrast , Kirn 's review states that Urania 's segments are " talky and atmospheric ... [ and ] seem to be on loan from another sort of book . " Most reviews of The Feast of the Goat make either indirect of direct reference to the relationship between sexuality and power . Salon reviewer Laura Miller , writer for The Observer Jonathan Heawood , Walter Kirn , and Michael Wood each detail the connection between Trujillo 's gradual loss of ultimate control , both over his body and his followers . The means by which Trujillo reinforces political power through sexual acts and begins to lose personal conviction as his body fails him are topics of frequent discussion among reviewers . In 2011 Bernard Diederich , author of the 1978 non @-@ fiction book Trujillo . The Death of the Goat , accused Vargas @-@ Llosa of plagiarism . = = Adaptations = = An English @-@ language film adaptation of the novel was made in 2005 , directed by Luis Llosa , Mario Vargas Llosa 's cousin . It stars Isabella Rossellini as Urania Cabral , Paul Freeman as her father Agustin , Stephanie Leonidas as Uranita and Tomas Milian as Rafael Leonidas Trujillo . It was filmed in both the Dominican Republic and in Spain . Reviewing the film for the trade paper Variety , critic Jonathan Holland called it " less a feast than a somewhat rushed , but thoroughly enjoyable , three @-@ course meal " , commenting that the main difference from the source novel was the sacrifice of psychological nuance . The novel has also been adapted for the stage , by Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana , directed by Jorge Triana : the play was put on ( in Spanish , but with simultaneous translation to English ) at Repertorio Español ( www.repertorio.org / chivo ) in New York in 2003 ; and the production moved to Lima in 2007 . A feature of the novel 's stage version is that the same actor plays both Agustin Cabral and Rafael Trujillo . For reviewer Bruce Weber , this makes the point " that Trujillo 's control of the nation depended on gutless collaborators " .

= Charles Eaton ( RAAF officer ) = Charles Eaton , OBE , AFC ( 21 December 1895 – 12 November 1979 ) was a senior officer and aviator in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , who later served as a diplomat . Born in London , he joined the British Army upon the outbreak of World War I and saw action on the Western Front before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps in 1917 . Posted as a bomber pilot to No. 206 Squadron , he was twice captured by German forces , and twice escaped . Eaton left the military in 1920 and worked in India until moving to Australia in 1923 . Two years later he joined the RAAF , serving initially as an instructor at No. 1 Flying Training School . Between 1929 and 1931 , he was chosen to lead three expeditions to search for lost aircraft in Central Australia , gaining national attention and earning the Air Force Cross for his " zeal and devotion to duty " . In 1939 , on the eve of World War II , Eaton became the inaugural commanding officer of No. 12 ( General Purpose ) Squadron at the newly established RAAF Station Darwin in Northern Australia . Promoted group captain the following year , he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1942 . He took command of No. 79 Wing at Batchelor , Northern Territory , in 1943 , and was mentioned in despatches during operations in the South West Pacific . Retiring from the RAAF in December 1945 , Eaton took up diplomatic posts in the Dutch East Indies , heading a United Nations commission as Consul @-@ General during the Indonesian National Revolution . He returned to Australia in 1950 , and served in Canberra for a further two years . Popularly known as " Moth " Eaton , he was a farmer in later life , and died in 1979 at the age of 83 . He is commemorated by several memorials in the Northern Territory . = = Early life and World War I = = Charles Eaton was born on 21 December 1895 in Lambeth , London , the son of William Walpole Eaton , a butcher , and his wife Grace . Schooled in Wandsworth , Charles worked in Battersea Town Council from the age of fourteen , before joining the London Regiment upon the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . Attached to a bicycle company in the 24th Battalion of the 47th Division , he arrived at the Western Front in March 1915 . He took part in trench bombing missions and attacks on enemy lines of communication , seeing action in the Battles of Aubers Ridge , Festubert , Loos , and the Somme . On 14 May 1915 , Eaton transferred to the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , undergoing initial pilot training at Oxford . While he was landing his Maurice Farman Shorthorn at the end of his first solo flight , another student collided with him and was killed , but Eaton emerged uninjured . He was commissioned in August and was awarded his wings in October . Ranked lieutenant , he served with No. 110 Squadron , which operated Martinsyde G.100 " Elephant " fighters out of Sedgeford , defending London against Zeppelin airships . Transferred to the newly formed Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1918 , he was posted the following month to France flying Airco DH.9 single @-@ engined bombers with No. 206 Squadron . On 29 June , he was shot down behind enemy lines and captured in the vicinity of Nieppe . Incarcerated in Holzminden prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , Germany , Eaton escaped but was recaptured and court @-@ martialled , after which he was kept in solitary confinement . He later effected another escape and succeeded in rejoining his squadron in the final days of the war . = = Between the wars = = Eaton remained in the RAF following the cessation of hostilities . He married Beatrice Godfrey in St. Thomas 's church at Shepherd 's Bush , London , on 11 January 1919 . Posted to No. 1 Squadron , he was a pilot on the first regular passenger service between London and Paris , ferrying delegates to and from the Peace Conference at Versailles . Eaton was sent to India in December to undertake aerial survey work , including the first such survey of the Himalayas . He resigned from the RAF in July 1920 , remaining in India to take up employment with the Imperial Forest Service . After successfully applying for a position with the Queensland Forestry Service , he and his family migrated to Australia in 1923 . Moving to South Yarra , Victoria , he enlisted as a flying officer in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) at Laverton on 14 August 1925 . He was posted to No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Point Cook , as a flight instructor , where he became known as a strict disciplinarian who " trained his pilots well " . Here Eaton acquired his nickname of " Moth " , the Air Force 's basic trainer at this time being the De Havilland DH.60 Moth . Promoted flight lieutenant in February 1928 , he flew a Moth in the 1929 East @-@ West Air Race from Sydney to Perth , as part of the celebrations for the Western Australia Centenary ; he was the sixth competitor across the line , after fellow RFC veteran Jerry Pentland . Regarded as one of the RAAF 's most skilful cross @-@ country pilots and navigators , Eaton came to public attention as leader of three military expeditions to find lost aircraft in Central Australia between 1929 and 1931 . In April 1929 , he coordinated the Air Force 's part in the search for aviators Keith Anderson and Bob Hitchcock , missing in their aircraft the Kookaburra while themselves looking for Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm , who had force landed the Southern Cross in north Western Australia during a flight from Sydney . Three of the RAAF 's five " ancient " DH.9 biplanes went down in the search — though all crews escaped injury — including Eaton 's , which experienced what he labelled " a good crash " on 21 April near Tennant Creek after the engine 's pistons melted . The same day , Captain Lester Brain , flying a Qantas aircraft , located the wreck of the Kookaburra in the Tanami Desert , approximately 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Wave Hill . Setting out from Wave Hill on 23 April , Eaton led a ground party across rough terrain that reached the crash site four days later and buried the crew , who had perished of thirst and exposure . Not a particularly religious man , he recalled that after the burial he saw a perfect cross formed by cirrus cloud in an otherwise clear blue sky above the Kookaburra . The Air Board described the RAAF 's search as taking 240 hours flying time " under the most trying conditions ... where a forced landing meant certain crash " . In November 1930 , Eaton was selected to lead another expedition for a missing aircraft near Ayers Rock , but it was called off soon afterwards when the pilot showed up in Alice Springs . The next month , he was ordered to search for W.L. Pittendrigh and S.J. Hamre , who had disappeared in the biplane Golden Quest 2 while attempting to discover Lasseter 's Reef . Employing a total of four DH.60 Moths , the RAAF team located the missing men near Dashwood Creek on 7 January 1931 , and they were rescued four days later by a ground party accompanied by Eaton . Staying in nearby Alice Springs , he recommended a site for the town 's new airfield , which was approved and has remained in use since its construction . Eaton was awarded the Air Force Cross on 10 March 1931 " in recognition of his zeal and devotion to duty in conducting flights to Central Australia in search of missing aviators " . The media called him the " ' Knight Errant ' of the desert skies " . Aside from his crash landing in the desert while searching for the Kookaburra , Eaton had another narrow escape in 1929 when he was test flying the Wackett Warrigal I with Sergeant Eric Douglas . Having purposely put the biplane trainer into a spin and finding no response in the controls when he tried to recover , Eaton called on Douglas to bail out . When Douglas stood up to do so , the spin stopped , apparently due to his torso changing the airflow over the tail plane . Eaton then managed to land the aeroplane , he and his passenger both badly shaken by the experience . In December 1931 , he was posted to No. 1 Aircraft Depot at Laverton , where he continued to fly as well as performing administrative work . Promoted squadron leader in 1936 , he undertook a clandestine mission around the new year to scout for suitable landing grounds in the Dutch East Indies , primarily Timor and Ambon . Wearing civilian clothes , he and his companion were arrested and held for three days by local authorities in Koepang , Dutch Timor . Eaton was appointed commanding officer ( CO ) of No. 21 Squadron in May 1937 , one of his first tasks being to undertake another aerial search in Central Australia , this time for prospector Sir Herbert Gepp , who was subsequently discovered alive and well . Later that year , Eaton presided over the court of inquiry into the crash of a Hawker Demon biplane in Victoria , recommending a gallantry award for Aircraftman William McAloney , who had leapt into the Demon 's burning wreckage in an effort to rescue its pilot ; McAloney subsequently received the Albert Medal for his heroism . Following a 1937 decision to establish the first north Australian RAAF base , in April 1938 Eaton , now on the headquarters staff of RAAF Station Laverton , and Wing Commander George Jones , Director of Personnel Services at RAAF Headquarters , began developing plans for the new station , to be commanded by Jones , and a new squadron that would be based there , led by Eaton . The next month they flew an Avro Anson on an inspection tour of Darwin , Northern Territory , site of the proposed base . Delays meant that No. 12 ( General Purpose ) Squadron was not formed until 6 February 1939 at Laverton . Jones had by now moved on to another posting but Eaton took up the squadron 's command as planned . Promoted to wing commander on 1 March , he and his equipment officer , Flying Officer Hocking , were ordered to build up the unit as quickly as possible , and established an initial complement of fourteen officers and 120 airmen , plus four Ansons and four Demons , within a week . An advance party of thirty NCOs and airmen under Hocking began moving to Darwin on 1 July . Staff were initially accommodated in a former meatworks built during World War I , and life at the newly established air base had a " distinctly raw , pioneering feel about it " according to historian Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark . Morale , though , was high . On 31 August , No. 12 Squadron launched its first patrol over the Darwin area , flown by one of seven Ansons that had so far been delivered . These were augmented by a flight of four CAC Wirraways ( replacing the originally planned force of Demons ) that took off from Laverton on 2 September , the day before Australia declared war , and arrived in Darwin four days later . A fifth Wirraway in the flight crashed on landing at Darwin , killing both crewmen . = = World War II = = Once war was declared , Darwin began to receive more attention from military planners . In June 1940 , No. 12 Squadron was " cannibalised " to form two additional units , Headquarters RAAF Station Darwin and No. 13 Squadron . No. 12 Squadron retained its Wirraway flight , while its two flights of Ansons went to the new squadron ; these were replaced later that month by more capable Lockheed Hudsons . Eaton was appointed CO of the base , gaining promotion to temporary group captain in September . His squadrons were employed in escort , maritime reconnaissance , and coastal patrol duties , the overworked aircraft having to be sent to RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , after every 240 hours flying time — with a consequent three @-@ week loss from Darwin 's strength — as deep maintenance was not yet possible in the Northern Territory . Soon after the establishment of Headquarters RAAF Station Darwin , Minister for Air James Fairbairn visited the base . Piloting his own light plane , he was greeted by four Wirraways that proceeded to escort him into landing ; the Minister subsequently complimented Eaton on the " keen @-@ ness and efficiency of all ranks " , particularly considering the challenging environment . When Fairbairn died in the Canberra air disaster shortly afterwards , his pilot was Flight Lieutenant Robert Hitchcock , son of Bob Hitchcock of the Kookaburra and also a former member of Eaton 's No. 21 Squadron . As senior air commander in the region , Eaton sat on the Darwin Defence Co @-@ ordination Committee . He was occasionally at loggerheads with his naval counterpart , Captain E.P. Thomas , and also incurred the ire of trade unionists when he used RAAF staff to unload ships in Port Darwin during industrial action ; Eaton himself took part in the work , shovelling coal alongside his men . On 25 February 1941 , he made a flight north to reconnoitre Timor , Ambon , and Babo in Dutch New Guinea for potential use by the RAAF in any Pacific conflict . By April , the total strength based at RAAF Station Darwin had increased to almost 700 officers and airmen ; by the following month it had been augmented by satellite airfields at Bathurst Island , Groote Eylandt , Batchelor , and Katherine . Handing over command of Darwin to Group Captain Frederick Scherger in October , Eaton took charge of No. 2 Service Flying Training School near Wagga Wagga , New South Wales . His " marked success " , " untiring energy " , and " tact in handling men " while in the Northern Territory were recognised in the new year with his appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire . Eaton became CO of No. 1 Engineering School and its base , RAAF Station Ascot Vale , Victoria , in April 1942 . Twelve months later in Townsville , Queensland , he formed No. 72 Wing , which subsequently deployed to Merauke in Dutch New Guinea , comprising No. 84 Squadron ( flying CAC Boomerang fighters ) , No. 86 Squadron ( P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters ) , and No. 12 Squadron ( A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers ) . His relations with North @-@ Eastern Area Command in Townsville were strained ; " mountains were made out of molehills " in his opinion , and he was reassigned that July to lead No. 2 Bombing and Gunnery School in Port Pirie , South Australia . On 30 November 1943 , Eaton returned to the Northern Territory to establish No. 79 Wing at Batchelor , comprising No. 1 and No. 2 Squadrons ( flying Bristol Beaufort light reconnaissance bombers ) , No. 31 Squadron ( Bristol Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters ) , and No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron ( B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers ) . He developed a good relationship with his Dutch personnel , who called him " Oom Charles " ( Uncle Charles ) . Operating under the auspices of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , Darwin , Eaton 's forces participated in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 , in which he regularly flew on missions himself . Through March – April , his Beaufighters attacked enemy shipping , while the Mitchells and Beauforts bombed Timor on a daily basis as a prelude to Operations Reckless and Persecution , the invasions of Hollandia and Aitape . On 19 April , he organised a large raid against Su , Dutch Timor , employing thirty @-@ five Mitchells , Beauforts and Beaufighters to destroy the town 's barracks and fuel dumps , the results earning him the personal congratulations of the Air Officer Commanding NWA , Air Vice Marshal " King " Cole , for his " splendid effort " . On the day of the Allied landings , 22 April , the Mitchells and Beaufighters made a daylight raid on Dili , Portuguese Timor . The ground assault met little opposition , credited in part to the air bombardment in the days leading up to it . In June – July , No. 79 Wing supported the Allied attack on Noemfoor . Eaton was recommended to be mentioned in despatches on 28 October 1944 for his " Gallant and distinguished service " in NWA ; this was promulgated in the London Gazette on 9 March 1945 . Completing his tour with No. 79 Wing , Eaton was appointed Air Officer Commanding Southern Area , Melbourne , in January 1945 . The German submarine U @-@ 862 operated off southern Australia during the first months of 1945 , and the few combat units in Eaton 's command were heavily engaged in anti @-@ submarine patrols which sought to locate this and any other U @-@ boats in the area . The Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , considered the sporadic attacks to be partly " nuisance value " , designed to draw Allied resources away from the front line of the South West Pacific war . In April , Eaton complained to Bostock that intelligence from British Pacific Fleet concerning its ships ' movements eastwards out of Western Area was hours out of date by the time it was received at Southern Area Command , leading to RAAF aircraft missing their rendezvous and wasting valuable flying hours searching empty ocean . There had been no U @-@ boat strikes since February , and by June the naval authorities indicated that there was no pressing need for air cover except for the most important vessels . = = Post @-@ war career and legacy = = Eaton retired from the RAAF on 31 December 1945 . In recognition of his war service , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau with Swords by the Dutch government on 17 January 1946 . The same month , he became Australian consul in Dili . He had seen an advertisement for the position and was the only applicant with experience of the area . While based there , he accompanied the provincial governor on visits to townships damaged in Allied raids during the war , taking care to be circumspect about the part played by his own forces from No. 79 Wing . In July 1947 , Dutch forces launched a " police action " against territory held by the fledgling Indonesian Republic , which had been declared shortly after the end of the war . Following a ceasefire , the United Nations set up a commission , chaired by Eaton as Consul @-@ General , to monitor progress . Eaton and his fellow commissioners believed that the ceasefire was serving the Dutch as a cover for further penetration of republican enclaves . His requests to the Australian government for military observers led to deployment of the first peacekeeping force to the region ; the Australians were soon followed by British and US observers , and enabled Eaton to display a more realistic impression of the situation to the outside world . The Dutch administration strongly opposed the presence of UN forces and accused Eaton of " impropriety " , but the Australian government refused to recall him . Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949 , he became Australia 's first secretary and chargé d 'affaires to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia . In 1950 , he returned to Australia to serve with the Department of External Affairs in Canberra . After retiring from public service in 1951 , he and his wife farmed at Metung , Victoria , and cultivated orchids . They later moved to Frankston , where Eaton was involved in promotional work . Charles Eaton died in Frankston on 12 November 1979 . Survived by his wife and two sons , he was cremated . In accordance with his wishes , his ashes were scattered near Tennant Creek , site of his 1929 forced landing during the search for the Kookaburra , from an RAAF Caribou on 15 April 1981 . His name figures prominently in the Northern Territory , commemorated by Lake Eaton in Central Australia , Eaton Place in the Darwin suburb of Karama , Charles Eaton Drive on the approach to Darwin International Airport , and the Charles Moth Eaton Saloon Bar in the Tennant Creek Goldfields Hotel . He is also honoured with a display at the Northern Territory Parliament , and a National Trust memorial at Tennant Creek Airport . At the RAAF 's 2003 History Conference , Air Commodore Mark Lax , recalling Eaton 's search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions between the wars , commented : " Today , we might think of Eaton perhaps as the pioneer of our contribution to assistance to the civil community — a tradition that continues today . Perhaps I might jog your memory to a more recent series of rescues no less hazardous for all concerned — the amazing location of missing yachtsmen Thierry Dubois , Isabelle Autissier and Tony Bullimore by our P @-@ 3s that guided the Navy to their eventual rescue . My observation is that such activities remain vital for our relevance in that we must remain connected , supportive and responsive to the wants and needs of the Australian community . "

= Tina Fey = Elizabeth Stamatina " Tina " Fey ( / feɪ / ; born May 18 , 1970 ) is an American actress , comedian , writer , and producer . She is best known for her work on the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live ( 1998 @-@ 2006 ) , for her impression of former Alaska Governor and 2008 Vice @-@ Presidential candidate Sarah Palin , and for creating acclaimed series 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) and Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt ( 2015 – present ) . She is also well known for appearing in films such as Mean Girls ( 2004 ) , Baby Mama ( 2008 ) , Date Night ( 2010 ) , Muppets Most Wanted ( 2014 ) , and Sisters ( 2015 ) . Fey broke into comedy as a featured player in the Chicago @-@ based improvisational comedy group The Second City . She then joined SNL as a writer , later becoming head writer and a performer , known for her position as co @-@ anchor in the Weekend Update segment . In 2004 , she co @-@ starred in and wrote the screenplay for Mean Girls , which was adapted from the 2002 self @-@ help book Queen Bees and Wannabes . After leaving SNL in 2006 , she created the television series 30 Rock for Broadway Video , a situation comedy loosely based on her experiences at SNL . In the series , Fey portrays the head writer of a fictional sketch comedy series . In 2008 , she starred in the comedy film Baby Mama , alongside former SNL co @-@ star Amy Poehler . Fey next appeared in the 2010 comedy film Date Night and the animated film Megamind . In 2015 , she created and produced the television series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt , originally for NBC and eventually for Netflix . Her recent films include Sisters and Whiskey Tango Foxtrot . Fey has received eight Emmy Awards , two Golden Globe Awards , five Screen Actors Guild Awards , and four Writers Guild of America Awards and was nominated for a Grammy Award for her autobiographical book Bossypants , which topped The New York Times Best Seller list for five weeks . In 2008 , the Associated Press gave Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year award for her satirical portrayal of Republican vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin in a guest appearance on SNL . In 2010 , Fey was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor , becoming the youngest @-@ ever recipient of the award . On January 13 , 2013 , Fey hosted the 70th Golden Globe Awards with her long @-@ time friend and fellow comedian , Amy Poehler , to critical acclaim . The duo hosted again the following two years , generating the highest ratings for the annual ceremony in a decade and receiving similar acclaim . = = Early life = = Fey was born on May 18 , 1970 , in Upper Darby , Pennsylvania , a suburb of Philadelphia . Her mother , Zenobia " Jeanne " ( née Xenakes ) , is a brokerage employee ; her father , Donald Henry Fey ( died 2015 , age 82 ) , was a university grant proposal writer . She has a brother , Peter , who is eight years older . Fey 's mother , who was born in Piraeus , Greece , is the daughter of Greek immigrants : Vasiliki Kourelakou , Fey 's maternal grandmother , left Petrina , Laconia , Greece on her own , arriving in the United States in February 1921 . Fey 's father had English , German , and Northern Irish ancestry ; one of Fey 's paternal great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandfathers was John Hewson ( 1744 – 1821 ) , a textile manufacturer who immigrated to America with the support of Benjamin Franklin , enabling Hewson to quickly open a quilting factory in the Kensington neighborhood of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . According to a genealogical DNA test arranged by the television series Finding Your Roots , Fey 's ancestry is 94 % European , 3 % Middle Eastern , and 3 % from the Caucasus . Fey was exposed to comedy early : At age 11 , Fey read Joe Franklin 's Seventy Years of Great Film Comedians for a school project about comedy . She grew up watching Second City Television , and has cited Catherine O 'Hara as a role model . Fey attended Cardington @-@ Stonehurst Elementary School and Beverly Hills Middle School in Upper Darby . By middle school , she knew she was interested in comedy . Fey attended Upper Darby High School , where she was an honors student , a member of the choir , drama club , and tennis team , and co @-@ editor of the school 's newspaper , The Acorn . She also anonymously wrote the newspaper 's satirical column , The Colonel . Following her graduation in 1988 , Fey enrolled at the University of Virginia , where she studied play @-@ writing and acting and was awarded the Pettway Prize . She graduated in 1992 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in drama . After college , she worked as a receptionist during the day at the Evanston YMCA and took classes at Second City at night . = = Career = = = = = Saturday Night Live ( 1997 – 2006 ) = = = While performing shows with The Second City in 1997 , Fey submitted several scripts to NBC 's variety show Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , at the request of its head writer Adam McKay , a former performer at Second City . She was hired as a writer for SNL following a meeting with SNL creator Lorne Michaels , and moved to New York from Chicago . Fey told The New Yorker , " I 'd had my eye on the show forever , the way other kids have their eye on Derek Jeter . " Originally , Fey " struggled " at SNL . Her first sketch to air starred Chris Farley in a Sally Jessy Raphael satire . Fey went on to write a series of parodies , including one of ABC 's morning talk show The View . She co @-@ wrote the " Sully and Denise " sketches with Rachel Dratch , who plays one of the teens . Fey was an extra in a 1998 episode , and after watching herself , decided to diet and lost 30 pounds . She told The New York Times , " I was a completely normal weight , but I was here in New York City , I had money and I couldn 't buy any clothes . After I lost weight , there was interest in putting me on camera . " In 1999 , McKay stepped down as head writer , which led Michaels to approach Fey for the position . She became SNL 's first female head writer that year . In 2000 , Fey began performing in sketches , and she and Jimmy Fallon became co @-@ anchors of SNL 's Weekend Update segment . Fey said she did not ask to audition , but that Michaels approached her . Michaels explained that there was chemistry between Fey and Fallon , though the decision was " kind of risky " at the time . Her role in Weekend Update was well received by critics . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote : " ... Fey delivers such blow darts – poison filled jokes written in long , precisely parsed sentences unprecedented in Update history – with such a bright , sunny countenance makes her all the more devilishly delightful . " Dennis Miller , a former cast member of SNL and anchor of Weekend Update , was pleased with Fey as one of the anchors for the segment : " ... Fey might be the best Weekend Update anchor who ever did it . She writes the funniest jokes " . Robert Bianco of USA Today , however , commented that he was " not enamored " of the pairing . In 2001 , Fey and the rest of the writing staff won a Writers Guild of America Award for SNL 's 25th anniversary special . The following year at the 2002 Emmy Awards ceremony , they won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Program . When Fallon left the show in May 2004 , he was replaced on Weekend Update by Amy Poehler . It was the first time that two women co @-@ anchored Weekend Update . Fey revealed that she " hired " Poehler as her co @-@ host for the segment . The reception was positive , with Rachel Sklar of the Chicago Tribune noting that the pairing " has been a hilarious , pitch @-@ perfect success as they play @-@ off each other with quick one @-@ liners and deadpan delivery " . The 2005 – 2006 season was her last ; she departed to develop 30 Rock for Broadway Video . At the time she left , the 117 episodes she co @-@ hosted made her SNL 's longest @-@ serving Weekend Update anchor , a mark that would later be passed by her replacement , Seth Meyers . In Rolling Stone Magazine 's February , 2015 appraisal of all 141 SNL cast members to date , Fey was ranked third in importance ( behind John Belushi and Eddie Murphy ) . They credited her with " salvaging ' Update ' from a decade @-@ long losing streak , " and " slapping SNL out of its late @-@ nineties coma . " = = = 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) = = = In 2002 , Fey suggested a pilot episode for a situation comedy about a cable news network to NBC , which rejected it . The pilot was reworked to revolve around an SNL style series , and was accepted by NBC . She signed a contract with NBC in May 2003 , which allowed her to remain in her SNL head writer position at least through the 2004 – 2005 television season . As part of the contract , Fey was to develop a prime @-@ time project to be produced by Broadway Video and NBC Universal . The pilot , directed by Adam Bernstein , centered on Liz Lemon , the head writer of a variety show on NBC , and how she managed her relationships with the show 's volatile stars and the new head of the network . In October 2006 , the pilot aired on NBC as 30 Rock . Although the episode received generally favorable reviews , it finished third in its timeslot . The network renewed the series for a second season , which began in October 2007 . The show 's third season premiered on October 30 , 2008 . The premiere episode drew 8 @.@ 5 million viewers , the highest ratings of the series . In 2007 , Fey received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series . The show itself won the 2007 Emmy for Outstanding Comedy Series ( and did so again for two subsequent years ) . In 2008 , she won the Golden Globe , Screen Actors Guild , and Emmy awards all in the category for Best Actress in a Comedy Series . The following year , Fey again won the Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award in the same categories , and was nominated for an Emmy Award . In early 2010 , Fey received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress , and won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Lead Actress . 30 Rock was renewed for the 2010 – 2011 season in March 2010 . The series returned for the 2011 – 2012 season , though due to Fey 's pregnancy with her second child , the season premiere was delayed until midseason . Fey 's performance on the show was inspired by Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus , and later used Louis @-@ Dreyfus to play the stand @-@ in for the character of Liz Lemon in flashback scenes during the live episode of the fifth season . On May 11 , 2012 , it was announced that the show had been renewed for a seventh and final season , to premiere October 4 , 2012 , with 13 episodes . After receiving 13 Emmy Award nominations and two wins for this final season , 30 Rock ended its critically acclaimed run with 112 Emmy award nominations . It has been cited as one of the greatest TV series of all time and it is considered to have one of the greatest finales in television history . = = = Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt = = = In 2015 , Fey created and produced the television comedy Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt with fellow 30 Rock @-@ alumnus Robert Carlock . The series stars Ellie Kemper as the titular character who escapes from a doomsday cult and moves to New York . It also stars Fey 's former co @-@ star Jane Krakowski , as well as Tituss Burgess ( who had previously appeared in four 30 Rock episodes ) and Carol Kane . Although it was originally produced for NBC , it was eventually sold to Netflix and immediately renewed for a second season . The show premiered on March 6 , 2015 to critical acclaim . On July 16 , 2015 , the series was nominated for seven Primetime Emmy Awards , including Outstanding Comedy Series . Fey herself was nominated both as the creator / executive producer of the series and for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her guest performance as Marcia , a bumbling prosecutor in reference to Marcia Clark . = = = Feature films = = = In 2002 , Fey appeared in the surreal comedy Martin & Orloff . She made her debut as writer and co @-@ star of the 2004 teen comedy Mean Girls . Characters and behaviors in the movie are based on Fey 's high school life at Upper Darby High School and on the non @-@ fiction book Queen Bees and Wannabes by Rosalind Wiseman . The cast includes other past cast members of SNL including Tim Meadows , Ana Gasteyer , and Amy Poehler . The film received favorable reviews , and was a box office success , grossing US $ 129 million worldwide . In a 2004 interview , Fey expressed that she would like to write and direct movies . In 2006 , Fey worked on a movie script for Paramount Pictures , which was to feature Sacha Baron Cohen , by the name of Curly Oxide and Vic Thrill , based loosely on the true story of a Hasidic rock musician . In 2007 , she was cast in the animated comedy film Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters as the Aqua Teens ' mother , a giant burrito . She received her SAG card after appearing in Artie Lange 's Beer League released in 2006 , in which she was compelled to join for " ... a thousand dollars " . Fey and former SNL castmate Amy Poehler starred in the 2008 comedy Baby Mama . The movie was written and directed by Michael McCullers . The plot concerns Kate ( Fey ) , a business woman , who wants a child but , discovering she has only a million @-@ to @-@ one chance of getting pregnant , decides to find a surrogate : Angie ( Poehler ) , a white @-@ trash schemer . Baby Mama received mixed reviews , but critics enjoyed Fey 's performance . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote : " Fey is a delight to watch throughout . Able to convey Kate 's intentions and feelings through the simple looks and inflections , she never melodramatizes her situation ; nor does her efficient , perfectionist side become overbearing . " The movie grossed over US $ 64 million at the box office . Fey 's projects after 2008 include a voice role in the English @-@ language version of the Japanese animated film Ponyo . In 2009 , she appeared in The Invention of Lying , alongside Ricky Gervais , Jennifer Garner , Rob Lowe , and Christopher Guest . Her next film role was in Shawn Levy 's 2010 comedy Date Night , a feature that focuses on a married couple , played by Fey and Steve Carell , who go on a date ; however , the night goes awry for the two . Also in the same year , she voiced Roxanne Ritchie , a television reporter , in the DreamWorks animated film Megamind ( 2010 ) . With a total worldwide gross of US $ 321 million , Megamind is Fey 's most commercially successful picture to date . It earned US $ 173 million outside the U.S. and US $ 148 million domestically . In 2013 , Fey starred alongside Paul Rudd in the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Admission , based on the Jean Hanff Korelitz novel by the same name . The film was directed by Paul Weitz . Fey later starred in the 2014 comedy @-@ drama This Is Where I Leave You , helmed by Date Night director Shawn Levy . As was the case with Baby Mama , although both of these films received generally mixed reviews , Fey 's performances were well received by film critics . In 2015 , it was announced Fey would be the narrator for the Disney Nature film Monkey Kingdom , which was released in theaters on April 17 , 2015 . She then re @-@ teamed with Poehler , starring in the 2015 comedy film Sisters as the title characters , and received positive reviews for her role . In 2016 , Fey starred in the biographical war comedy @-@ drama Whiskey Tango Foxtrot , based on the memoir The Taliban Shuffle : Strange Days in Afghanistan and Pakistan , to positive reviews . = = = Subsequent SNL appearances = = = On February 23 , 2008 , Fey hosted the first episode of SNL after the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . For this appearance , she was nominated for an Emmy in the category of Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program . Fey hosted SNL for a second time on April 10 , 2010 , and for her appearance she received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series . From September to November 2008 , Fey made multiple guest appearances on SNL to perform a series of parodies of Republican vice @-@ presidential candidate Sarah Palin . On the 34th season premiere episode , aired September 13 , 2008 , Fey imitated Palin in a sketch , alongside Amy Poehler as Hillary Clinton . Their repartee included Clinton needling Palin about her " Tina Fey glasses " . The sketch quickly became NBC 's most @-@ watched viral video ever , with 5 @.@ 7 million views by the following Wednesday . Fey reprised this role on the October 4 show , on the October 18 show where she was joined by the real Sarah Palin , and on the November 1 show , where she was joined by John McCain and his wife Cindy . The October 18 show had the best ratings of any SNL show since 1994 . The following year Fey won an Emmy in the category of Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her impersonation of Palin . Fey returned to SNL in April 2010 , and reprised her impression of Palin in one sketch titled the " Sarah Palin Network " . Fey once again did her impression of Palin when she hosted Saturday Night Live on May 8 , 2011 . In December 2009 , Entertainment Weekly put her Palin impersonation on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade " best @-@ of " list , writing , " Fey 's freakishly spot @-@ on SNL impersonation of the wannabe VP ( and her ability to strike a balance between comedy and cruelty ) made for truly transcendent television . " Rolling Stone called her Palin impression " [ arguably ] the most brilliant move SNL ever made " . = = = Other work = = = In 1997 , Fey and other members of The Second City provided voices for the pinball game Medieval Madness . In 2000 , Fey partnered with fellow SNL cast member Rachel Dratch in the Off Broadway two @-@ woman show Dratch & Fey at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in New York City . The production was well received by critics . Tim Townsend of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the fun part of watching Fey and Dratch perform was " seeing how comfortable they are with each other " . He concluded that the production " isn 't about two women being funny ... Dratch and Fey are just funny . Period . " One of the SNL sketches , " Sully and Denise " , originated at The Second City . On August 13 , 2007 , Fey made a guest appearance in the Sesame Street episode " The Bookaneers " . She appeared as a guest judge on the November 25 , 2007 episode of the Food Network program Iron Chef America . Fey has appeared as Tinker Bell in Disney 's campaign " Year of a Million Dreams " . She has also done commercials for American Express and Garnier Nutrisse . On April 5 , 2011 , Fey 's autobiography , Bossypants , was released to a positive review from The New York Times . In 2011 , Fey narrated The Secret Life of Girls , a two @-@ hour @-@ long radio documentary produced by The Kitchen Sisters . She introduced stories of women and girls from around the world , and also shared memories of her own girlhood and mother . In 2012 , Fey made her rapping debut on the Childish Gambino ( Donald Glover ) mixtape Royalty . Glover is a former writer on 30 Rock , on which he worked with Fey . Fey was also featured as herself in the iCarly episode " iShock America " . = = Comedic and acting style = = Fey is known for her deadpan humor and delivery ; her " sardonic wit " has become a trademark of hers , upon which several critics have commented in their reviews of Fey 's work . According to Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara , Fey " project [ s ] both oblivious security and hyper @-@ alert insecurity with the same expression " in her performances , while The Chronicle 's Dillon Fernando wrote that the actress specializes in " delectable , situational and ironic comedy " . On Fey 's comedic prowess , Saturday Night Live creator Lorne Michaels enthused that his former employee " has a very clear take on things ... It always comes from a place of intelligence and there is just an edge to it . " Michaels concluded , " It 's not fearful . It 's strong and confident and you recognise the voice and most of the time you agree with it . " Writing for The Guardian , Christopher Goodwin believes that Fey " fashioned her comic persona around her glasses " , which she has worn since 1995 ; Fey joked that " Glasses make anyone look smarter " . Seldom hesitating to use herself as the butt of her own jokes , Fey is also well known for practicing self @-@ deprecating humor , as demonstrated throughout her performance as Liz Lemon in 30 Rock . In an article ranking Fey 's six greatest jokes , David Renshaw of The Guardian wrote that the performer 's work continues to feature her " trademark mix of snark , self @-@ deprecation and pop @-@ culture smarts . " Fey 's self @-@ deprecating comedic style inspired Ashley Fetters of The Atlantic to recognize her as comedian Phyllis Diller 's successor because of their similar humor . Critics have been divided in their opinions and discussions of Fey 's use of self @-@ deprecating humor , and its effect on women as a female comic ; while blogger Kate Harding disapproved of Fey 's performance in 30 Rock because " I 'm torn between being sad that she apparently doesn 't see [ beauty ] in herself and being pissed off that she 's reinforcing the idea that having brown hair , glasses , and a figure that 's maybe a size 2 instead of a 0 actually equals ugly " , Jessica G. of Jezebel defended the actress , writing that Fey 's performance is " supposed to be parodying precisely the kinds of media that reinforce ideas that unconventional women are unworthy . " Writing that Harding misunderstood Fey 's intentions , the author concluded that her self @-@ deprecation " is precisely what makes her relatable " , elaborating that " [ women ] have many moments of self @-@ doubt , and seeing someone as successful as Tina Fey be self @-@ deprecating gives us all permission to be imperfect . " Sophie Caldecott of Verily defended Fey 's modesty and tendency to downplay her own physical appearance : " She mocks her own appearance , sure , but she does so in a way that consistently shows up our culture for placing so much importance on how women look , as if that ’ s the most interesting thing about us ... Her comic persona on 30 Rock , Liz Lemon , can be laughed at for many things , but her career managerial style and ability is not one of them . " Caldecott concluded , " In reality , self @-@ deprecation is an art that comedians everywhere dabble in ... In fact , I defy you to find a good male comedian who isn ’ t a master of self @-@ deprecation . Comedians make fun of themselves for many reasons , mostly because it is the most readily accessible source of inspiration but also because it is the most generous one . " Observing that Fey 's material lacks " whining " , Gina Barreca of the Hartford Courant wrote that Fey 's comedy " is not simply an iteration of self @-@ deprecating femininity passing itself off as humor . In itself , this demarcates the current generation of female humorists from earlier generations of performers who were told , more or less , to use themselves not as a sounding board for ideas but as a punching bag for insults . " As an actress , Fey has developed a reputation for portraying " the hilarious , self @-@ deprecating unmarried career woman " in most of her films to @-@ date . The Boston Globe 's Janice Paige defended her limited filmography by writing that , unlike most film actors , Fey remains " realistic about her range as a leading lady and says she ’ s been deliberate about only taking on parts for which she actually seems suited . " Fey explained that she approaches each role asking herself , " Would I be plausible in this role , in this job ? " However , her role as Kate Ellis in 2015 's Sisters provided Fey with an opportunity to stray from playing the type @-@ A female characters for which she has become known . The New York Times film critic A. O. Scott wrote , " We ’ re used to seeing Ms. Fey ... as an anxious overthinker using her caustic sarcasm as a weapon against both her own insecurities and the flakes and train wrecks who surround her . This time , she gets to be the train wreck . " In 30 Rock , Fey 's comedic acting was heavily influenced by both physical and improvisational comedy while , as a writer , her " carefully written scripts " were often quirky and character @-@ driven . = = In the media = = In 2002 , Fey was ranked in the Hot 100 List at number 80 on Maxim magazine , which used photos taken earlier by Rolling Stone calling her " the thinking man 's sex symbol " . She was named one of People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People in 2003 , and one of People magazine 's 100 Most Beautiful People in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 . In 2007 , Fey placed seventh on the Hot 100 List on AfterEllen.com. She repeated the appearance the following year , being voted as number one on the list . In 2001 , Entertainment Weekly named Fey as one of their Entertainers of the Year for her work on Weekend Update . In 2007 , she was named one of the magazine 's Entertainers of the Year , and placed number two in 2008 . In 2009 , Fey was named as Entertainment Weekly 's fifth individual in their 15 Entertainers of the 2000s list . In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly crowned Fey as " The Once and Future Queen " ( an allusion to The Once and Future King ) in their feature on " Women Who Run TV , " calling her " the funniest woman in the free world . " EW quoted Mindy Kaling as saying , " I always feel unoriginal bringing up Tina as my inspiration , but she 's everyone 's inspiration for a reason . " The column also quoted praise by Zooey Deschanel and Lena Dunham . The newspaper editors and broadcast producers of the Associated Press voted Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year as the performer who had the greatest impact on culture and entertainment in 2008 , citing her impression of Sarah Palin on SNL . She has appeared on Forbes ' annual Celebrity 100 list of the 100 most powerful celebrities in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , and 2012 at No. 99 , No. 86 , No. 90 , No. 92 , and No. 79 respectively . In 2007 , the New York Post included Fey in New York 's 50 Most Powerful Women , ranking her at number 33 . Fey was among the Time 100 , a list of the 100 most influential people in the world , in 2007 and 2009 , as selected annually by Time magazine . Fey 's featured article for the 2009 list was written by 30 Rock co @-@ star , Alec Baldwin . She was selected by Barbara Walters as one of America 's 10 Most Fascinating People of 2008 . In September 2011 , Fey was ranked at the top of Forbes magazine 's list of the highest @-@ paid TV actresses . In June 2010 , it was announced Fey would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2011 . In 2014 , Fey was recognized by Elle Magazine during The Women in Hollywood Awards , honoring women for their outstanding achievements in film , spanning all aspects of the motion picture industry , including acting , directing , and producing . = = Charity work = = Fey 's charity work includes support of Autism Speaks , an organization that sponsors autism research . In April 2008 , she participated in Night of Too Many Stars , a comedy benefit show for autism education . Fey is also a supporter of Mercy Corps , a global relief and development organization , in their campaign to end world hunger . Fey narrated a video for Mercy Corps 's Action Center in New York City , describing hunger as a symptom of many wider world problems . She also supports the Love Our Children USA organization , which fights violence against children , who named her among their Mothers Who Make a Difference , in 2009 . She was the 2009 national spokesperson for the Light the Night Walk , which benefits the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society . = = Personal life = = In 1994 , two years after Fey joined Chicago 's Second City improvisational theatre troupe , she began dating Jeff Richmond , a piano player who later became Second City 's musical director and then a composer on 30 Rock . They married in a Greek Orthodox ceremony on June 3 , 2001 . They have two daughters : Alice Zenobia Richmond ( born September 10 , 2005 ) and Penelope Athena Richmond ( born August 10 , 2011 ) . In April 2009 , Fey and Richmond purchased a US $ 3 @.@ 4 million apartment on the Upper West Side in New York City . Fey has a scar a few inches long on the left side of her chin and cheek , the cause of which remained unexplained to the public until a 2008 Vanity Fair profile by Maureen Dowd , and subsequently in her autobiographical book , where she revealed that " during the spring semester of kindergarten , I was slashed in the face by a stranger in the alley behind my house " . = = Filmography = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = = = = = Video games = = = = = Awards and nominations = =

= WASP @-@ 44 = WASP @-@ 44 is a G @-@ type star in constellation Cetus that has the Jupiter @-@ size planet WASP @-@ 44b in orbit . The star is slightly less massive and slightly smaller than the Sun ; it is also slightly cooler , but is more metal @-@ rich . The star was observed by SuperWASP , an organization in search of planets , starting in 2009 ; manual follow @-@ up observations used WASP @-@ 44 's spectrum and measurements of its radial velocity led to the discovery of the transiting planet WASP @-@ 44b . The planet and its star were presented along with WASP @-@ 45b and WASP @-@ 46b on May 17 , 2011 by a team of scientists testing the idea that Hot Jupiters tend to have circular orbits , an assumption that is made when the orbital eccentricity of such planets are not well @-@ constrained . = = Observational history = = WASP @-@ 44 was observed between July and November 2009 by the WASP @-@ South , a station of the SuperWASP planet @-@ searching program based at the South African Astronomical Observatory . Observations of the star revealed a periodic decrease in its brightness . WASP @-@ South , along with the SuperWASP @-@ North station at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the Canary Islands , collected 15 @,@ 755 photometric observations , allowing scientists to produce a more accurate light curve . Another set of observations yielded a 6 @,@ 000 point photometric data set , but the light curve was prepared late and was not considered in the discovery paper . In 2010 , a European science team investigated the star using the CORALIE spectrograph and collected seventeen spectra of WASP @-@ 44 . From the spectra , radial velocity measurements were extrapolated . Analysis of collected CORALIE data ruled out the possibility that the detected radial velocity was caused by the blended spectrum of a spectroscopic binary star , supporting the possibility that the body orbiting WASP @-@ 44 was indeed a planet , designated WASP @-@ 44b . The Leonhard Euler Telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile was used to follow up on the discovery circling WASP @-@ 44 , searching for a point at which the planet transited , or crossed in front of , its host star . One transit was detected . WASP @-@ 44 , its recently discovered planet , the planets orbiting WASP @-@ 45 and WASP @-@ 46 , and a discussion exploring the validity of the common assumption amongst scientists that closely orbiting Hot Jupiter planets have highly circular orbits unless proven otherwise , were reported in a single discovery paper that was published on May 17 , 2011 by the Royal Astronomical Society . The paper was submitted to the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society on May 16 , 2011 . = = Characteristics = = WASP @-@ 44 is a G @-@ type star ( the same class of star as the Sun ) that is located in the Cetus constellation . WASP @-@ 44 has a mass that is 0 @.@ 951 times that of the Sun . In terms of size , WASP @-@ 44 has a radius that is 0 @.@ 927 times that of the Sun . WASP @-@ 44 has an effective temperature of 5410 K , cooler than the Sun . However , the star is metal @-@ rich with relation to the Sun . Its measured metallicity is [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 06 , or 1 @.@ 148 times that the amount of iron found in the Sun . WASP @-@ 44 's chromosphere ( outermost layer ) is not active . The star also does not rotate at a high velocity . The star has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 9 . It cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye . = = Planetary system = = There is one known planet in the orbit of WASP @-@ 44 : WASP @-@ 44b . The planet is a Hot Jupiter with a mass of 0 @.@ 889 Jupiters . Its radius is 1 @.@ 14 times that of Jupiter . WASP @-@ 44b orbits its host star every 2 @.@ 4238039 days at a distance 0 @.@ 03473 AU , approximately 3 @.@ 47 % the mean distance between the Earth and Sun . With an orbital inclination of 86.02º , WASP @-@ 44b has an orbit that exists almost edge @-@ on to its host star with respect to Earth . WASPA @-@ 44b 's orbital eccentricity is fit to 0 @.@ 036 , indicating a mostly circular orbit .

= Elephanta Caves = Elephanta caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri ( literally " the city of caves " ) in Mumbai Harbour , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east of the city of Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra . The island , located on an arm of the Arabian Sea , consists of two groups of caves — the first is a large group of five Hindu caves , the second , a smaller group of two Buddhist caves . The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures , representing the Shaiva Hindu sect , dedicated to the Lord Shiva . The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries , although the identity of the original builders is still a subject of debate . The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock . All the caves were also originally painted in the past , but now only traces remain . The main cave ( Cave 1 , or the Great Cave ) was a Hindu place of worship until Portuguese rule began in 1534 , after which the caves suffered severe damage . This cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect , and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to preserve the artwork . It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) . = = Geography = = Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri , is about 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) east of the Apollo Bunder ( Bunder in Marathi means a " pier for embarkation and disembarkation of passengers and goods " ) on the Mumbai Harbour and 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Pir Pal in Trombay . The island covers about 10 km2 ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) at high tide and about 16 km2 ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) at low tide . Gharapuri is small village on the south side of the island . The Elephanta Caves can be reached by a ferry from the Gateway of India , Mumbai , which has the nearest airport and train station . The cave is closed on Monday . The island is 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) in length with two hills that rise to a height of about 150 m ( 490 ft ) . A deep ravine cuts through the heart of the island from north to south . On the west , the hill rises gently from the sea and stretches east across the ravine and rises gradually to the extreme east to a height of 173 m ( 568 ft ) . This hill is known as the Stupa hill . Forest growth with clusters of mango , tamarind , and karanj trees cover the hills with scattered palm trees . Rice fields are seen in the valley . The fore shore is made up of sand and mud with mangrove bushes on the fringe . Landing quays sit near three small hamlets known as Set Bunder in the north @-@ west , Mora Bunder in the northeast , and Gharapuri or Raj Bunder in the south . The two hills of the island , the western and the eastern , have five rock @-@ cut caves in the western part and a brick stupa on the eastern hill on its top composed of two caves with a few rock @-@ cut cisterns . One of the caves on the eastern hill is unfinished . It is a protected island with a buffer zone according to a Notification issued in 1985 , which also includes " a prohibited area " that stretches 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from the shoreline . = = History = = Since no inscriptions on any of the island have been discovered , the ancient history of the island is conjectural , at best . Pandavas , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , and Banasura , the demon devotee of Shiva , are both credited with building temples or cut caves to live . Local tradition holds that the caves are not man @-@ made . The Elephanta caves are " of unknown date and attribution " . Art historians have dated the caves in the range of late 5th to late 8th century AD . Archaeological excavations have unearthed a few Kshatrapa coins dated to 4th century AD . The known history is traced only to the defeat of Mauryan rulers of Konkan by the Badami Chalukyas emperor Pulakesi II ( 609 – 642 ) in a naval battle , in 635 AD . Elephanta was then called Puri or Purika , and served as the capital of the Konkan Mauryas . Some historians attribute the caves to the Konkan Mauryas , dating them to the mid @-@ 6th century , though others refute this claim saying a relatively small kingdom like the Konkan Mauryas could not undertake " an almost superhuman excavation effort , " which was needed to carve the rock temples from solid rock and could not have the skilled labor to produce such " high quality " sculpture . Some other historians attribute the construction to the Kalachuris ( late 5th to 6th century ) , who may have had a feudal relationship with the Konkan Mauryas . In an era where polytheism was prevalent , the Elephanta main cave dedicates the monotheism of the Pashupata Shaivism sect , a sect to which Kalachuris as well as Konkan Mauryas belonged . The Chalukyas , who defeated the Kalachuris as well as the Konkan Mauryas , are also believed by some to be creators of the main cave , in the mid @-@ 7th century . The Rashtrakutas are the last claimants to the creation of the main cave , approximated to the early 7th to late 8th century . The Elephanta Shiva cave resembles in some aspects the 8th @-@ century Rashtrakuta rock @-@ temple Kailash at Ellora . The Trimurti of Elephanta showing the three faces of Shiva is akin to the Trimurti of Brahma , Vishnu and Mahesh ( Shiva ) , which was the royal insignia of the Rashtrakutas . The Nataraja and Ardhanarishvara sculptures are also attributed to the Rashtrakutas . Later , Elephanta was ruled by another Chalukyan dynasty , and then by Gujarat Sultanate , who surrendered it to the Portuguese in 1534 . By then , Elephanta was called Gharapuri , which denotes a hill settlement . The name is still used in the local Marathi language . The Portuguese named the island " Elephanta Island " in honour of a huge rock @-@ cut black stone statue of an elephant that was then installed on a mound , a short distance east of Gharapuri village . The elephant now sits in the Jijamata Udyaan zoo in Mumbai . Portuguese rule saw a decline in the Hindu population on the island and the abandonment of the Shiva cave ( main cave ) as a regular Hindu place of worship , though worship on Mahashivratri , the festival of Shiva , continued and still does . The Portuguese did considerable damage to the sanctuaries . Portuguese soldiers used the reliefs of Shiva in the main cave for target practice , sparing only the Trimurti sculpture . They also removed an inscription related to the creation of the caves . While some historians solely blame the Portuguese for the destruction of the caves , others also cite water @-@ logging and dripping rainwater as additional damaging factors . The Portuguese left in 1661 as per the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza , daughter of King John IV of Portugal . This marriage shifted possession of the islands to the British Empire , as part of Catherine 's dowry to Charles . Though the main cave was restored in the 1970s , other caves , including three consisting of important sculptures , are still badly damaged . The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 as per the cultural criteria of UNESCO : the caves " represent a masterpiece of human creative genius " and " bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilisation which is living or which has disappeared " . = = Overview = = The island has two groups of caves in the rock @-@ cut architectural style . The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock . All caves were painted in the past , but only traces remain . The larger group of caves , which consists of five caves on the western hill of the island , is well known for its Hindu sculptures . The primary cave , numbered as Cave 1 , is about 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) up a hillside , facing the ocean . It is a rock @-@ cut temple complex that covers an area of 5 @,@ 600 m2 ( 60 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and consists of a main chamber , two lateral chambers , courtyards , and subsidiary shrines . It is 39 metres ( 128 ft ) deep from the front entrance to the back . The temple complex is the abode of Shiva , depicted in widely celebrated carvings which reveal his several forms and acts . On the eastern part of the island , on the Stupa Hill , there is a small group of caves that house Buddhist monuments . This hill is named after the religious Stupa monument that they display . One of the two caves is incomplete , while the other contains a Stupa made in brick . = = Main cave = = The main cave , also called the Shiva cave , Cave 1 , or the Great Cave , is 27 metres ( 89 ft ) square in plan with a hall ( mandapa ) . At the entrance are four doors , with three open porticoes and an aisle at the back . Pillars , six in each row , divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers . The roof of the hall has concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals . The cave entrance is aligned with the north – south axis , unusual for a Shiva shrine ( normally east – west ) . The northern entrance to the cave , which has 1 @,@ 000 steep steps , is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period . The left panel depicts Yogishvara ( The Lord of Yoga ) and the right shows Nataraja ( Shiva as the Lord of Dance ) . The central Shiva shrine ( see 16 in plan below ) is a free @-@ standing square cell with four entrances , located in the right section of the main hall . Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves . The eastern sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance . Each wall has large carvings of Shiva , each more than 5 metres ( 16 ft ) in height . The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall and is flanked by Ardhanarisvara ( a half @-@ man , half @-@ woman representation of Shiva ) on its left and Gangadhara to its right , which denotes the River Ganges ' descent from Shiva 's matted locks . Other carvings related to the legend of Shiva are also seen in the main hall at strategic locations in exclusive cubicles ; these include Kalyanasundaramurti , depicting Shiva 's marriage to the goddess Parvati , Andhakasuravadamurti or Andhakasuramardana , the slaying of the demon Andhaka by Shiva , Shiva @-@ Parvati on Mount Kailash ( the abode of Shiva ) , and Ravananugraha , depicting the demon @-@ king Ravana shaking Kailash . The main cave blends Chalukyan architectural features such as massive figures of the divinities , guardians , and square pillars with custom capitals with Gupta artistic characteristics , like the depiction of mountains and clouds and female hairstyles . Layout : = = = Shiva @-@ Parvati on Kailash and Ravana lifting Kailash = = = The carving on the south wall to the east of the portico depicts Shiva and Parvati seated on their abode Mount Kailash . The four @-@ armed Shiva is seen with a crown and a disc behind it ( all damaged ) , the sacred thread across his chest , and a dressing gown covering up to the knee . Parvati , dressed in her finery with her hair falling to the front , looks away . Behind her at the right is a woman attendant holding the child , identified with her son Kartikeya , the war @-@ god . Many male and female attendants are seen behind the main figures . Shiva 's attendant , the skeleton @-@ like Bhringi , is seated at his feet . Other figures , not distinct , depict , among others , a royal @-@ looking tall person , ascetics , a fat figure , a dwarf , a bull ( the mount of Shiva ) , features of a Garuda , and two monkeys . The scenic beauty of the mountain is sculpted with the sky background amidst heavenly beings showering flowers on Shiva @-@ Parvati . This scene is interpreted as a gambling scene , where Parvati is angry as Shiva cheats in a game of dice . The carved panel facing this one is a two @-@ level depiction of Ravana lifting Kailash . The upper scene is Mount Kailash , where Shiva and Parvati are seated . The eight @-@ armed , three @-@ eyed Shiva wears headgear with a crescent and disc behind it . Most of his arms are broken , two of them resting on attendants ' heads . The Parvati figure , seated facing Shiva , remains only as a trunk . The panel is flanked by door keepers . Attendants of Shiva are also seen in the relief but mostly in a damaged state . Bhringi is seated near Shiva 's feet and to his left is the elephant @-@ headed son of Shiva , Ganesha . In this ensemble , the ten @-@ headed demon @-@ king Ravana is seen , with only one head left unscathed , and out of his twenty arms , only a few are discernible . Around Ravana are several demons . Numerous figures are seen above Shiva : the god Vishnu , riding his mount Garuda , to his left ; a skeleton @-@ figure ; and in a recess , Parvati 's mount , a tiger is depicted . A legend relates to both these panels . Once , Parvati was annoyed with Shiva . At this moment , Ravana , who was passing by Mount Kailash , found it as an obstruction to his movement . Upset , Ravana shook it vigorously and as a result , Parvati got scared and hugged Shiva . Enraged by Ravana 's arrogance , Shiva stamped down on Ravana , who sang praises of Shiva to free him of his misery and turned into an ardent devotee of Shiva . Another version states that Shiva was pleased with Ravana for restoring Parvati 's composure and blessed him . = = = Trimurti , Gangadhara and Ardhanarishvara = = = Described as a " masterpiece of Gupta @-@ Chalukyan art " , the most important sculpture in the caves is the Trimurti , carved in relief at the back of the cave facing the entrance , on the north @-@ south axis . It is also known as Trimurti Sadashiva and Maheshmurti . The image , 6 m ( 20 ft ) in height , depicts a three @-@ headed Shiva , representing Panchamukha Shiva . The three heads are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva : creation , protection , and destruction . The right half @-@ face ( west face ) shows him as a young person with sensuous lips , embodying life and its vitality . In his hand he holds an object resembling a rosebud , depicting the promise of life and creativity . This face is closest to that of Brahma , the creator or Uma or Vamadeva , the feminine side of Shiva and creator of joy and beauty . The left half @-@ face ( east face ) is that of a moustached young man , displaying anger . This is Shiva as the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava , the one whose anger can engulf the entire world in flames , leaving only ashes behind . This is also known as Rudra @-@ Shiva , the Destroyer . The central face , benign and meditative , resembles the preserver Vishnu . This is Tatpurusha , " master of positive and negative principles of existence and preserver of their harmony " or Shiva as the yogi Yogeshwar in deep meditation praying for the preservation of humanity . The aspects Sadyojata and Ishana ( not carved ) faces are considered to be at the back and top of the sculpture . The Trimurti sculpture , with the Gateway of India in the background , has been adopted as the logo of the Maharashtra Tourism Department ( MTDC ) . The Gangadhara image to the right of the Trimurti is an ensemble of divinities assembled around the central figures of Shiva and Parvati , the former bearing the River Ganges as she descends from heaven . The carving is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 5 @.@ 207 m ( 17 @.@ 08 ft ) high . The image is highly damaged , particularly the lower half of Shiva seen seated with Parvati , who is shown with four arms , two of which are broken . From the crown , a cup with a triple @-@ headed female figure ( with broken arms ) , representing the three sacred rivers Ganges , Yamuna , and Sarasvati , is depicted . Shiva is sculpted and bedecked with ornaments . The arms hold a coiling serpent whose hood is seen above his left shoulder . Another hand ( partly broken ) gives the semblance of Shiva hugging Parvati , with a head of matted hair . There is a small snake on the right hand and a tortoise close to the neck , with a bundle tied to the back . An ornamented drapery covers his lower torso , below the waist . Parvati is carved to the left of Shiva with a coiffured hair dress , fully bedecked with ornaments and jewellery , also fully draped , with her right hand touching the head of a female attendant who carries Parvati 's dress case . The gods Brahma and Indra , with their mystic regalia and mounts , are shown to the right of Shiva ; Vishnu , riding his mount Garuda , is shown to the left of Parvati . Many other details are defaced but a kneeling figure in the front is inferred to be the king who ordered the image to be carved . There are many divinities and attendant females at the back . The whole setting is under the sky and cloud scenes , with men and women , all dressed , shown showering flowers on the deities . In the chamber to the east of the Trimurti is the four @-@ armed Ardhanarishvara carving . This image , which is 5 @.@ 11 m ( 16 @.@ 8 ft ) in height , has a headdress ( double @-@ folded ) with two pleats draped towards the female head ( Parvati ) and the right side ( Shiva ) depicting curled hair and a crescent . The female figure has all the ornamentation ( broad armlets and long bracelets , a large ring in the ear , jewelled rings on the fingers ) but the right male figure has drooping hair , armlets and wristlets . One of his hands rests on Nandi ’ s left horn , Shiva 's mount , which is fairly well preserved . The pair of hands at the back is also bejewelled ; the right hand of the male holds a serpent , while the left hand of the female holds a mirror . The front left hand is broken but conjectured as holding the robe of the goddess . The central figure is surrounded by divinities . = = = Shiva slaying Andhaka and Wedding of Shiva = = = The engraved panel in the north end of the aisle is considered to be a unique sculpture , and shows Bhairava , or Virabhadra , a frightful form of Shiva . In the carved panel Shiva 's consort is seen sitting next to him , looking terrified . A female attendant is next to her . The central figure , which is much ruined below the waist , is 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) high and posed as if running . His headgear has a ruff on the back , a skull and cobra over the forehead , and the crescent high on the right . His facial expression is of intense anger discerned from his furrowed brow , swollen eyes , and tusks . The legs and five of the eight arms are broken , attributed to Portuguese vandalism . The smaller broken image Andhaka is seen below Bhairava 's image . It is interpreted that Shiva is spearing him with the front right hand , as conjectured by the spear seen hanging without any hold . Also seen is the back hand lifted up and holding an elephant 's skin as a cover ; the elephant 's head , carved tusk , and trunk are seen hanging from the left hand . The second left hand depicts a snake coiled round it . The hand holds a bowl to collect the blood dripping from the slain Andhaka . Furthermore , pieces of a male and two female forms , figures of two ascetics , a small figure in front , a female figure , and two dwarfs are also seen in the carved panel . An unusual sculpture seen above the head of the main figure of Shiva is of a " very wide bottle with a curved groove in the middle of it " , which can interpreted variously as : the aum or the linga or a Shiva shrine . The niche image carved on the south wall is an ensemble of divinities assembled around the central figures of Shiva and Parvati shown getting married ( Kalyanasundara icon ) . Parvati is seen standing to Shiva 's right , the ordained place for a Hindu bride at the wedding . The carvings are substantially damaged ; only one of Shiva 's four hands is fully seen and the right leg is missing . Shiva has a headdress with a shining disc attached to it . His garments are well @-@ draped , and well @-@ tied at the waist . The sacred thread is seen across his chest . Parvati is carved as a perfect figure with coiffured hair dress , well adorned with jewellery and is draped tightly to display depressions below the waist only . She is seen with a coy expression and is led by her father who has his right hand on her shoulder . Even though both her hands are damaged , it is inferred that her left hand clasped Shiva 's right hand as a mark of holy alliance . Brahma is sitting as the officiating priest for the marriage . Vishnu is witness to the marriage . Mena , the mother of Parvati , is seen standing next to Vishnu . The moon @-@ god Chandra , seen with a wig and a crescent , is standing behind Parvati holding a circular pot with nectar for the marriage ceremony . Just above the main images , a galaxy of divinities , bearded sages , apsaras ( nymphs ) , Vidyadharas , Yakshis , Gandharvas , Bhringi , and other male and female attendants are seen as witness to the marriage ceremony showering flowers on the divine couple . = = = Yogishvara and Nataraja = = = The panel to the east of the north portico is Shiva in a Yogic position called Yogisvara , Mahayogi , Dharmaraja and Lakulish . Resembling a Buddha , Shiva is in a dilapidated condition with only two broken arms . Shiva is seated in padmasana yogic posture ( cross legged ) on a lotus carried by two Nāgas . His crown is carved with details adorned by a crescent , a round frill at the back , and hair curls dropping on either side of the shoulders . His face is calm in mediation , his eyes half @-@ closed . This represents Shiva in penance sitting amidst the Himalayan mountains after the death of his first wife Sati , who was later reborn as Parvati . He is surrounded by divinities in the sky and attendants below . Also seen is a plantain with three leaves already open and one opening , as well as a sunflower blossom . These are flanked by two attendants . Other figures discerned from a study of the broken images are : Vishnu riding Garuda on a plantain leaf ; the Sun @-@ god Surya riding a fully saddled horse ( head missing ) ; a saint with a rosary ; two female figures in the sky draped up to their thighs ; a faceless figure of the moon with a water container ; three identical figures of a male flanked by two females ; the skeleton of a sage ; Brahma ( without one arm ) riding a swan ; and Indra without his mount ( elephant missing ) . The panel carving in the west niche opposite Yogishvara depicts Shiva as Nataraja performing the Tandava ( cosmic dance ) . The niche is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) high and set low on the wall . He wears well @-@ decorated headgear . The Shiva image displays a dance pose and had ten arms , but the first right and third left hands are missing . The remaining first right arm is held across the breast and touches the left side , the second right hand that is seen damaged with an out @-@ flaying pose is broken at the elbow . The third arm is damaged at the elbow , and the fourth is also broken but inferred to have held a Khatvanga ( skull @-@ club ) . The left arms , seen hanging , are damaged near the wrists . The third hand is bent ( but broken ) towards Parvati standing on the side and the fourth hand is raised up . The right thigh ( broken ) is lifted up , and the left leg is not seen at all , the elaborate armlets are well @-@ preserved and a skirt round the waist is tied by a ribbon . A tall figurine of Parvati stands to the left of Shiva , which is also seen partly broken but well bejewelled . An airborne female figure is seen behind Parvati . Other figures seen in the relief are : Vishnu riding a Garuda ; Indra riding his elephant ; the elephant @-@ headed Ganesha ; Kartikeya ; Bhrngi ; sages and attendants . = = = Main cave shrine = = = The central shrine is a free @-@ standing square cell , with entrances on each of its sides . Each door is flanked by two dvarapalas ( gate keepers ) . The Linga , the symbol of Shiva in union with the Yoni , and the symbol of Parvati together symbolise the supreme unity that is deified by the shrine . The Linga is set on a raised platform above the floor of the shrine by 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) . Six steps lead to this level from the floor level . The height of the eight dvarapalas varies from 4 @.@ 521 – 4 @.@ 623 m ( 14 @.@ 83 – 15 @.@ 17 ft ) . All are in a damaged condition except those at the southern door to the shrine . The southern gate statue has many unusual features – unusual headgear ; a large skull above the forehead ; lips parted with protruding teeth ; statues adorned with a single bead necklace , earrings , plain twisted armlets and thick wristlets ; a stooped right shoulder ; a globe held at navel level ; the robe is held at the right thigh by the left hand , and the legs are shapeless . = = = East wing = = = Several courtyards to the east and west of the main cave are blocked , though there is a 17 m ( 56 ft ) -wide courtyard that is accessible by entering the eastern part and climbing nine steps . A temple on the southern wall of the court depicts a well @-@ preserved fresco . The circular pedestal seen in the courtyard in front of the Shiva 's shrine near the east end , in the open area , is said to be the seat of Nandi , Shiva 's mount . On each side of the steps leading to the temple @-@ cave portico is a winged lion , or leogriff , each seated with a raised forepaw . The portico has chambers at each end and a Linga @-@ shrine at the back . Five low steps and a threshold lead into the central Linga @-@ shrine which is 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) wide and 5 m ( 16 ft ) deep and has a circumambulatory path ( Pradakshina @-@ path ) around it . At the back of the portico , near the east end , is a gigantic statue of a four @-@ armed doorkeeper with two attendant demons . At the north end is a standing figure holding a trident . His left hand rests on a defaced demon @-@ figure . The west wall depicts the Ashta @-@ Matrikas ( eight mother goddesses ) , flanked by Kartikeya and Ganesha , the sons of Shiva . Some of Matrikas are depicted with children , but all of them are shown by their respective mounts ( bull , swan , peacock , a Garuda , etc . ) which identify them . At the east end of the portico is another chapel with a plain interior and sunken floor . Water drips in this chapel . = = = West wing = = = The west wing , entered through the main cave , is in a semi @-@ ruined state . It has a small chapel and a cistern enclosed within the pillared cave , which is believed to be Buddhist . Another shrine to the west of the courtyard , with a portico , has carvings of Shiva in a yogic pose seated on a lotus carried by “ two fat , heavy , wigged figures ” . This carving also depicts a three @-@ faced bearded Bramha and several other figurines . Entering through the back door of the portico is a cave enshrined with a multifaceted Shiva Linga erected over roughly hewn salunkhs . At the door entrance on both flanks , statues of gatekeepers standing over demons and two fat , poised figures are seen . On the southern side of the door is an ensemble of a number of statues . Prominent among these is the Shiva carving , which is depicted with six arms and the third eye in the forehead . Though in a partly ruined state , the carving shows Shiva with an ornamented crown fixed with a crescent , seen carrying a cobra in the left hand , a club in another hand , and discerned to be in a dancing pose . Next to this image are a figure under a plantain tree and a Shiva image ( Yogishvara ) seated on a lotus . Also seen in the panel are a male figure riding a bull with a bell fastened to its neck , a female figure and another carving to left of Shiva , a female figure with a jewel on her forehead with neatly looped headdress , Indra riding an elephant , Vishnu with four arms , holding a discus in one of his left hands and riding on Garuda flanked by a small flying figure , and a male figure with crescent in his hair . = = Other notable caves = = To the south @-@ east of the Great Cave is the second excavation , which faces east @-@ northeast . It includes a chapel at the north end . The front of this cave is completely destroyed ; only fragments of some semi @-@ columns remain . The interior has suffered water damage . The portico is 26 m ( 85 ft ) long and 11 m ( 36 ft ) deep . The chapel is supported by eight eight @-@ cornered columns and two demi @-@ columns and is irregular in shape . At the back of the portico are three chambers ; the central one has an altar and a water channel ( pranalika ) , though the Linga is lost . The shrine door has some traces of sculpture ( a boy , a fat figure , alligators on the frieze , and broken animal figures at the head of a doorjamb ) . The door @-@ keepers of the shrine are now in fragments . A little to the south of the last cave is another cave in worse condition , with water damage . It is a portico in which each end probably had a chapel or room with pillars in front . Two of them have cells at the back . The central door at the back of the portico leads to a damaged shrine . The shrine door has door @-@ keepers at each side , leaning on dwarfs with flying figures over the head , with door @-@ keepers and demons on the jamb and architrave . The shrine is a plain room 6 m ( 20 ft ) deep by 5 @.@ 7 m ( 19 ft ) wide with a low altar , holding a Linga . South of this cave is a cavern that may be used as a cistern . Above these caves is a tiger sculpture , which was worshipped as the tiger goddess Vaghesheri . This sculpture may be a guardian of the north entrance of Cave 1 . A Linga is also found near a small pond at top of the hill . Sculptures depicting a stone with a sun and a moon and a mother suckling a child ( now moved ) were also found nearby . Across the top of the ravine from Cave 1 is large hall known as Sitabai 's Temple ( cave ) . The portico has four pillars and two pilasters . The hall has 3 chambers at the back , the central one a shrine and the rest for priests ( both are plain rooms ) . The door of the central shrine has pilasters and a frieze , with the threshold having lion figures at the end . The shrine has an altar , a water channel , and hole in the centre , in which a statue of Parvati may have been worshipped . A 17th @-@ century record states that " this cave [ has ] a beautiful gate with a porch of exquisitely wrought marble " and two idols , one of goddess Vetal Candi and a head being in a large square seat . Passing along the face of the eastern hill to the north of Sitabai 's cave is a small Hindu excavation with a veranda , which was probably to be three cells , but was abandoned following the discovery of a flaw in the rock . Towards the east of hill is a dry pond , with large artificial boulders and Buddhist cisterns along its banks . At the end of the north spur of the main hill is a mound that resembles a Buddhist stupa . = = Preservation = = The threats to Elephanta Caves have been identified as the following : developmental pressures ( mainly due to its location within the Mumbai harbour ) , anthropogenic pressure due to growth of population of the communities residing on the island , industrial growth of the port facilities close to the island , no risk preparedness plan to address natural calamities such as earthquake , cyclones and terrorist attacks , unsustainable tourism and tourist facilities on the island , and poor management of the heritage monument . Preservation of Elephanta Island as a whole with its monuments has been ensured both through legislation and by physical restoration of the caves and its sculptures . The basic legislations enacted are : The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act of 1958 and Rules ( 1959 ) ; The Elephanta Island ( Protected Monument ) Rules of 1957 , which prohibits mining , quarrying , blasting , excavation and other operations near the monument ; the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act promulgated in 1972 with its Rules promulgated in 1973 ; a Notification issued in 1985 declaring the entire island and a 1 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) area from the shore as " a prohibited area " ; a series of Maharashtra State Government environmental acts protecting the site ; the 1966 Regional and Town Planning Act ; and the 1995 Heritage Regulations for Greater Bombay . The Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) , Aurangabad Circle , on the basis of the above legislation and rules , maintain and manage the monuments . The physical measures undertaken for conservation cover include stabilisation of the rock face , construction of supports to the cave structures where pillars have collapsed , and consolidation of cave floors and construction of a parapet wall surrounding the site . In addition , visitor facilities at the site have been upgraded ( such as toilet facilities , railing construction , pathways , and a flight of steps from the jetty to the caves ) . An on @-@ site museum has been established and a conservation plan has been put in place . Overall , conservation of the property is stated to be good . The site receives approximately 25 @,@ 000 visitors per month . Public information brochures are also available at the venue of the monuments . During the World Heritage Day on 18 April and World Heritage Week between 19 and 25 November there are special events held at the caves . Another popular event organised is an annual traditional dance festival that attracts many visitors . After declaring the caves a World Heritage Site , UNESCO granted $ 100 @,@ 000 to document the site 's history and draw up a site plan . A part of the grant was used for conservation of the caves . Based on assessments by UNESCO , management plans include : better communication and collaboration between the ASI , on @-@ site staff , and other responsible government departments ; improved public information and awareness programs ; monitoring environmental impact of tourists on the cave and island environment ; greater attention to the maintenance of the rocks to address water leakages into the caves ; and daily monitoring of both structural and chemical conservation measures . The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage ( INTACH ) is also involved with the Archaeological Survey of India in improving the local conditions at the cave site . A book has been published jointly by UNESCO , INTACH and the Government of India which presents a comprehensive site plan for restoration and a brief history of each sculpture constructed inside the caves .

= Devin Townsend = Devin Garret Townsend ( born May 5 , 1972 ) is a Canadian musician , songwriter and record producer . He was the founder , songwriter , vocalist , and guitarist in extreme metal band Strapping Young Lad from 1994 to 2007 and has an extensive career as a solo artist . After performing in a number of heavy metal bands in high school , Townsend was discovered by a record label in 1993 and was asked to perform lead vocals on Steve Vai 's album Sex & Religion . After recording and touring with Vai , Townsend was discouraged by what he found in the music industry , and vented his anger on the solo album Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing released under the pseudonym Strapping Young Lad . He soon assembled a band under the name , and released the critically acclaimed City in 1997 . Since then , he has released three more studio albums with Strapping Young Lad , along with solo material released under his own independent record label , HevyDevy Records . Townsend 's solo albums , a diverse mix of hard rock , progressive metal , ambient , and new @-@ age , have featured a varying lineup of supporting musicians . In 2002 he formed the Devin Townsend Band , a dedicated lineup which recorded and toured for two of his solo releases . In 2007 , he disbanded both Strapping Young Lad and the Devin Townsend Band , taking a break from touring to spend more time with his family . After a two @-@ year hiatus , he began recording again , and soon announced the formation of the Devin Townsend Project . The project began with a series of four albums , released from 2009 to 2011 , each written in a different style , and Townsend continues to record and tour under the new moniker . Across all his bands and projects , Townsend has released twenty @-@ three studio albums and three live albums . Townsend 's trademark production style , featuring a heavily multitracked wall of sound , has been compared to the styles of Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . His versatile vocal delivery ranges from screaming to an opera @-@ esque singing , and his songwriting is similarly diverse . Townsend 's musical style is rooted in metal , and his albums are written to express different aspects of his personality . = = Biography = = = = = Early musical career ( 1972 – 1994 ) = = = Devin Townsend was born in New Westminster , British Columbia , on May 5 , 1972 . Townsend picked up the banjo when he was five , and began playing guitar when he was 12 . As an early teenager he befriended Brian " Beav " Waddell , who would later play guitars as part of the Devin Townsend Band and bass on the Devin Townsend Project . He participated in several metal bands while he was in high school , and founded Grey Skies at the age of 19 . Around the same time he joined a popular local group called Caustic Thought , replacing Jed Simon on guitar and playing alongside bassist Byron Stroud , both of whom would later become members of Townsend 's flagship band , Strapping Young Lad . In 1993 , Townsend began writing material under the name Noisescapes , a project he later described as " just as violent as Strapping Young Lad " . Townsend recorded a Noisescapes demo and sent copies to various record labels . Relativity Records responded to Townsend with a record deal and Townsend began work on what was to be the first Noisescapes album , Promise . Shortly afterward , the label introduced him to musician Steve Vai . Impressed with Townsend 's vocal work , Vai offered him the role of the lead vocalist on his new album Sex and Religion . After recording Sex and Religion , Townsend accompanied Vai on a world tour in support of the album . Townsend soon landed a second touring gig , this time with the opening band of Vai 's tour , the Wildhearts . He played live with the band throughout half of 1994 in Europe , and appeared as a guest musician on their single Urge . Ginger , the band 's frontman , remained close friends with Townsend , later co @-@ writing several songs on Infinity and the Christeen + 4 Demos EP . While on tour with the Wildhearts , Townsend formed a short @-@ lived thrash metal project with Metallica 's then @-@ bassist Jason Newsted . The band , known as IR8 , featured Newsted on vocals and bass , Townsend on guitar , and Tom Hunting of Exodus on drums . The group recorded a few songs together , although Townsend says that they never intended to go further than that . " People heard about it and thought we wanted to put out a CD , which is absolutely not true , " he explains . " People took this project way too seriously . " A demo tape was put together , but the material was not released until 2002 , when Newsted published the IR8 vs. Sexoturica compilation . Though Townsend was proud of what he had accomplished so early in his career , he was discouraged by his experience with the music industry . " I was becoming a product of somebody else 's imagination , and it was mixing with my own personality , " he later reflected . " This combination was appalling . " He pushed to get his own projects off the ground . Despite getting notable touring gigs with other musicians , however , Townsend continued to face rejection of his own music . Relativity Records dropped Noisescapes from their label shortly after Townsend accepted Vai 's offer , seeing no commercial appeal in Townsend 's music . " I have a hunch they only offered me a deal to get me to sing with Steve , " he mused . While touring with the Wildhearts , Townsend received a phone call from an A & R representative for Roadrunner Records , expressing an interest in his demos and an intention to sign him . The offer was ultimately rescinded by the head of Roadrunner , who regarded Townsend 's recordings as " just noise " . = = = Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing through Infinity ( 1994 – 1998 ) = = = In 1994 , Century Media Records offered Townsend a contract to make " some extreme albums " . He agreed to a five @-@ album deal with the record label , and also provided much of the guitar work on the 1994 album Millennium and the 1995 album Hard Wired by Vancouver industrial band Front Line Assembly . Townsend began to record material under the pseudonym Strapping Young Lad . He avoided using his real name at this point in career , looking for a fresh start after his high @-@ profile Vai gig . " At the beginning , I wanted to avoid at all cost to use my name because I was known as the singer for Steve Vai and it wasn 't the best publicity to have , " he later explained . " I was playing somebody else 's music and I was judged in respect to that music . " Townsend produced and performed nearly all the instruments on the debut studio album , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing , which was released in April 1995 . Following the release of the record , Townsend and several other musician friends he knew in Vancouver recorded his first solo album in 1996 entitled Punky Brüster – Cooked on Phonics . Written and recorded in under a month , the album was produced as a parody of punk rock bands and documents the act of selling out for mainstream success . Townsend founded his own independent record label , HevyDevy Records , to release the album . Townsend assembled a permanent lineup of Strapping Young Lad to record City , including prolific metal drummer Gene Hoglan , along with Townsend 's former bandmates Jed Simon on guitar and Byron Stroud on bass . The industrial @-@ influenced album was released in 1997 . To this day , the album is widely considered Strapping Young Lad 's best work , with Metal Maniacs calling it " groundbreaking " and Revolver naming it " one of the greatest metal albums of all time " . Townsend himself considers it the band 's " ultimate " album . Later that year , Townsend released his second solo album , Ocean Machine : Biomech . The album featured a mix of hard rock , ambient , and progressive rock . After the completion of City and Ocean Machine : Biomech , Townsend began to approach a mental breakdown . " I started to see human beings as little lonesome , water based , pink meat , " he explained , " life forms pushing air through themselves and making noises that the other little pieces of meat seemed to understand . " In 1997 , he checked himself into a mental @-@ health hospital , where he was diagnosed with bipolar disorder . The diagnosis helped him understand where the two sides of his music were coming from ; he felt his disorder " gave birth to the two extremes that are Strapping 's City record and Ocean Machine : Biomech . " After being discharged from the hospital , Townsend found that " everything just clicked " and he was able to write his third solo album , Infinity , which he described as " the parent project " of City and Ocean Machine : Biomech , with music influenced by Broadway . Townsend returned to the studio , accompanied by Hoglan , to work on the album , on which Townsend played most of the instruments . Infinity was released in October 1998 . Later in his career , Townsend has cited Infinity as his favorite solo record . With Infinity , Townsend began to label all albums outside of Strapping Young Lad under his own name , dropping the Ocean Machine moniker , to reduce confusion . He wanted to show that despite the highly varied nature of his projects , they are all simply aspects of his identity . The album Biomech was relabeled and redistributed as Ocean Machine : Biomech , under Townsend 's name , to reflect the new arrangement . Townsend 's bandmates began to play two sets at their shows , one as Strapping Young Lad , and one as the Devin Townsend Band , playing songs from Townsend 's solo albums . = = = Physicist and Terria ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = Townsend 's next project took several years to come to fruition . After the creation of the IR8 demo tape , Townsend and Jason Newsted had begun work on a new project called Fizzicist , which they described as " heavier than Strapping Young Lad " . When the IR8 tape was leaked , Newsted 's Metallica bandmates James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich learned of the project . Hetfield was " fucking pissed " that Newsted was playing outside the band , and Newsted was prevented by his bandmates from working on any more side projects . With the project stalled , Townsend instead wrote the album himself , entitling it Physicist . Townsend assembled his Strapping Young Lad bandmates to record it , the only time this lineup was featured on a Devin Townsend album . The thrash @-@ influenced Physicist was released in June 2000 , and is generally considered a low point in Townsend 's career . Hoglan and the rest of the band were dissatisfied with the way the sound was mixed , and Townsend considers it his worst album to date . Feeling he had " ostracized a bunch of fans " with Physicist , Townsend felt he had the chance to make a more personal and honest record . Townsend was inspired one morning while driving across Canada with his band , and looked to write an " introspective " album dedicated to his homeland . He produced and recorded Terria , a " highly illustrated stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness " album , with Gene Hoglan on drums , Craig McFarland on bass and Jamie Meyer on keyboards . Townsend cited Ween 's White Pepper as an inspiration for the album . Terria was released in November 2001 . = = = Strapping Young Lad through Synchestra ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = = Townsend 's solo run lasted until 2002 . After a five @-@ year break from recording , Strapping Young Lad reunited to record a new album . Townsend credits the album , Strapping Young Lad , as an emotional response to the attacks of September 11 , 2001 , in the United States . " If the world 's about to blow up , " said Townsend , " let 's write the soundtrack for it . " The album 's lyrics were based more around fear and insecurity than the " hostile " lyrics of City . Musically , Strapping Young Lad was less industrial than City , and more reminiscent of death metal , with a " larger @-@ than @-@ life " rock production style . Townsend cited Front Line Assembly , Grotus , and Samael 's Passage as influences . The self @-@ titled album was released in February 2003 . It received lukewarm reviews , with critics finding it inferior to City , but it was the band 's first charting album , entering at 97th place on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart . While Strapping Young Lad was being reunited , Townsend formed a new , permanent band " on par with Strapping " to record and tour for his solo releases . The Devin Townsend Band consisted of Brian " Beav " Waddell on guitar , Mike Young on bass , Ryan Van Poederooyen on drums , and Dave Young on keyboards . Townsend performed guitar , vocals , and production , as he did in Strapping Young Lad . Townsend worked on the band 's first album , Accelerated Evolution , at the same time he was working on Strapping Young Lad , spending half the week on one and half on the other . Accelerated Evolution , named for the pace of putting a new band together in under a year , was released a month after Strapping Young Lad . Mike G. of Metal Maniacs called it " the album of the year " , praising it for " the hard @-@ to @-@ accomplish trick of being extreme yet accessible , simultaneously heavy ' n ' rockin ' yet majestic and beautiful . " Prior to the formation of the Devin Townsend Band , Townsend had represented his solo releases live with the Strapping Young Lad lineup ; the band would play one set of Strapping Young Lad songs and one set of Devin Townsend songs . After the release of Accelerated Evolution , Townsend 's two bands toured separately for their separate albums . Strapping Young Lad began working on their next album , Alien , in March 2004 . Feeling that the band 's previous album did not live up to expectations , Townsend decided to take his music to a new extreme . To prepare for the new album , Townsend stopped taking the medication prescribed to treat his bipolar disorder . " I think that as an artist , in order for me to get to the next plateau , I kind of feel the need to explore things and sometimes that exploration leads you to places that are a little crazy , " he explains . " And Alien was no exception with that . " Although Townsend considered the album an " impenetrable mass of technicality " , it was well received on its release , selling 3 @,@ 697 copies in its first week and appearing on several Billboard charts . Around this time , Townsend also contributed to the soundtrack of the video game Fallout : Brotherhood of Steel . Shortly thereafter Townsend began putting together the next Devin Townsend Band record , with the working title Human . Townsend intended the album as the more " pleasant " counterpart to Alien . " It 's basically a record about coming back down to earth after being in space with Alien for a while . " The album ended up being renamed Synchestra and was released in January 2006 . Townsend showcased a wide variety of musical styles in Synchestra , blending his trademark " pop metal " with influences from folk , polka , and Middle Eastern music . The final Strapping Young Lad album , The New Black , was released later in 2006 . = = = Ziltoid the Omniscient and hiatus ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = Townsend withdrew from touring to spend time with his family . From home , Townsend completed his second solo ambient album , The Hummer , releasing it exclusively on his website in November 2006 . In May 2007 , Townsend released Ziltoid the Omniscient , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek rock opera about the eponymous fictional alien . This was truly a solo album ; he programmed the drums using Drumkit from Hell , a software drum machine that uses samples recorded by Tomas Haake of Meshuggah and played all other instruments himself . Shortly after the album 's release , Townsend announced that he no longer planned to tour or make albums with Strapping Young Lad or the Devin Townsend Band . He explained that he was " burnt out on travelling , touring , and self promotion " and wished to do production work , write albums , and spend time with his family without the stress of interviews or touring . In 2008 , Townsend lent his voice to characters in several episodes of the Adult Swim cartoon Metalocalypse ( see Musician cameos in Metalocalypse for more ) . The original character design for Pickles the Drummer , one of the series ' main characters , bore a striking resemblance to Townsend . The series ' co @-@ creator Brendon Small acknowledged the similarity , and altered the design before the series began . " We made sure he didn 't look like Devin Townsend . We gave him the goatee and the dreadover so he wouldn 't look like that . " = = = Devin Townsend Project ( 2008 – 2012 ) = = = After removing himself from the music industry , Townsend cut his trademark hair off and gave up drinking and smoking . Townsend found it " disconcerting " that he had difficulty writing music without drugs , and that he had trouble identifying his purpose as a musician . He spent a year producing albums in absence of writing , but found it unrewarding and decided to " pick up the guitar and just write " . This began a period of " self discovery " where he learned " how to create without drugs " . Over two years , Townsend wrote over 60 songs , and found that they fit into " four distinct styles " . In March 2009 , Townsend announced his plans for a four @-@ album series called Devin Townsend Project , with the goal of clarifying his musical identity and being " accountable " for the persona he projects to the public . The project 's concept includes a different " theme " and a different group of musicians on each album . Ki , the first album of the Devin Townsend Project tetralogy was written to " set the stage " for the subsequent albums . Townsend channelled his new @-@ found control and sobriety into Ki , a " tense , quiet " album , which contrasts with much of the music he had been known for . Additional female vocals were provided by Ché Aimee Dorval ( Casualties of Cool ) . Ki was released in May 2009 . The second entry , a " commercial , yet heavy " album called Addicted , was released in November 2009 and features lead vocals from Townsend and Dutch singer Anneke van Giersbergen . Brian " Beav " Waddell was recruited from the Devin Townsend Band to play bass . Townsend returned to the stage in January 2010 , touring North America with headliner Between the Buried and Me as well as Cynic and Scale the Summit . This was followed by a headlining tour in Australia and a series of high @-@ profile shows in Europe ( for example co @-@ headlining the Brutal Assault festival in Czech Republic ) . He headlined a North American tour with UK label mates TesseracT supporting , which began in October 2010 , and toured in Europe with support from Aeon Zen and Anneke van Giersbergen . The third and fourth albums in the Devin Townsend Project series , Deconstruction and Ghost , were released simultaneously on June 21 , 2011 . In December 2011 all four Devin Townsend Project albums with additional material were released as the Contain Us box set . Townsend performed all four of Devin Townsend Project albums in London and recorded them for a DVD box set called By a Thread : Live in London 2011 that was released on June 18 , 2012 . The first three shows were held at the University of London Union , November 10 – 12 , 2011 . Ki , Addicted , and Deconstruction were each performed on one night , respectively . The show for Ghost was held at the Union Chapel , Islington on November 13 , 2011 . These four shows were each entitled " An Evening with the Devin Townsend Project " . Despite the Devin Townsend Project being originally a four @-@ album series , Townsend decided to continue working under the moniker and released the fifth album , Epicloud on September 18 , 2012 . Again featuring Anneke van Giersbergen on vocals , Epicloud appeared on several European charts , peaking at number 8 in Finland . On October 27 , 2012 , Devin Townsend performed a one @-@ off show covering his musical career called The Retinal Circus at Roundhouse in London . The 3 @-@ hour performance was recorded in high definition and released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on September 30 , 2013 . Also in 2012 , Townsend played bass on the debut Bent Sea album Noistalgia . He also produced the record . Another project Townsend has mentioned several times between 2009 and 2012 is Obviouser , an album featuring " creepy , bass driven apocalyptic music " created with an " Ampeg rig " and an " Icelandic choir " . Working with many projects simultaneously at that time , Townsend stated in 2012 the Obviouser project is vying for pole position until " he wakes up and says ' he wants to do it ' " . = = = Casualties of Cool and Z2 ( 2012 – present ) = = = After Deconstruction and Ghost , Townsend announced a new album , Casualties of Cool , with which he started to work after the release of Epicloud . The album features Ché Aimee Dorval ( from Ki ) on vocals and Morgan Ågren on drums . Townsend described the album sounds like " haunted Johnny Cash songs " and " late night music " , highlighting it will be different than anything he has done before . Townsend referred the music of the album to be " closest to his heart " at this point of his life , and that it is an important and satisfying project he doesn 't want to rush . The album was completed on November 2013 , and a bonus disc was also made for the album , containing the leftover material from the main album as well as songs from Ghost 2 , the unreleased compilation of leftover tracks from Ghost . Originally in 2012 , Townsend stated that this album will be the sixth and the last album in the Devin Townsend Project series , but he ultimately confirmed that Casualties of Cool is its own project . Townsend also started a crowdfunding campaign through PledgeMusic to support the release of the album . The funding quickly reached its goal , and all additional funds were put directly to Townsend 's upcoming projects . Casualties of Cool was released on May 14 , 2014 . The album was re @-@ issued worldwide on January 15 , 2016 containing an additional DVD with live footage from the 2014 concert at the Union Chapel in London . From 2009 , Townsend worked on a long @-@ running album project called Z ² , a sequel to the album Ziltoid the Omniscient ( 2007 ) . Originally in 2012 , he teased he " may have just written the heaviest thing he 's ever done " for the album , and told there might a surprising lack of Ziltoid himself appearing on the album . However , in August 2013 , a London @-@ based radio station TeamRock Radio aired the first episode of Ziltoid Radio , a satirical radio show hosted solely by Ziltoid , this being one element of the Z ² project . Townsend also discussed a " ZTV " or " Ziltoid TV " is preceding the album . Later Townsend stated he has found the project hard to schedule and work with amidst touring and writing , stating " it takes a lot of effort " to keep the content with tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humour entertaining . After writing ideas for over 70 songs , Townsend stated he is finally going to finish the whole project , followed by the announcement the album will be released on October 27 , 2014 . The recording process started in May 2014 , and the final project includes the album , a Ziltoid TV program and a live show , with a " big graphic novel comic " and a documentary . The album itself is a double album , with disc one being the main album and disc two featuring Devin Townsend Project material ; according to Townsend , the album 's theme is " Ziltoid against the world " . The Devin Townsend Project disc is called Sky Blue and the Ziltoid disc is called Dark Matters . After finishing the album , Townsend stated the project was " punishing " and an " absolute nightmare to complete " due to amount of material against tight schedules . He also described the hardship of the project by telling " if he was ever going to start drinking [ again ] , the last months would have been it " , but now " he 's starting to get excited again " . Later , " after the chaos of finishing it had subsided " , Townsend stated he is really satisfied with the result . Townsend recently discussed at least a year @-@ long hiatus , beginning after the Z ² show taking place at the Royal Albert Hall on April 13 , 2015 . During the indefinitely long break Townsend intends to " recharge his batteries " , " get some inspiration and experiences " and to " see what the next chapter holds " for him . In 2014 , Devin recorded a ' poppy sounding ' song in Los Angeles with producer Brian Howes , but has decided against releasing . Devin mentioned he is against the project being contrived due to the current hard rock undertones in popular music . He described it as a " lukewarm heavy metal Devin song " . On December 11 , 2015 Townsend announced via Twitter that he was recording vocals for a song by Steve Vai . As of April 2016 , Devin is in the middle of recording the seventh DTP album , entitled Transcendence at Armoury Studios in Vancouver . = = Personal life = = Townsend has been married to Tracy Turner , his girlfriend since he was 19 . She gave birth to their first son , Reyner Liam Johnstan Townsend , on October 4 , 2006 . He is a vegetarian . = = Musical style = = = = = Projects = = = Townsend designed his two main projects , the aggressive Strapping Young Lad and his more melodic solo material , as counterparts . Strapping Young Lad 's music was a diverse mix of extreme metal genres : death metal , thrash metal , black metal and industrial metal . Townsend 's solo material blends many genres and influences , with elements of atmospheric ambient music , hard rock and progressive rock , along with pop metal and arena rock . He described it as " a highly orchestrated type of expansive music based in hard rock and heavy metal . Dense and produced with a large amount of ambient elements . " Despite Strapping Young Lad 's greater mainstream acceptance , Townsend identifies more with his solo material , and has never intended Strapping Young Lad to be the focus of his music . = = = Production style = = = As a self @-@ proclaimed " fan of multitracking " , Townsend has developed a trademark production style featuring an atmospheric , layered " wall of sound " . Townsend has drawn critical praise for his productions , which " are always marked by a sense of adventure , intrigue , chaotic atmospherics and overall aural pyrotechnics " , according to Mike G. of Metal Maniacs . Townsend mainly uses Pro Tools to produce his music , alongside other software suites such as Steinberg Cubase , Ableton Live , and Logic Pro . Townsend 's musical ideas and production style have drawn comparisons to Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . Townsend has carried out the mixing and mastering for most of his solo work himself . He has also mixed and remixed work for other artists such as Rammstein , August Burns Red and Misery Signals . = = = Playing style = = = Townsend mainly uses Open C tuning for both six and seven string guitar . He now also uses Open B tuning and Open B flat tuning ( Open C tuning tuned a half and a whole step down respectively ) on his six string guitars . Townsend 's technique varies from fingerpicking , power chords and polychords to sweep @-@ picked arpeggios and tapping techniques . He is also known for his heavy use of reverb and delay effects . He has expressed that he has no taste for shred guitar , saying that " Musically it doesn 't do anything for me " and that he only solos when he thinks that he can within the context of the song . = = = Vocals = = = Townsend 's employs a variety of vocal techniques in his work , including screaming , growling or even falsetto . His vocal range has been noted to be over 5 octaves ( C2 to F7 ) . = = = Influences = = = Townsend draws influence from a wide range of music genres , most prominently heavy metal . Townsend has cited , among others , Judas Priest , W.A.S.P. , Frank Zappa , Broadway musicals , ABBA , new @-@ age music , Zoviet France , King 's X , Morbid Angel , Barkmarket , Grotus , Jane 's Addiction , Metallica , Cop Shoot Cop and Fear Factory as his influences , and has also expressed his admiration for Meshuggah on several occasions , calling them " the best metal band on the planet " . Townsend lists Paul Horn and Ravi Shankar as the " two most important musicians in his life " . The two songs that Townsend credits with changing the way he thought about music are " The Burning Down " by King 's X , and " Up the Beach " by Jane 's Addiction . City was influenced by bands such as Foetus and Cop Shoot Cop , and The New Black 's influences were Meshuggah , and " more traditional metal " like Metallica . He is also influenced by orchestral and classical composers such as John Williams , Trevor Jones and Igor Stravinsky . = = Discography = =

= Zagreb Synagogue = The Zagreb Synagogue ( Croatian : Zagrebačka sinagoga ) was the main place of worship for the Jewish community of Zagreb in modern @-@ day Croatia . It was constructed in 1867 in the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia within the Austrian Empire , and was used until it was demolished by the fascist authorities in 1941 in the Axis @-@ aligned Independent State of Croatia . The Moorish Revival synagogue , designed after the Leopoldstädter Tempel in Vienna , was located on modern @-@ day Praška Street . It has been the only purpose @-@ built Jewish house of worship in the history of the city . It was one of the city 's most prominent public buildings , as well as one of the most esteemed examples of synagogue architecture in the region . Since the 1980s , plans have been made to rebuild the synagogue in its original location . Due to various political circumstances , very limited progress has been made . Major disagreements exist between the government and Jewish organizations as to how much the latter should be involved in decisions about the reconstruction project , including proposed design and character of the new building . = = History = = Encouraged by the 1782 Edict of Tolerance of Emperor Joseph II , Jews first permanently settled in Zagreb in the late eighteenth century , and founded the Jewish community in 1806 . In 1809 the Jewish community had a rabbi , and by 1811 it had its own cemetery . As early as 1833 , the community was permitted to buy land for construction of a synagogue , but did not have sufficient money to finance one at the time . By 1855 , the community had grown to 700 members and , on October 30 of that year , the decision was made to build a new Jewish synagogue . The construction committee , appointed in 1861 , selected and purchased a parcel of land at the corner of Maria Valeria Street ( now Praška Street ) and Ban Jelačić Square , the central town square . However , a new urban planning scheme of 1864 reduced the area available for construction , and the community decided to buy another parcel of 1 @,@ 540 square metres ( 16 @,@ 600 sq ft ) in Maria Valeria Street , approximately 80 metres ( 260 ft ) south of the original location . = = = Design and construction = = = Franjo Klein , a Vienna @-@ born Zagreb architect , was commissioned to build the synagogue . Klein , a representative of romantic historicism , modeled the building on the Viennese Leopoldstädter Tempel ( 1858 ) , a Moorish Revival temple designed by Ludwig Förster . It became a prototype for synagogue design in Central Europe . Zagreb Synagogue used the already developed round arch style ( Rundbogenstil ) , but did not adopt Förster 's early oriental motifs . The composition of the main facade , with its dominant drawn @-@ out and elevated projection and the two symmetrical lower lateral parts , reflects the internal division into three naves . At ground @-@ floor level , the front was distinguished by the three @-@ arch entrance and bifora , whereas the first @-@ floor level had a high triforium with an elevated arch and the quadrifoliate rosettes on the staircases . The synagogue occupied the greater part of the plot , facing west . It receded from the street regulation @-@ line in accordance with the rule then still enforced in Austria – Hungary , prohibiting non @-@ Catholic places of worship from having a public entrance from the street . The synagogue had a wider and slightly higher central nave and two narrower naves ; unlike Förster 's synagogue in Vienna , it did not have a basilical plan . Construction began in 1866 and was completed the following year . The synagogue was officially consecrated on September 27 , 1867 , a ceremony attended by representatives of city and regional authorities , Zagreb public figures , and many citizens . It was the first prominent public building in Zagreb 's lower town , and its architecture and scale aroused general admiration and praise . = = = 19th and early 20th century = = = With the new synagogue , an organ was introduced into religious service . The small minority of Orthodox Jews found this change to be intolerable , and they began to hold their services separately , in rented rooms . In the 1880 earthquake , the synagogue suffered minor damage and was repaired the following year . Largely due to immigration from Hungary , Bohemia and Moravia , the Jewish population of Zagreb quickly grew in size : from 1 @,@ 285 members in 1887 to 3 @,@ 237 members in 1900 , and then to 5 @,@ 970 members in 1921 . The synagogue became too small to accommodate the needs of the ever @-@ growing community . In 1921 a renovation was undertaken to increase the number of available seats . A 1931 plan to increase the capacity to 944 seats was ultimately abandoned . A central heating system was installed in 1933 . = = = Demolition during World War II = = = During the 1941 collapse of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia under the Axis invasion in the April War , the Independent State of Croatia was created . It was ruled by the extreme nationalist Ustaša regime . The Ustaša quickly started with the systematic persecution of the Jews , modeled after the Nazi Germany approach , and at times even more brutal . Racial laws were introduced , Jewish property was confiscated , and the Jews were subjected to mass arrests and deportations to death camps in Croatia and abroad . In October 1941 , the newly installed mayor of Zagreb , Ivan Werner , issued a decree ordering the demolition of the Praška Street synagogue , ostensibly because it did not fit into the city 's master plan . The demolition began on October 10 , 1941 , proceeding slowly so as not to damage the adjacent buildings ; it was finished by April 1942 . The whole process was photographed for propaganda purposes , and the photographs were shown to the public at an antisemitic exhibition first held in Zagreb . It was also shown in Dubrovnik , Karlovac , Sarajevo , Vukovar and Zemun , as an illustration of the " solution of the Jewish question in Croatia " . A fragment of the film footage of the demolition was discovered five decades later by the film director Lordan Zafranović during research for his 1993 documentary feature , Decline of the Century : Testimony of L. Z. ; 41 seconds of the film survives . This footage was also shown in Mira Wolf 's documentary , The Zagreb Synagogue 1867 @-@ 1942 ( 1996 ) , produced by Croatian Radiotelevision . The synagogue 's eight valuable Torah scrolls were saved due to an intervention by Leonardo Grivičić , an entrepreneur and industrialist who lived next door from Mile Budak , a minister in the Ustaša government . He was also close to Poglavnik Ante Pavelić and the Third Reich 's ambassador to Croatia , Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau . Although Grivičić did not have a significant political role in the Independent State of Croatia , he was considered trustworthy . On October 9 , 1941 , he learned about the regime 's plan to start the demolition of the synagogue on the following morning . By that evening , Grivičić secretly relayed the information to the synagogue 's chief cantor , Grüner , and during the night , the Torah scrolls were moved to safety . Shortly after the destruction of the synagogue , the Catholic archbishop of Zagreb Aloysius Stepinac delivered a homily in which he said : " A house of God of any faith is a holy thing , and whoever harms it will pay with their lives . In this world and the next they will be punished . " . The only surviving fragments of the building — the wash @-@ basin and two memorial tables from the forecourt , as well as some parts of a column — were saved by Ivo Kraus . He pulled them from the rubble shortly after the end of World War II . The wash @-@ basin and the memorial tables are now in the Zagreb City Museum . The column fragments are kept by the Jewish Community of Zagreb . = = Reconstruction efforts = = = = = 1945 – 1990 = = = Only one in five Croatian Jews survived the Holocaust of World War II . Between 1948 and 1952 , nearly one half of the surviving members of Jewish Community of Zagreb opted for emigration to Israel , and the community dropped to one @-@ tenth of its pre @-@ war membership . The Yugoslav communist regime nationalized virtually all real estate owned by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , including the plot in Praška Street . All this , combined with the new regime 's general hostility toward religion , made reconstruction of the synagogue nearly impossible . After World War II , the vacant site of the former synagogue was used as a makeshift volleyball court . The volleyball court made way for a prefabricated department store building , constructed in 1959 . The department store was completely destroyed in a fire on December 31 , 1980 , and was subsequently dismantled . Despite some earlier ideas about a permanent department store building on the same spot , and a 1977 architecture competition for its design , no construction took place . Instead , the parcel was turned into a parking lot , which it remains to this day . After 1986 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb began to consider a Jewish cultural center and a memorial synagogue . Two architects , Branko Silađin and Boris Morsan , both of whom participated in the failed 1977 department store competition , came forward on their own accord and contributed their ideas for a new Jewish center in Praška Street . Silađin 's vision was ultimately not accepted by the Jewish community ; instead , plans were being made for the construction of the cultural center and a synagogue , following an international architecture competition . However , despite support for the project both within Yugoslavia and abroad , the issuance of necessary permits was either stalled or denied by the municipal government . The project was not developed . = = = 1990 – present = = = By the autumn of 1990 , after the first democratic elections in Croatia , the municipal government finally approved the project . An architectural competition was planned for January 1991 . Political turmoil in the country , followed by the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Croatian War of Independence ( 1991 – 1995 ) , caused the project to be put on hold again . In 1994 President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman said to Jakov Bienenfeld , Council member of the Zagreb Jewish community , that they should build the new synagogue at the site of the former synagogue , which will be funded by the Croatian government . Bienenfeld declined the offer believing to be inappropriate when 1800 Catholic churches are left destroyed at the time , during Croatian War of Independence . In the meantime , the Jewish Community of Zagreb sought to legally reacquire its property . The Croatian denationalization law was enacted in 1996 , and the Praška Street parcel was finally returned to the community on December 31 , 1999 . By 2000 , reconstruction activities were invigorated again . An investment study was submitted to the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb in July 2004 and revised in October 2004 . The architecture competition was planned for 2005 . However , a 2005 rift in the Jewish Community of Zagreb resulted in formation of a splinter Jewish community , Bet Israel , led by Ivo and Slavko Goldstein . In September 2006 , the Government of Croatia formed a construction workgroup . It was decided that the project , estimated at the time at HRK 173 million ( US $ 30 million ) , would be partially financed by the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb , and that both Jewish organizations should be represented in the workgroup . However , the involvement of Bet Israel was deemed unacceptable by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , which is the sole owner of the Praška Street property , and which also sees itself as the sole legal representative of the Zagreb Jewish community . As a consequence , the community and its president , Ognjen Kraus , refused further participation in the project under the set conditions . Further disagreements existed about the design and character of the new building . Facsimile reconstruction , while feasible , was not seriously contemplated . There was a general agreement that the new building should also have a cultural as well as commercial purpose . While the Jewish Community of Zagreb envisioned a modern design reminiscent of the original synagogue , the Bet Israel advocated building a replica of the original synagogue 's facade , perceiving it as having a powerful symbolism . Opinions of architects , urban planners , and art historians were also divided along similar lines . In 2014 and 2015 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb presented new plans for a 10 @,@ 600 m2 ( 114 @,@ 000 sq ft ) multi @-@ purpose Jewish center and synagogue in Praška Street .

= 1806 Great Coastal hurricane = The 1806 Great Coastal hurricane was a severe and damaging storm along the East Coast of the United States which produced upwards of 36 in ( 91 cm ) of rainfall in parts of Massachusetts . First observed east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August , the hurricane arrived at the Bahamas by 19 August . The disturbance continued to drift northward and made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina on 22 August . The storm soon moved out to sea as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , persisting off of New England before dissipating south of Nova Scotia on 25 August as a markedly weaker storm . Several French and British military ships were damaged out at sea . In the Carolinas , salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries suffered considerably , and several individuals were killed . Wharves and vessels endured moderate damage , with many ships wrecked on North Carolinan barrier islands . A majority of the deaths caused by the hurricane occurred aboard the Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom offshore of Barnegat Inlet , New Jersey , with 21 of the ship 's 48 passengers killed and $ 171 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) in damage to its cargo . Upon arriving in New England , reports indicated extreme rainfall , though no deaths were reported ; in all , the hurricane killed more than 24 individuals along the entirety of its track . = = Meteorological history = = The Great Coastal hurricane of 1806 was first noted far east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August . Weather historian David M. Ludlum followed the disturbance 's track to the Bahamas by 19 August ; intense winds persisted until 21 August , however , approximately 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of the Bahamian island of Eleuthera . Steering currents brought the storm northward , and it approached Charleston , South Carolina on 22 August , where a generally easterly flow preceded the storm indicated its passage far east of the city . The hurricane made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina later that day , though the earliest impacts from the storm started several days earlier , with gusts initially toward the northeast but later curving southwestward . Reports of similar wind shifts throughout the region suggested that the gale persisted , stationary , for several hours . It eventually moved back out to sea while south of Norfolk , Virginia , departing the region on 24 August . The hurricane maintained 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while offshore , equivalent to a Category 2 system on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . While offshore New England , the gale featured a swath of winds 90 mi ( 150 km ) wide , and was last observed just south of Nova Scotia on 25 August slightly weaker , with sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . = = Impact = = The hurricane damaged several vessels while still drifting at sea , dispersing and damaging Jérôme Bonaparte 's fleet and dismasting the 74 @-@ gun French ship of the line Impétueux , which later landed near Cape Henry . In Charleston , South Carolina , the hurricane washed aground several ships and uprooted numerous trees , though damage to the city harbor was minimal . The lighthouse on North Island flanking Winyah Bay collapsed under high winds , and in Georgetown proper , the hurricane was considered to be the worst since the 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane , despite its storm surge being of a lesser size . A cotton field covering 94 acres was ruined nearby . At Smithville , North Carolina , numerous ships experienced damage , while considerable destruction to structures was observed , with many wharves wrecked . Meanwhile , at Wilmington , the hurricane inflicted widespread damage , with many wharves severely damaged , and significant losses sustained by salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries . The gable sections of three masonry houses were destroyed by wind or water , and wooden houses suffered especially badly , with many obliterated and those under construction flattened . One individual died after a wall collapsed and several slaves were killed , one by drowning , at local plantations . At Bald Head Island , the United States Revenue Cutter Service vessel Governor Williams was stripped of its foremast and subsequently ran ashore before being repaired and continuing on its journey . A second boat owned by the agency , the Diligence , was tethered at port in Wilmington and endured no damage ; similarly , little impact occurred at New Bern . Throughout the storm , several vessels and supplies of stranded sailors were driven aground along the North Carolinan coast . On the Bogue Banks , the remains of the Adolphus and Atlantic were discovered , and at the Core Banks , a dead body was washed ashore , partially eaten by fish . Moderate damage occurred upon the hurricane 's arrival in Norfolk , Virginia . Winds toppled a number of newly built structures and chimneys , uprooted trees and fences , and washed two watercraft aground . After the storm , alterations to the shoreline around the Chesapeake Bay permitted the full establishment of a town at Willoughby Spit . The Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom was caught in the hurricane while offshore of Barnegat Inlet , New Jersey , en route to New York City from Charleston , but was struck by a large wave which overturned the ship , resulting in the deaths of 21 of its 48 passengers and the loss of $ 171 @,@ 000 of its $ 180 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) cargo . The vessel only barely stayed afloat , with 30 bales of cotton preventing it from sinking entirely ; survivors were ferried to New York by the British brig Swift , which had then been traveling toward St. John 's , Newfoundland . The hurricane produced strong gusts within the vicinity of New York City , and at Belleville , New Jersey , several peach trees were defoliated and uprooted . Cape Cod , Massachusetts was struck by heavy rain and observed minor damage to its port . At Edgartown , meanwhile , an individual witnessed torrential rainfall , recording that a barrel was filled with 30 in ( 76 cm ) of water , and estimating total rainfall reached 36 in ( 91 cm ) there , where the storm devastated local crops and beached five cargo ships . At Brewster , meanwhile , severe damage to crops and salterns was noted , and 18 in ( 46 cm ) of rainfall was recorded . Reports in Boston , however , indicate more modest rainfall amounts , with a precipitation rate of 0 @.@ 40 in ( 1 @.@ 0 cm ) per hour noted .

= Forward Intelligence Team = Forward Intelligence Teams ( FITs ) are two or more police officers who are deployed by UK police forces to gather intelligence on the ground and in some circumstances , to disrupt activists and deter anti @-@ social behaviour . They use cameras , camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . An unsuccessful legal challenge has been made against their use of overt surveillance , but in 2009 the Court of Appeal ruled that they must justify retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . Any retained information is recorded on the Crimint database . Political activists have criticised FITs and said that they feel the aim of FIT deployment during protests is to prevent legal protests . Journalists have also complained that FITs attempt to stop them photographing protests and that they conduct surveillance of journalists . A campaign group , Fitwatch , formed in 2007 that aim to obstruct FITs and conduct sousveillance on the officers . Two members of the group were arrested at the 2008 Climate Camp on obstruction charges . A similar police surveillance unit , the Video Intelligence Unit is operated by Greater Manchester Police . In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing . = = History and Purpose = = FITs were first formed in the early 1990s , as part of the Public Order Intelligence Unit ( CO11 ) , a section of the Public Order Branch of the Metropolitan Police . They initially targeted football fans , hunt saboteurs and political protesters ( since at least 1996 ) , using cameras , camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . The police officers wear full uniform , and are intended to be a highly visible presence . Their uniform is sometimes different from normal police officers in that the upper half of their yellow fluorescent jackets is blue . Civilian photographers are also employed by the police to work alongside FITs . According to Scotland Yard , the aim of FIT teams at protests is to record evidence of protesters in case disorder occurs later on at a protest . More recently the teams ' purpose has been extended to routine police work on low @-@ level crime and anti @-@ social behaviour and police forces throughout the UK now have their own FITs . Despite the implication in their name that their function is to merely gather intelligence , they are also intended to have a deterrent effect . This approach has been reported to work in reducing reports of anti @-@ social behaviour at times when FITs are deployed in specific neighbourhoods . Jacqui Smith , then Home Secretary praised Operation Leopard that used FITs to target youths , in Laindon , Essex stating : " Operation Leopard is exactly the sort of intensive policing that can bring persistent offenders to their senses ... Relentless filming of them and their associates throughout the day and night " Linda Catt , an activist , has suggested that their tactics are " designed to intimidate people and prevent lawful dissent " . This view is echoed by a police debriefing of their operations at the 2008 Camp for Climate Action which praised FITs at the event for disrupting activists . In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing . The move was influenced by the discovery that information collected by FITs , included that which was unrelated to suspected crimes , for example recording who made speeches at demonstrations . In October 2010 , FIT officers in plain clothes were spotted by a press photographer at a protest against companies avoiding tax , despite Commander Bob Broadhurst telling a parliamentary committee in May 2009 , that only uniformed officers distinguishable by their blue and yellow jackets were involved in gathering intelligence at protests . The Metropolitan Police told The Guardian that it was necessary to deploy plain @-@ clothed officers to " gather information to provide us with a relevant and up @-@ to @-@ date intelligence picture of what to expect " . It was the first time that FITs are known to have been deployed in plain clothes . = = Legal issues = = Liberty brought a judicial review of the overt surveillance practices in May 2008 , which was decided in favour of the police , however the police were asked to clarify their evidence to the Court of Appeal , following an investigation by The Guardian newspaper . In May 2009 , the Court of Appeal ruled that photographs collected by FITs of people who have not committed a criminal offence can no longer be kept . The ruling was made after Andrew Wood , an arms trade activist , was photographed after challenging the management of Reed Elsevier at their AGM over them organising arms trade exhibitions . Wood argued that police had harassed him and infringed his right to privacy by photographing him . Lord Collins of Mapesbury said that the police presence had a " chilling effect " on people who were protesting lawfully . FITs have not been banned but they must now justify the retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . As a result of the ruling the Metropolitan Police 's public order unit , CO11 was forced to delete 40 % of the photos of protesters that it held . In a report about the policing of the 2009 G @-@ 20 London summit protests , Denis O 'Connor , the chief inspector of constabulary , stated that the routine use of FITs at protests " raises fundamental privacy issues and should be reviewed " . He also said that there was " confusion " over the role of FITs and advised that the Home Office should issue guidance over the legality of the surveillance of protesters and the retention of images . = = Information processing = = The information that FITs collect is stored on the Crimint database , which is used daily by police officers to catalogue criminal intelligence . People are listed by name allowing police to determine which events individuals have attended . Photographs obtained by FITs are used to produce " spotter cards " consisting of people 's photographs which allows officers to identify people at future events that they attend . For £ 10 , people are able to obtain a list of protests that they have attended from the data held on Crimint under laws in the Data Protection Act 1998 . = = Academic response = = A 2006 report , The Economics of Mass Surveillance calculated that the use of FITs at mass gatherings involves gathering intelligence on roughly 1 @,@ 200 people to record the actions of one person . The report also noted that most of the people on " spotter cards " , used by the police photographers , were those involved in the organisation of protests and that FITs also attend meetings where demonstrations are organised . = = Criticism = = Fitwatch ( formed in early 2007 ) campaign against FITs by actively obstructing their operations , and by passively opposing their operations by photographing units ( a form of sousveillance ) . In June 2009 , The Guardian released video evidence recorded by a FIT at the 2008 Climate Camp of alleged police brutality against two female members of Fitwatch . The women had asked police officers to reveal their shoulder numbers , as at least four officers had not displayed them . The women attempted to photograph the police officers for evidence , but were forced to the ground , restrained with handcuffs , and had their legs bound with straps . They were then placed in restraint positions , arrested , charged and held in custody for four days , including three days in HMP Bronzefield , before they were released on bail . The police later retracted all the charges against the women . The women lodged a complaint with the IPCC over the incident . The journalist George Monbiot commented on this case , saying that " the police are turning activism into a crime " and that " the FITs ' methods appear to have been lifted from a Stasi training manual " . He claimed that " anybody who is politically active is filmed , identified , monitored , logged , and cross @-@ checked " . A police debrief into the operation at Kingsnorth praised the deployment of FITs saying that they were " highly effective and gained good intelligence and disruption " . Three members of Fitwatch were convicted for obstructing FIT officers in June 2008 as they attempted to photograph those attending a No Borders meeting in London . In July 2010 the Inner London Crown Court overturned the men 's convictions , with the judge stating that the protesters ' human rights may have been violated by the FIT officers . On 15 November 2010 , the hosts of the Fitwatch blog were asked by the Police National E @-@ Crime Unit to take down the website due to it " being used to undertake criminal activities " . The request came after a post on the blog after the 2010 student protest in London , which advised students of actions they should take if they were concerned that they were photographed at the demonstration , such as cutting their hair and disposing of clothing they were wearing . Emily Apple , one of the founders of the site told The Guardian , " Nothing in that post [ giving guidance to student protesters ] has not been said before on our blog or on other sites " . On 17 November 2010 , the Fitwatch website returned , hosted on a web server outside of the UK . The National Union of Journalists ( NUJ ) has criticised FITs for their surveillance and sometimes violent harassment of working journalists . Marc Vallee , who was hospitalised by police after documenting a protest , has said that the teams limit freedom of the press and called on the Home Office to confirm that the police had no right to restrict the work of photojournalists . Bob Broadhurst , who is in charge of public order policing at the Metropolitan Police , said in a statement to the NUJ in 2008 that journalists , " on the production of a valid form of accreditation will be able to continue with their work " . The NUJ are to make a formal complaint to the Information Commissioner due to the Metropolitan Police failing to provide details on the surveillance of journalists under the Freedom of Information Act . Bob Broadhurst told photographers at an NUJ conference that he had no faith in the National Press Card ( a form of press pass ) despite journalists needing to prove that they are bona @-@ fide newsgatherers to an independent authority before they are issued . The BBC TV series Panorama produced an episode entitled What ever happened to people power ? in July 2009 which discussed the use of FITs in targeting activists and journalists . = = Similar police units = = Greater Manchester Police operate a Video Intelligence Unit , whose plainclothes officers confront and video certain freed prisoners as they leave prison after serving their sentences . They also record footage of people involved in anti @-@ social behaviour on the streets . The aim is to give other police officers up to date information on the appearance of people who have broken the law . Video footage thus collected is constantly replayed on TV screens in rooms where officers complete their paperwork . Footage that they have recorded has also been uploaded onto YouTube in an attempt to catch people they believe have reoffended . This has resulted in several offenders being sent back to prison after breaching licence conditions . Since the unit was launched in 2006 more than 900 people have been filmed by the unit . Not all of these people are suspects in crime however , people can be filmed if they are thought to associate with prolific offenders or if they have been stopped in an area of high crime under suspicious circumstances . Kieran Walsh , a civil liberties lawyer , said the unit 's work " could have implications " for the force under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights - the right to privacy . He believes that filming must be a " proportionate and reasonable " response to a crime and that this does not appear to be the case as people are being targeted over what they might do in the future . It is uncertain as to how long data collected by the unit is to be kept but GMP currently anticipate it will be stored for 5 years .

= Trinsey v. Pennsylvania = Trinsey v. Pennsylvania 941 F.2d 224 was a case decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit that confirmed the validity of special elections held without a primary under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the United States Constitution . The case came about due to the death of H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , in a plane crash on April 4 , 1991 . Under the Seventeenth Amendment , state legislatures may give the Governor the power to appoint officials to fill temporarily vacant Senate seats until a special election can be held , and Pennsylvanian law contained a statute executing this and requiring no primaries for the special election . Instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidates . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a voter and potential candidate , asked the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania to declare the statute unconstitutional as a violation on the Fourteenth and Seventeenth amendments , because the lack of a primary removed his right to properly vote for candidates and delegated that power to political parties . After deciding that the statute 's subject matter necessitated the strict scrutiny approach , the District Court decided on June 10 , 1991 that it was an unconstitutional violation of the right to vote for and select Senate candidates . This decision was appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit , who decided against the use of the strict scrutiny approach and , in its absence , ruled that the statute was not a violation of the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments . Academics have been critical of both the decision reached and the approach used , with one suggesting that the " substantial state interests " test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller would be more appropriate . = = Background = = On April 4 , 1991 H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , was killed when his chartered plane collided with a helicopter inspecting its landing gear . Under the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the legislature of each state has the power to permit the governor to fill the vacant seat until a special election can be held . In Pennsylvania , this power had been delegated , and Governor Robert P. Casey signed a writ on May 13 , 1991 , declaring November 5 the date for a special election and temporarily appointing Harris Wofford to fill Heinz 's now @-@ vacant seat . Under Pennsylvanian law , there was no need for a primary in such a situation ; instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidate , who would run in the special election . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a member of the Pennsylvanian electorate and potential candidate , challenged the constitutionality of this law , claiming that it violated his rights under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments . Trinsey argued that , by failing to allow for primaries , the state legislation prevented him from getting to select a candidate of his choice , and that this violated the Fourteenth Amendment ; the terms of the statute ( and absence of a requirement for primaries ) also allegedly infringed the rights of the electorate under the Seventeenth Amendment , which required the selection of Senators by popular vote ; Trinsey 's complaint was that the legislation had effectively delegated the power to choose candidates to political parties rather than the electorate . Accordingly , Trinsey filed a motion for a declaratory judgment to state that the statute was unconstitutional , and also requested that Wofford be removed from his seat . Counsel for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , joined by the office of the Governor , argued that the constitution did not require the holding of primary elections to fill vacancies , and that the statute " protected valid and compelling state interests in protecting the validity of the electoral process and limiting the term of a [ governor- ] appointed Senator " . = = Judgment = = The case was first heard in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania , where , following oral arguments , the judge dismissed both Trinsey 's motion to remove Wofford and the Commonwealth 's motion to dismiss . On June 10 , 1991 , however , the District Court declared the statute unconstitutional , stating that it violated both the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments due to the failure to ensure " popular participation " through the use of primary elections . This decision was reached following an analysis of the legislative history of the Seventeenth Amendment and electoral processes ; based on this analysis , the court concluded that the Pennsylvanian use of a nomination process before a special election implied a right to vote , which was violated by the lack of a primary and necessitated a strict scrutinising of the legislation . After considering the evidence , the court concluded that " the interests the Commonwealth put forth in support of the statute could not outweigh the infringement of the right to vote " , leading to the conclusion that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional . With this " the public , press and political parties quickly turned their attention to the case " , with the Republican State Committee of Pennsylvania ( supported by their Democratic counterparts ) and several prominent politicians intervening . They moved to expedite an appeal to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit . In a unanimous opinion , the Court of Appeals ( consisting of Sloviter , Greenberg and Seitz ) confirmed that there was no restriction of any fundamental right , and therefore that the strict scrutiny process did not need to be applied . In the absence of this process , they held that the Seventeenth Amendment did not require primary elections to fill vacancies , and more broadly gave state legislatures wide discretion as to how to hold elections ; as such , the statute did not violate the constitution . In December 1991 the Supreme Court denied a writ of certiorari , presumably because the special election had already taken place in November and the issue was thus moot . = = Significance = = Laura E. Little , writing in the Temple Law Review , notes the dearth of guidance for either the District Court or Court of Appeals in Trinsey , with no " explicit direction and no direct precedent " from either the constitutional provisions or prior case law to rely on . In the absence of guidance , the Court of Appeals took a narrow view of the issues , something she criticises . Under Pennsylvanian law , primaries are mandatory in all other elections , and in her opinion the lack of a primary in this case should have been judged to be a violation of Trinsey 's fundamental rights . Combined with the purpose of the Seventeenth Amendment - to ensure direct election - this should have led to the application of the strict scrutiny test , and the decision that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional . Kevin M. Gold instead suggests that the test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller , an analogous decision over the validity of New York state electoral law . In Valenti , the judiciary applied the " substantial state interests " test , which involves simply looking at whether the statute in question furthers the interests of the states , who under the Seventeenth Amendment are given some discretion as to the electoral process they use .

= Michael Jordan = Michael Jeffrey Jordan ( born February 17 , 1963 ) , also known by his initials , MJ , is an American retired professional basketball player . He is also a businessman , and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets . Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards . His biography on the NBA website states : " By acclamation , Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time . " Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s . Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina . He was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982 . Jordan joined the NBA 's Chicago Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick . He quickly emerged as a league star , entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring . His leaping ability , demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in slam dunk contests , earned him the nicknames " Air Jordan " and " His Airness " . He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball . In 1991 , he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls , and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993 , securing a " three @-@ peat " . Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 – 94 NBA season to pursue a career in baseball , he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996 , 1997 , and 1998 , as well as a then @-@ record 72 regular @-@ season wins in the 1995 – 96 NBA season . Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999 , but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards . Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Awards , ten All @-@ NBA First Team designations , nine All @-@ Defensive First Team honors , fourteen NBA All @-@ Star Game appearances , three All @-@ Star Game MVP Awards , ten scoring titles , three steals titles , six NBA Finals MVP Awards , and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award . Among his numerous accomplishments , Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average ( 30 @.@ 12 points per game ) and highest career playoff scoring average ( 33 @.@ 45 points per game ) . In 1999 , he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN , and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century . Jordan is a two @-@ time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame , having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career , and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ( " The Dream Team " ) . He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015 . Jordan is also known for his product endorsements . He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers , which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today . Jordan also starred in the 1996 feature film Space Jam as himself . In 2006 , he became part @-@ owner and head of basketball operations for the then @-@ Charlotte Bobcats , buying a controlling interest in 2010 . In 2015 , as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises , Jordan became the first billionaire NBA player in history and the world 's second @-@ richest African @-@ American . = = Early years = = Jordan was born in Brooklyn , New York , the son of Deloris ( née Peoples ) , who worked in banking , and James R. Jordan , Sr. , an equipment supervisor . His family moved to Wilmington , North Carolina , when he was a toddler . Jordan is the fourth of five children . He has two older brothers , Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan , Jr . , one older sister , Deloris , and a younger sister , Roslyn . Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army . = = High school career = = Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington , where he anchored his athletic career by playing baseball , football , and basketball . He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year , but at 5 ' 11 " ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) , he was deemed too short to play at that level . His taller friend , Harvest Leroy Smith , was the only sophomore to make the team . Motivated to prove his worth , Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad , and tallied several 40 @-@ point games . The following summer , he grew four inches ( 10 cm ) and trained rigorously . Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster , Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play . As a senior , he was selected to the McDonald 's All @-@ American Team after averaging a triple @-@ double : 29 @.@ 2 points , 11 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 10 @.@ 1 assists . Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs , including Duke , North Carolina , South Carolina , Syracuse , and Virginia . In 1981 , Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina , where he majored in cultural geography . = = College career = = As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team @-@ oriented system , he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13 @.@ 4 points per game ( ppg ) on 53 @.@ 4 % shooting ( field goal percentage ) . He made the game @-@ winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown , which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing . Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career . During his three seasons at North Carolina , he averaged 17 @.@ 7 ppg on 54 @.@ 0 % shooting , and added 5 @.@ 0 rebounds per game ( rpg ) . He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All @-@ American First Team in both his sophomore ( 1983 ) and junior ( 1984 ) seasons . After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984 , Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft . The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick , after Hakeem Olajuwon ( Houston Rockets ) and Sam Bowie ( Portland Trail Blazers ) . One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center . However , the Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center , but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan , in part because Portland already had a guard with similar skills to Jordan , Clyde Drexler . ESPN , citing Bowie 's injury @-@ laden college career , named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history . Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986 . = = Professional career = = = = = Early NBA years ( 1984 – 1987 ) = = = During his first season in the NBA , Jordan averaged 28 @.@ 2 ppg on 51 @.@ 5 % shooting . He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas , and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading " A Star Is Born " just over a month into his professional career . Jordan was also voted in as an All @-@ Star starter by the fans in his rookie season . Controversy arose before the All @-@ Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players , led by Isiah Thomas , were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving . This led to a so @-@ called " freeze @-@ out " on Jordan , where players refused to pass him the ball throughout the game . The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play , and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year . The Bulls finished the season 38 – 44 , and lost in the first round of the playoffs in four games to the Milwaukee Bucks . Jordan 's second season was cut short by a broken foot in the third game of the season , which caused him to miss 64 games . Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 – 52 record ( at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history ) , the Bulls made the playoffs . Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return . Against a 1985 – 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history , Jordan set the still @-@ unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2 . The Celtics , however , managed to sweep the series . Jordan had recovered completely by the 1986 – 87 season , and had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history . He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3 @,@ 000 points in a season , averaging a league high 37 @.@ 1 points on 48 @.@ 2 % shooting . In addition , Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess , as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocks in a season . Despite Jordan 's success , Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award . The Bulls reached 40 wins , and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year . However , they were again swept by the Celtics . = = = Pistons roadblock ( 1987 – 1990 ) = = = Jordan led the league in scoring again in the 1987 – 88 season , averaging 35 @.@ 0 ppg on 53 @.@ 5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award . He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year , as he had averaged 1 @.@ 6 blocks and a league high 3 @.@ 16 steals per game . The Bulls finished 50 – 32 , and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career , as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games . However , the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons , who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the " Bad Boys " . In the 1988 – 89 season , Jordan again led the league in scoring , averaging 32 @.@ 5 ppg on 53 @.@ 8 % shooting from the field , along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game ( apg ) . The Bulls finished with a 47 – 35 record , and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals , defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way . The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series . However , the Pistons again defeated the Bulls , this time in six games , by utilizing their " Jordan Rules " method of guarding Jordan , which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball . The Bulls entered the 1989 – 90 season as a team on the rise , with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant , and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson . Jordan averaged a league leading 33 @.@ 6 ppg on 52 @.@ 6 % shooting , to go with 6 @.@ 9 rpg and 6 @.@ 3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 – 27 record . They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers . However , despite pushing the series to seven games , the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season . = = = First three @-@ peat ( 1991 – 1993 ) = = = In the 1990 – 91 season , Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31 @.@ 5 ppg on 53 @.@ 9 % shooting , 6 @.@ 0 rpg , and 5 @.@ 5 apg for the regular season . The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season . With Scottie Pippen developing into an All @-@ Star , the Bulls had elevated their play . The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs . They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival , the Detroit Pistons , awaited them . However , this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four @-@ game sweep . In an unusual ending to the fourth and final game , Isiah Thomas led his team off the court before the final seconds had concluded . Most of the Pistons went directly to their locker room instead of shaking hands with the Bulls . The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face Magic Johnson and James Worthy and beat the Los Angeles Lakers four games to one , compiling an outstanding 15 – 2 playoff record along the way . Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when , attempting a dunk , Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid @-@ air to lay the shot in . In his first Finals appearance , Jordan posted per game averages of 31 @.@ 2 points on 56 % shooting from the field , 11 @.@ 4 assists , 6 @.@ 6 rebounds , 2 @.@ 8 steals and 1 @.@ 4 blocks . Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award , and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy . Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 – 92 season , establishing a 67 – 15 record , topping their franchise record from 1990 to 91 . Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 4 rebounds and 6 @.@ 1 assists per game on 52 % shooting . After winning a physical 7 @-@ game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games , the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals . The media , hoping to recreate a Magic – Bird rivalry , highlighted the similarities between " Air " Jordan and Clyde " The Glide " during the pre @-@ Finals hype . In the first game , Jordan scored a Finals @-@ record 35 points in the first half , including a record @-@ setting six three @-@ point field goals . After the sixth three @-@ pointer , he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside . Marv Albert , who broadcast the game , later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying , " I can 't believe I 'm doing this . " The Bulls went on to win Game 1 , and defeat the Blazers in six games . Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35 @.@ 8 ppg , 4 @.@ 8 rpg , and 6 @.@ 5 apg , while shooting 53 % from the floor . In the 1992 – 93 season , despite a 32 @.@ 6 ppg , 6 @.@ 7 rpg and 5 @.@ 5 apg campaign , Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley . Coincidentally , Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals . The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game @-@ winning shot by John Paxson and a last @-@ second block by Horace Grant , but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader . He averaged a Finals @-@ record 41 @.@ 0 ppg during the six @-@ game series , and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards . He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series , including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games . With his third Finals triumph , Jordan capped off a seven @-@ year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships , but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non @-@ basketball hassles in his life . = = = = Gambling controversy = = = = During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993 , controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City , New Jersey , the night before a game against the New York Knicks . In that same year , he admitted to having to cover $ 57 @,@ 000 in gambling losses , and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $ 1 @.@ 25 million from Jordan on the golf course . In 2005 , Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions . Jordan stated , " Yeah , I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope . Is that compulsive ? Yeah , it depends on how you look at it . If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family , then yeah . " When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family , Jordan replied , " No . " = = = First retirement and baseball career ( 1993 – 1994 ) = = = On October 6 , 1993 , Jordan announced his retirement , citing a loss of desire to play the game . Jordan later stated that the murder of his father earlier in the year also shaped his decision . Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23 , 1993 , at a highway rest area in Lumberton , North Carolina , by two teenagers , Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery . The assailants were traced from calls they made on James Jordan 's cellular phone , caught , convicted , and sentenced to life in prison . Jordan was close to his father ; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work . He later adopted it as his own signature , displaying it each time he drove to the basket . In 1996 , he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father . In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game , Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992 . The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever @-@ growing celebrity status . Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world . Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7 , 1994 . He reported to spring training in Sarasota , Florida , and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31 , 1994 . Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father , who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player . The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf , who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball . In 1994 , Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons , a Double @-@ A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox , batting .202 with three home runs , 51 runs batted in , 30 stolen bases , 114 strikeouts , 51 base on balls , and 11 errors . He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League , batting .252 against the top prospects in baseball . On November 1 , 1994 , his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center . = = = " I 'm back " : Return to the NBA ( 1995 ) = = = In the 1993 – 94 season , the Bulls , without Jordan , achieved a 55 – 27 record , and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs . But the 1994 – 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier . Struggling at mid @-@ season to ensure a spot in the playoffs , Chicago was 31 – 31 at one point in mid @-@ March . The team received help , however , when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls . In March 1995 , Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike , as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player . On March 18 , 1995 , Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two @-@ word press release : " I 'm back . " The next day , Jordan wore jersey number 45 ( his number with the Barons ) , as his familiar 23 had been retired in his honor following his first retirement . He took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis , scoring 19 points . The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975 . Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half , Jordan played well upon his return , making a game @-@ winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back . He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28 , 1995 . Boosted by Jordan 's comeback , the Bulls went 13 – 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic . At the end of Game 1 , Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind , leading to the game @-@ winning basket for the Magic ; he would later comment that Jordan " didn 't look like the old Michael Jordan " and that " No. 45 doesn 't explode like No. 23 used to . " Jordan then returned to wearing his old number in the next game , scoring 38 points in a Bulls win . The Bulls were fined $ 30 @,@ 000 for the game : $ 25 @,@ 000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA and $ 5 @,@ 000 for Jordan wearing different shoes . Jordan averaged 31 points per game in the series , but Orlando won the series in 6 games . = = = Second three @-@ peat ( 1995 – 1998 ) = = = Freshly motivated by the playoff defeat , Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995 – 96 season . Strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman , the Bulls dominated the league , starting the season 41 – 3 , and eventually finishing with the then @-@ best regular season record in NBA history ( later surpassed by the 2015 – 16 Golden State Warriors ) : 72 – 10 . Jordan led the league in scoring with 30 @.@ 4 ppg , and won the league 's regular season and All @-@ Star Game MVP awards . In the playoffs , the Bulls lost only three games in four series ( Miami Heat 3 @-@ 0 , New York Knicks 4 @-@ 1 , Orlando Magic 4 @-@ 0 ) . They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 @-@ 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship . Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time , surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards . He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All @-@ Star Game , regular season and NBA Finals , Willis Reed having achieved the first , during the 1969 – 70 season . Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder , and it was won on Father 's Day , Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title , including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball . In the 1996 – 97 season , the Bulls started out 69 – 11 , but missed out on a second consecutive 70 @-@ win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 – 13 . However , this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone . The Bulls again advanced to the Finals , where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz . The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career . He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer @-@ beating jump shot . In Game 5 , with the series tied at 2 , Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus . In what is known as the " Flu Game " , Jordan scored 38 points , including the game @-@ deciding 3 @-@ pointer with 25 seconds remaining . The Bulls won 90 – 88 and went on to win the series in six games . For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances , Jordan received the Finals MVP award . During the 1997 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Jordan posted the first triple double in All @-@ Star Game history in a victorious effort ; however , he did not receive the MVP award . Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 – 20 record in the 1997 – 98 season . Jordan led the league with 28 @.@ 7 points per game , securing his fifth regular @-@ season MVP award , plus honors for All @-@ NBA First Team , First Defensive Team and the All @-@ Star Game MVP . The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season , including surviving a seven @-@ game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals ; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks . After winning , they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals . The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14 , 1998 , leading the series 3 – 2 . Jordan executed a series of plays , considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history . With the Bulls trailing 86 – 83 with 41 @.@ 9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter , Phil Jackson called a timeout . When play resumed , Jordan received the inbound pass , drove to the basket , and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders , cutting the Utah lead to 86 – 85 . The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone , who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman . Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass , but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal . Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused , eyeing his defender , Jazz guard Bryon Russell . With 10 seconds remaining , Jordan started to dribble right , then crossed over to his left , possibly pushing off Russell , although the officials did not call a foul . With 5 @.@ 2 seconds left , Jordan gave Chicago an 87 – 86 lead with a game @-@ winning jumper , the climactic shot of his Bulls career . Afterwards , John Stockton missed a game @-@ winning three @-@ pointer . Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three @-@ peat . Once again , Jordan was voted the Finals MVP , having led all scorers averaging 33 @.@ 5 points per game , including 45 in the deciding Game 6 . Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record ; Shaquille O 'Neal , Magic Johnson , LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece . The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history . Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history . = = = Second retirement ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring , the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming , and being in the latter stages of an owner @-@ induced lockout of NBA players , Jordan retired for the second time on January 13 , 1999 . On January 19 , 2000 , Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player , but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards . Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive . He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations , and had the final say in all personnel matters . Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed . He managed to purge the team of several highly paid , unpopular players ( such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland ) , but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown , who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons . Despite his January 1999 claim that he was " 99 @.@ 9 % certain " that he would never play another NBA game , in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback , this time with his new team . Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter , Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training , holding several invitation @-@ only camps for NBA players in Chicago . In addition , Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach , Doug Collins , as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season , a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return . = = = Washington Wizards comeback ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = = On September 25 , 2001 , Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards , indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11 , 2001 attacks . In an injury @-@ plagued 2001 – 02 season , he led the team in scoring ( 22 @.@ 9 ppg ) , assists ( 5 @.@ 2 apg ) , and steals ( 1 @.@ 42 spg ) . However , torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games , the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 – 95 season . Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season , averaging 24 @.@ 3 points , 5 @.@ 4 assists , and 6 @.@ 0 rebounds , and shooting 41 @.@ 9 % from the field in his 53 starts . His last seven appearances were in a reserve role , in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game . Playing in his 14th and final NBA All @-@ Star Game in 2003 , Jordan passed Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar as the all @-@ time leading scorer in All @-@ Star Game history ( a record since broken by Kobe Bryant ) . That year , Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games , starting in 67 of them . He averaged 20 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 1 rebounds , 3 @.@ 8 assists , and 1 @.@ 5 steals per game . He also shot 45 % from the field , and 82 % from the free throw line . Even though he turned 40 during the season , he scored 20 or more points 42 times , 30 or more points nine times , and 40 or more points three times . On February 21 , 2003 , Jordan became the first 40 @-@ year @-@ old to tally 43 points in an NBA game . During his stint with the Wizards , all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out , and the Wizards were the second most @-@ watched team in the NBA , averaging 20 @,@ 172 fans a game at home and 19 @,@ 311 on the road . However , neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards , and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him . At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media , citing their lack of focus and intensity , notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft , Kwame Brown . With the recognition that 2002 – 03 would be Jordan 's final season , tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA . In his final game at his old home court , the United Center in Chicago , Jordan received a four @-@ minute standing ovation . The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11 , 2003 , even though Jordan never played for the team . At the 2003 All @-@ Star Game , Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson , but refused both . In the end he accepted the spot of Vince Carter , who decided to give it up under great public pressure . Jordan 's final NBA game was on April 16 , 2003 in Philadelphia . After scoring only 13 points in the game , Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers , 75 – 56 . Just after the start of the fourth quarter , the First Union Center crowd began chanting " We want Mike ! " . After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins , Jordan finally rose from the bench and re @-@ entered the game , replacing Larry Hughes with 2 : 35 remaining . At 1 : 45 , Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow , and stepped to the line to make both free throws . After the second foul shot , the 76ers in @-@ bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons , who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later , stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench . Jordan received a three @-@ minute standing ovation from his teammates , his opponents , the officials and the crowd of 21 @,@ 257 fans . = = Olympic career = = Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal @-@ winning American basketball teams . As a college player he participated , and won the gold , in the 1984 Summer Olympics . The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing , Sam Perkins , Chris Mullin , Steve Alford , and Wayman Tisdale . Jordan led the team in scoring , averaging 17 @.@ 1 ppg for the tournament . In the 1992 Summer Olympics , he was a member of the star @-@ studded squad that included Magic Johnson , Larry Bird , and David Robinson and was dubbed the " Dream Team " . Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics . Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts , Jordan averaged 14 @.@ 9 ppg , finishing second on the team in scoring . Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold as amateurs and professionals . = = Post @-@ retirement = = After his third retirement , Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position of Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards . However , his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard " Rip " Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse ( although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002 ) . On May 7 , 2003 , Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations . Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed , and that if he knew he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards . Jordan kept busy over the next few years by staying in shape , playing golf in celebrity charity tournaments , spending time with his family in Chicago , promoting his Jordan Brand clothing line , and riding motorcycles . Since 2004 , Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports , a professional closed @-@ course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association ( AMA ) until the end of the 2013 season . Jordan and his then @-@ wife Juanita pledged $ 5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School in 2006 , and the Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America . = = = Charlotte Bobcats / Hornets = = = On June 15 , 2006 , Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats , becoming the team 's second @-@ largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson . As part of the deal , Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation , with the title " Managing Member of Basketball Operations . " Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser , he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns . A decade earlier , Jordan had made a bid to become part @-@ owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team , the Charlotte Hornets , but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations . In February 2010 , it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats . As February wore on , it emerged that the leading contenders for the team were Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos . On February 27 , the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group , MJ Basketball Holdings , to buy the team pending NBA approval . On March 17 , the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase , making him the first former player ever to become the majority owner of an NBA team . It also made him the league 's only African @-@ American majority owner . During the 2011 NBA lockout , The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners wanting to cap the players ' share of basketball @-@ related income at 50 percent and as low as 47 . Journalists observed that , during the labor dispute in 1998 , Jordan had told Washington Wizards then @-@ owner Abe Pollin , " If you can 't make a profit , you should sell your team . " Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a " sellout " wanting " current players to pay for his incompetence . " He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison . During the 2011 – 12 NBA season , which was shortened to 66 games , the Bobcats posted a 7 – 59 record . Their .106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history . " I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year . It 's very , very frustrating " , Jordan said later that year . On May 21 , 2013 , Jordan filed papers to change the Bobcats ' name to the Hornets , effective with the 2014 – 15 season . The Hornets name had become available when the original Hornets , who had moved to New Orleans in 2002 , changed their name to the New Orleans Pelicans for the 2013 – 14 season . The NBA approved the change on July 18 . The name change became official on May 20 , 2014 . On the same day , the team announced that it had reclaimed the history and records of the original 1988 – 2002 Hornets . = = Player profile = = Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward ( the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards ) , and as a point guard . Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer . With the Bulls , he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds , including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests . His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash @-@ talk and well @-@ known work ethic . As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan , management had to trade away players who were not " tough enough " to compete with him in practice . To help improve his defense , he spent extra hours studying film of opponents . On offense , he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time . Noted as a durable player , Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 – 87 to 2001 – 02 , when he injured his right knee . He played all 82 games nine times . Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson , Walter Davis , and Jerry West as influences . From the start of his career , Jordan was unique among NBA players in that he had a special " Love of the Game Clause " written into his contract , which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time , anywhere . Jordan had a versatile offensive game . He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket , as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate ; his 8 @,@ 772 free throw attempts are the ninth @-@ highest total of all time . As his career progressed , Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot , using his leaping ability to " fade away " from block attempts . According to Hubie Brown , this move alone made him nearly unstoppable . Despite media criticism as a " selfish " player early in his career , Jordan 's 5 @.@ 3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates . In later years , the NBA shortened its three @-@ point line to 22 feet ( from 23 feet , 9 inches ) , which coupled with Jordan 's extended shooting range to make him a long @-@ range threat as well — his 3 @-@ point stroke developed from a low 9 / 52 rate ( .173 ) in his rookie year into a stellar 111 / 260 ( .427 ) shooter in the 1995 – 96 season . For a guard , Jordan was also a good rebounder ( 6 @.@ 2 per game ) . In 1988 , Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career ( since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon , David Robinson , and Kevin Garnett ; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season ) . In addition he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard , and combined this with his ball @-@ thieving ability to become a standout defensive player . He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2 @,@ 514 , trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd . Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones . He was also known to have strong eyesight ; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 @-@ inch television clearly from about 50 feet away . = = NBA career statistics = = = = = Regular season = = = = = = Playoffs = = = = = Legacy = = Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season . In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks , Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation , a rarity for an opposing player . After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20 , 1986 , Celtics star Larry Bird described him as " God disguised as Michael Jordan . " Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons ( NBA record ) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles . He was also a fixture on the NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team , making the roster nine times ( NBA record shared with Gary Payton , Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant ) . Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30 @.@ 1 and 33 @.@ 4 points per game , respectively . By 1998 , the season of his Finals @-@ winning shot against the Jazz , he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer . In the regular season , Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs , Jordan would always demand the ball at crunch time . Jordan 's total of 5 @,@ 987 points in the playoffs is the highest in NBA history . He retired with 32 @,@ 292 points in regular season play , placing him fourth on the NBA 's all @-@ time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Karl Malone , and Kobe Bryant . With five regular @-@ season MVPs ( tied for second place with Bill Russell ; only Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar has won more , six ) , six Finals MVPs ( NBA record ) , and three All @-@ Star MVPs , Jordan is the most decorated player ever to play in the NBA . Jordan finished among the top three in regular @-@ season MVP voting a record 10 times , and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996 . He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship , an NBA championship , and an Olympic gold medal ( doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams ) . Many of Jordan 's contemporaries say that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time . In 1999 , an ESPN survey of journalists , athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century , above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali . Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes . In addition , the Associated Press voted him as the basketball player of the 20th century . Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times . In the September 1996 issue of Sport , which was the publication 's 50th anniversary issue , Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years . Jordan 's athletic leaping ability , highlighted in his back @-@ to @-@ back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988 , is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players . Several current NBA All @-@ Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up , including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade . In addition , commentators have dubbed a number of next @-@ generation players " the next Michael Jordan " upon their entry to the NBA , including Anfernee " Penny " Hardaway , Grant Hill , Allen Iverson , Kobe Bryant , LeBron James , Vince Carter , and Dwyane Wade . Although Jordan was a well @-@ rounded player , his " Air Jordan " image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills , defense , and fundamentals of young players , a fact Jordan himself has lamented . I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan ; the marketing of Michael Jordan . Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see , which was scoring and dunking . That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all @-@ around game , but it was never really publicized . Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game , some of his impact on the game 's popularity in America appears to be fleeting . Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league , and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship @-@ winning season . In August 2009 , the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield , Massachusetts , opened a Michael Jordan exhibit containing items from his college and NBA careers , as well as from the 1992 " Dream Team " . The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in baseball . After Jordan received word of his being accepted into the Hall of Fame , he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him . As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009 , growing up in North Carolina , he was not a fan of the Tar Heels , and greatly admired Thompson , who played at rival North Carolina State . He was inducted into the Hall in September , with several former Bulls teammates in attendance , including Scottie Pippen , Dennis Rodman , Charles Oakley , Ron Harper , Steve Kerr , and Toni Kukoč . Former coaches of Jordan 's , Dean Smith and Doug Collins , were also among those present . His emotional reaction during his speech , when he began to cry , was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later become widely shared on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme . = = Personal life = = He married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989 , and they have two sons , Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James , and a daughter , Jasmine . Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4 , 2002 , citing irreconcilable differences , but reconciled shortly thereafter . They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29 , 2006 , commenting that the decision was made " mutually and amicably " . It is reported that Juanita received a $ 168 million settlement ( equivalent to $ 197 million in 2015 ) , making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement in history at the time on public record . In 1991 , Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park , Illinois , to build a 56 @,@ 000 square foot mansion , which was completed four years later . Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy , a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette , Illinois . Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11 , 2007 , for the University of Illinois . After two seasons , Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009 . He later rejoined the team for a third season , then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida , where Marcus was attending . Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009 . He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009 , and played three seasons of basketball for the school . On July 21 , 2006 , a judge in Cook County , Illinois , determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $ 5 million in a breach of contract claim . Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $ 250 @,@ 000 to keep their relationship a secret . Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $ 5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991 . A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child . He proposed to his longtime girlfriend , Cuban @-@ American model Yvette Prieto , on Christmas Eve , 2011 , and they were married on April 27 , 2013 , at Bethesda @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea Episcopal Church . It was announced on November 30 , 2013 , that the two were expecting their first child together . Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012 . On February 11 , 2014 , Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel . Jordan 's private jet features a stripe in Carolina blue , the " Air Jordan " logo on the tail , and references to his career in the identification number . = = Media figure and business interests = = Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history . He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike , Coca @-@ Cola , Chevrolet , Gatorade , McDonald 's , Ball Park Franks , Rayovac , Wheaties , Hanes , and MCI . Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade , appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991 , including the " Be Like Mike " commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan . Nike created a signature shoe for him , called the Air Jordan . One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon . In the commercials Lee , as Blackmon , attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that " it 's gotta be the shoes " . The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of " shoe @-@ jackings " where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint . Subsequently , Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the " Jordan Brand " . The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers . The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina , Cal , Georgetown , and Marquette . Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters . A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball . The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam , which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball . They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI . Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's " Jam " ( 1992 ) . Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars . In addition , when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point , the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games . Due to this , Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $ 30 million per season . An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $ 1 billion . Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals , including his first deal with Nike , were engineered by his agent , David Falk . Jordan has described Falk as " the best at what he does " and that " marketing @-@ wise , he 's great . He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan . ' " In June 2010 , Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th @-@ most powerful celebrity in the world with $ 55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010 . According to the Forbes article , Jordan Brand generates $ 1 billion in sales for Nike . In June 2014 , Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire , after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89 @.@ 5 % . On January 20 , 2015 , Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014 . As of November 2015 , his current net worth is estimated at $ 1 @.@ 1 billion by Forbes . Jordan is the second @-@ richest African @-@ American in the world as of 2015 . = = Awards and honors = =

= Polish culture during World War II = Polish culture during World War II was suppressed by the occupying powers of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union , both of whom were hostile to Poland 's people and cultural heritage . Policies aimed at cultural genocide resulted in the deaths of thousands of scholars and artists , and the theft and destruction of innumerable cultural artifacts . The " maltreatment of the Poles was one of many ways in which the Nazi and Soviet regimes had grown to resemble one another " , wrote British historian Niall Ferguson . The occupiers looted and destroyed much of Poland 's cultural and historical heritage , while persecuting and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite . Most Polish schools were closed , and those that remained open saw their curricula altered significantly . Nevertheless , underground organizations and individuals – in particular the Polish Underground State – saved much of Poland 's most valuable cultural treasures , and worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible . The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival of some artists and their works . Despite severe retribution by the Nazis and Soviets , Polish underground cultural activities , including publications , concerts , live theater , education , and academic research , continued throughout the war . = = Background = = In 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an sovereign nation and throughout the 19th century remained partitioned by degrees between Prussian , Austrian and Russian empires . Not until the end of World War I was independence restored and the nation reunited , although the drawing of boundary lines was , of necessity , a contentious issue . Independent Poland lasted for only 21 years before it was again attacked and divided among foreign powers . On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland , initiating World War II in Europe , and on 17 September , pursuant to the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact , Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union . Subsequently Poland was partitioned again – between these two powers – and remained under occupation for most of the war . By 1 October , Germany and the Soviet Union had completely overrun Poland , although the Polish government never formally surrendered , and the Polish Underground State , subordinate to the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , was soon formed . On 8 October , Nazi Germany annexed the western areas of pre @-@ war Poland and , in the remainder of the occupied area , established the General Government . The Soviet Union had to temporarily give up the territorial gains it made in 1939 due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union , but permanently re @-@ annexed much of this territory after winning it back in mid @-@ 1944 . Over the course of the war , Poland lost over 20 % of its pre @-@ war population amid an occupation that marked the end of the Second Polish Republic . = = Destruction of Polish culture = = = = = German occupation = = = = = = = Policy = = = = Germany 's policy toward the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war . Many German officials and military officers were initially not given any clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions , but this quickly changed . Immediately following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , the Nazi German government implemented the first stages ( the " small plan " ) of Generalplan Ost . The basic policy was outlined by the Berlin Office of Racial Policy in a document titled Concerning the Treatment of the Inhabitants of the Former Polish Territories , from a Racial @-@ Political Standpoint . Slavic people living east of the pre @-@ war German border were to be Germanized , enslaved or eradicated , depending on whether they lived in the territories directly annexed into the German state or in the General Government . Much of the German policy on Polish culture was formulated during a meeting between the governor of the General Government , Hans Frank , and Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels , at Łódź on 31 October 1939 . Goebbels declared that " The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation " . He and Frank agreed that opportunities for the Poles to experience their culture should be severely restricted : no theaters , cinemas or cabarets ; no access to radio or press ; and no education . Frank suggested that the Poles should periodically be shown films highlighting the achievements of the Third Reich and should eventually be addressed only by megaphone . During the following weeks Polish schools beyond middle vocational levels were closed , as were theaters and many other cultural institutions . The only Polish @-@ language newspaper published in occupied Poland was also closed , and the arrests of Polish intellectuals began . In March 1940 , all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government 's Department of People 's Education and Propaganda ( Abteilung für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda ) , whose name was changed a year later to the " Chief Propaganda Department " ( Hauptabteilung Propaganda ) . Further directives issued in the spring and early summer reflected policies that had been outlined by Frank and Goebbels during the previous autumn . One of the Department 's earliest decrees prohibited the organization of all but the most " primitive " of cultural activities without the Department 's prior approval . Spectacles of " low quality " , including those of an erotic or pornographic nature , were however an exception — those were to be popularized to appease the population and to show the world the " real " Polish culture as well as to create the impression that Germany was not preventing Poles from expressing themselves . German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized " Polish " performances that were specifically designed to be boring or pornographic , and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities . Polish @-@ German cooperation in cultural matters , such as joint public performances , was strictly prohibited . Meanwhile , a compulsory registration scheme for writers and artists was introduced in August 1940 . Then , in October , the printing of new Polish @-@ language books was prohibited ; existing titles were censored , and often confiscated and withdrawn . In 1941 , German policy evolved further , calling for the complete destruction of the Polish people , whom the Nazis regarded as " subhumans " ( Untermenschen ) . Within ten to twenty years , the Polish territories under German occupation were to be entirely cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists . The policy was relaxed somewhat in the final years of occupation ( 1943 – 44 ) , in view of German military defeats and the approaching Eastern Front . The Germans hoped that a more lenient cultural policy would lessen unrest and weaken the Polish Resistance . Poles were allowed back into those museums that now supported German propaganda and indoctrination , such as the newly created Chopin museum , which emphasized the composer 's invented German roots . Restrictions on education , theater and music performances were eased . Given that the Second Polish Republic was a multicultural state , German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups , fueling tension between Poles and Jews , and between Poles and Ukrainians . In Łódź , the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polish hero , Tadeusz Kościuszko , and filmed them committing the act . Soon afterward , the Germans set fire to a Jewish synagogue and filmed Polish bystanders , portraying them in propaganda releases as a " vengeful mob . " This divisive policy was reflected in the Germans ' decision to destroy Polish education , while at the same time , showing relative tolerance toward the Ukrainian school system . As the high @-@ ranking Nazi official Erich Koch explained , " We must do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian , he will be willing to kill the Ukrainian and conversely , the Ukrainian will be willing to kill the Pole . " = = = = Plunder = = = = In 1939 , as the occupation regime was being established , the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property . Countless art objects were looted and taken to Germany , in line with a plan that had been drawn up well in advance of the invasion . The looting was supervised by experts of the SS @-@ Ahnenerbe , Einsatzgruppen units , who were responsible for art , and by experts of Haupttreuhandstelle Ost , who were responsible for more mundane objects . Notable items plundered by the Nazis included the Altar of Veit Stoss and paintings by Raphael , Rembrandt , Leonardo da Vinci , Canaletto and Bacciarelli . Most of the important art pieces had been " secured " by the Nazis within six months of September 1939 ; by the end of 1942 , German officials estimated that " over 90 % " of the art previously in Poland was in their possession . Some art was shipped to German museums , such as the planned Führermuseum in Linz , while other art became the private property of Nazi officials . Over 516 @,@ 000 individual art pieces were taken , including 2 @,@ 800 paintings by European painters ; 11 @,@ 000 works by Polish painters ; 1 @,@ 400 sculptures , 75 @,@ 000 manuscripts , 25 @,@ 000 maps , and 90 @,@ 000 books ( including over 20 @,@ 000 printed before 1800 ) ; as well as hundreds of thousands of other objects of artistic and historic value . Even exotic animals were taken from the zoos . = = = = Destruction = = = = Many places of learning and culture — universities , schools , libraries , museums , theaters and cinemas — were either closed or designated as " Nur für Deutsche " ( For Germans Only ) . Twenty @-@ five museums and a host of other institutions were destroyed during the war . According to one estimate , by war 's end 43 % of the infrastructure of Poland 's educational and research institutions and 14 % of its museums had been destroyed . According to another , only 105 of pre @-@ war Poland 's 175 museums survived the war , and just 33 of these institutions were able to reopen . Of pre @-@ war Poland 's 603 scientific institutions , about half were totally destroyed , and only a few survived the war relatively intact . Many university professors , as well as teachers , lawyers , artists , writers , priests and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed , or transported to concentration camps , during operations such as AB @-@ Aktion . This particular campaign resulted in the infamous Sonderaktion Krakau and the massacre of Lwów professors . During World War II Poland lost 39 % to 45 % of its physicians and dentists , 26 % to 57 % of its lawyers , 15 % to 30 % of its teachers , 30 % to 40 % of its scientists and university professors , and 18 % to 28 % of its clergy . The Jewish intelligentsia was exterminated altogether . The reasoning behind this policy was clearly articulated by a Nazi gauleiter : " In my district , [ any Pole who ] shows signs of intelligence will be shot . " As part of their program to suppress Polish culture , the German Nazis attempted to destroy Christianity in Poland , with a particular emphasis on the Roman Catholic Church . In some parts of occupied Poland , Poles were restricted , or even forbidden , from attending religious services . At the same time , church property was confiscated , prohibitions were placed on using the Polish language in religious services , organizations affiliated with the Catholic Church were abolished , and it was forbidden to perform certain religious songs — or to read passages of the Bible — in public . The worst conditions were found in the Reichsgau Wartheland , which the Nazis treated as a laboratory for their anti @-@ religious policies . Polish clergy and religious leaders figured prominently among portions of the intelligentsia that were targeted for extermination . To forestall the rise of a new generation of educated Poles , German officials decreed that the schooling of Polish children would be limited to a few years of elementary education . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler wrote , in a memorandum of May 1940 : " The sole purpose of this schooling is to teach them simple arithmetic , nothing above the number 500 ; how to write one 's name ; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans .... I do not regard a knowledge of reading as desirable . " Hans Frank echoed him : " The Poles do not need universities or secondary schools ; the Polish lands are to be converted into an intellectual desert . " The situation was particularly dire in the former Polish territories beyond the General Government , which had been annexed to the Third Reich . The specific policy varied from territory to territory , but in general , there was no Polish @-@ language education at all . German policy constituted a crash @-@ Germanization of the populace . Polish teachers were dismissed , and some were invited to attend " orientation " meetings with the new administration , where they were either summarily arrested or executed on the spot . Some Polish schoolchildren were sent to German schools , while others were sent to special schools where they spent most of their time as unpaid laborers , usually on German @-@ run farms ; speaking Polish brought severe punishment . It was expected that Polish children would begin to work once they finished their primary education at age 12 to 15 . In the eastern territories not included in the General Government ( Bezirk Bialystok , Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine ) many primary schools were closed , and most education was conducted in non @-@ Polish languages such as Ukrainian , Belorussian , and Lithuanian . In the Bezirk Bialystok region , for example , 86 % of the schools that had existed before the war were closed down during the first two years of German occupation , and by the end of the following year that figure had increased to 93 % . The state of Polish primary schools was somewhat better in the General Government , though by the end of 1940 , only 30 % of prewar schools were operational , and only 28 % of prewar Polish children attended them . A German police memorandum of August 1943 described the situation as follows : Pupils sit crammed together without necessary materials , and often without skilled teaching staff . Moreover , the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel . Of twenty @-@ thirty spacious school buildings which Kraków had before 1939 , today the worst two buildings are used ... Every day , pupils have to study in several shifts . Under such circumstances , the school day , which normally lasts five hours , is reduced to one hour . In the General Government , the remaining schools were subjugated to the German educational system , and the number and competence of their Polish staff was steadily scaled down . All universities and most secondary schools were closed , if not immediately after the invasion , then by mid @-@ 1940 . By late 1940 , no official Polish educational institutions more advanced than a vocational school remained in operation , and they offered nothing beyond the elementary trade and technical training required for the Nazi economy . Primary schooling was to last for seven years , but the classes in the final two years of the program were to be limited to meeting one day per week . There was no money for heating of the schools in winter . Classes and schools were to be merged , Polish teachers dismissed , and the resulting savings used to sponsor the creation of schools for children of the German minority or to create barracks for German troops . No new Polish teachers were to be trained . The educational curriculum was censored ; subjects such as literature , history and geography were removed . Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed . The new educational aims for Poles included convincing them that their national fate was hopeless , and teaching them to be submissive and respectful to Germans . This was accomplished through deliberate tactics such as police raids on schools , police inspections of student belongings , mass arrests of students and teachers , and the use of students as forced laborers , often by transporting them to Germany as seasonal workers . The Germans were especially active in the destruction of Jewish culture in Poland ; nearly all of the wooden synagogues there were destroyed . Moreover , the sale of Jewish literature was banned throughout Poland . Polish literature faced a similar fate in territories annexed by Germany , where the sale of Polish books was forbidden . The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those seized from libraries , but also included those books that were confiscated from private homes . The last Polish book titles not already proscribed were withdrawn in 1943 ; even Polish prayer books were confiscated . Soon after the occupation began , most libraries were closed ; in Kraków , about 80 % of the libraries were closed immediately , while the remainder saw their collections decimated by censors . The occupying powers destroyed Polish book collections , including the Sejm and Senate Library , the Przedziecki Estate Library , the Zamoyski Estate Library , the Central Military Library , and the Rapperswil Collection . In 1941 , the last remaining Polish public library in the German @-@ occupied territories was closed in Warsaw . During the war , Warsaw libraries lost about a million volumes , or 30 % of their collections . More than 80 % of these losses were the direct result of purges rather than wartime conflict . Overall , it is estimated that about 10 million volumes from state @-@ owned libraries and institutions perished during the war . Polish flags and other symbols were confiscated . The war on the Polish language included the tearing down of signs in Polish and the banning of Polish speech in public places . Persons who spoke Polish in the streets were often insulted and even physically assaulted . The Germanization of place names prevailed . Many treasures of Polish culture – including memorials , plaques and monuments to national heroes ( e.g. , Kraków 's Adam Mickiewicz monument ) – were destroyed . In Toruń , all Polish monuments and plaques were torn down . Dozens of monuments were destroyed throughout Poland . The Nazis planned to level entire cities . = = = = Censorship and propaganda = = = = The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish @-@ language book , literary study or scholarly paper . In 1940 , several German @-@ controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland , publishing items such as Polish @-@ German dictionaries and antisemitic and anticommunist novels . Censorship at first targeted books that were considered to be " serious " , including scientific and educational texts and texts that were thought to promote Polish patriotism ; only fiction that was free of anti @-@ German overtones was permitted . Banned literature included maps , atlases and English- and French @-@ language publications , including dictionaries . Several non @-@ public indexes of prohibited books were created , and over 1 @,@ 500 Polish writers were declared " dangerous to the German state and culture " . The index of banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz Słowacki , Stanisław Wyspiański , Bolesław Prus , Stefan Żeromski , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Władysław Reymont , Stanisław Wyspiański , Julian Tuwim , Kornel Makuszyński , Leopold Staff , Eliza Orzeszkowa and Maria Konopnicka . Mere possession of such books was illegal and punishable by imprisonment . Door @-@ to @-@ door sale of books was banned , and bookstores — which required a license to operate — were either emptied out or closed . Poles were forbidden , under penalty of death , to own radios . The press was reduced from over 2 @,@ 000 publications to a few dozen , all censored by the Germans . All pre @-@ war newspapers were closed , and the few that were published during the occupation were new creations under the total control of the Germans . Such a thorough destruction of the press was unprecedented in contemporary history . The only officially available reading matter was the propaganda press that was disseminated by the German occupation administration . Cinemas , now under the control of the German propaganda machine , saw their programming dominated by Nazi German movies , which were preceded by propaganda newsreels . The few Polish films permitted to be shown ( about 20 % of the total programming ) were edited to eliminate references to Polish national symbols as well as Jewish actors and producers . Several propaganda films were shot in Polish , although no Polish films were shown after 1943 . As all profits from Polish cinemas were officially directed toward German war production , attendance was discouraged by the Polish underground ; a famous underground slogan declared : " Tylko świnie siedzą w kinie " ( " Only pigs attend the movies " ) . A similar situation faced theaters , which were forbidden by the Germans to produce " serious " spectacles . Indeed , a number of propaganda pieces were created for theater stages . Hence , theatrical productions were also boycotted by the underground . In addition , actors were discouraged from performing in them and warned that they would be labeled as collaborators if they failed to comply . Ironically , restrictions on cultural performances were eased in Jewish ghettos , given that the Germans wished to distract ghetto inhabitants and prevent them from grasping their eventual fate . Music was the least restricted of cultural activities , probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music . In time , he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital , Kraków . Numerous musical performances were permitted in cafes and churches , and the Polish underground chose to boycott only the propagandist operas . Visual artists , including painters and sculptors , were compelled to register with the German government ; but their work was generally tolerated by the underground , unless it conveyed propagandist themes . Shuttered museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that frequently conveyed propagandist themes . The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases . Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre @-@ war Poland , and later efforts were aimed at fostering anti @-@ Soviet , antisemitic , and pro @-@ German attitudes . = = = Soviet occupation = = = After the Soviet invasion of Poland ( beginning 17 September 1939 ) that followed the German invasion that had marked the start of World War II ( beginning 1 September 1939 ) , the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts ( " Kresy " ) of the Second Polish Republic , comprising 201 @,@ 015 square kilometres ( 77 @,@ 612 sq mi ) and a population of 13 @.@ 299 million . Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of obliterating Poland 's political and cultural life , so that Poland would , according to historian Niall Ferguson , " cease to exist not merely as a place , but also as an idea " . The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a " crime against revolution " and " counter @-@ revolutionary activity " and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia , politicians , civil servants and academics , as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule . More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia , many to Gulag concentration camps , for years or decades . Others died , including over 20 @,@ 000 military officers who perished in the Katyn massacres . The Soviets quickly Sovietized the annexed lands , introducing compulsory collectivization . They proceeded to confiscate , nationalize and redistribute private and state @-@ owned Polish property . In the process , they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as " enemies of the people " . In line with Soviet anti @-@ religious policy , churches and religious organizations were persecuted . On 10 February 1940 , the NKVD unleashed a campaign of terror against " anti @-@ Soviet " elements in occupied Poland . The Soviets ' targets included persons who often traveled abroad , persons involved in overseas correspondence , Esperantists , philatelists , Red Cross workers , refugees , smugglers , priests and members of religious congregations , the nobility , landowners , wealthy merchants , bankers , industrialists , and hotel and restaurant owners . Stalin , like Hitler , worked to eliminate Polish society . The Soviet authorities sought to remove all trace of the Polish history of the area now under their control . The name " Poland " was banned . Polish monuments were torn down . All institutions of the dismantled Polish state , including the Lwów University , were closed , then reopened , mostly with new Russian directors . Soviet Communist ideology became paramount in all teaching . Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities , and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian . Polish @-@ language books were burned even in the primary schools . Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools , and many were arrested . Classes were held in Belorussian , Lithuanian and Ukrainian , with a new pro @-@ Soviet curriculum . As Polish @-@ Canadian historian Piotr Wróbel noted , citing British historians M. R. D. Foot and I. C. B. Dear , majority of scholars believe that " In the Soviet occupation zone , conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans . " In September 1939 , many Polish Jews had fled east ; after some months of living under Soviet rule , some of them wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland . All publications and media were subjected to censorship . The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left @-@ wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate . Soon after the Soviet invasion , the Writers ' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów ; there was a Polish @-@ language theater and radio station . Polish cultural activities in Minsk and Wilno were less organized . These activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities , which saw to it that these activities portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light and vilified the former Polish government . The Soviet propaganda @-@ motivated support for Polish @-@ language cultural activities , however , clashed with the official policy of Russification . The Soviets at first intended to phase out the Polish language and so banned Polish from schools , street signs , and other aspects of life . This policy was , however , reversed at times — first before the elections in October 1939 ; and later , after the German conquest of France . In November 1940 , the Poles of Lwów observed the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz 's death . Soon , however , Stalin decided to re @-@ implement the Russification policies . He reversed his decision again , however , when a need arose for Polish @-@ language pro @-@ Soviet propaganda following the German invasion of the Soviet Union ; as a result Stalin permitted the creation of Polish forces in the East and later decided to create a Communist People 's Republic of Poland . Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets , writing pro @-@ Soviet propaganda . They included Jerzy Borejsza , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Kazimierz Brandys , Janina Broniewska , Jan Brzoza , Teodor Bujnicki , Leon Chwistek , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina Górska , Mieczysław Jastrun , Stefan Jędrychowski , Stanisław Jerzy Lec , Tadeusz Łopalewski , Juliusz Kleiner , Jan Kott , Jalu Kurek , Karol Kuryluk , Leopold Lewin , Anatol Mikułko , Jerzy Pański , Leon Pasternak , Julian Przyboś , Jerzy Putrament , Jerzy Rawicz , Adolf Rudnicki , Włodzimierz Słobodnik , Włodzimierz Sokorski , Elżbieta Szemplińska , Anatol Stern , Julian Stryjkowski , Lucjan Szenwald , Leopold Tyrmand , Wanda Wasilewska , Stanisław Wasilewski , Adam Ważyk , Aleksander Weintraub and Bruno Winawer . Other Polish writers , however , rejected the Soviet persuasions and instead published underground : Jadwiga Czechowiczówna , Jerzy Hordyński , Jadwiga Gamska @-@ Łempicka , Herminia Naglerowa , Beata Obertyńska , Ostap Ortwin , Tadeusz Peiper , Teodor Parnicki , Juliusz Petry . Some writers , such as Władysław Broniewski , after collaborating with the Soviets for a few months , joined the anti @-@ Soviet opposition . Similarly , Aleksander Wat , initially sympathetic to communism , was arrested by the Soviet NKVD secret police and exiled to Kazakhstan . = = Underground culture = = = = = Patrons = = = Polish culture persisted in underground education , publications , even theater . The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture ( under Stanisław Lorentz ) which , along with a Department of Labor and Social Welfare ( under Jan Stanisław Jankowski and , later , Stefan Mateja ) and a Department for Elimination of the Effects of War ( under Antoni Olszewski and Bronisław Domosławski ) , became underground patrons of Polish culture . These Departments oversaw efforts to save from looting and destruction works of art in state and private collections ( most notably , the giant paintings by Jan Matejko that were concealed throughout the war ) . They compiled reports on looted and destroyed works and provided artists and scholars with means to continue their work and their publications and to support their families . Thus , they sponsored the underground publication ( bibuła ) of works by Winston Churchill and Arkady Fiedler and of 10 @,@ 000 copies of a Polish primary @-@ school primer and commissioned artists to create resistance artwork ( which was then disseminated by Operation N and like activities ) . Also occasionally sponsored were secret art exhibitions , theater performances and concerts . Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and Polish aristocrats , who likewise supported artists and safeguarded Polish heritage ( notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha and a former politician , Janusz Radziwiłł ) . Some private publishers , including Stefan Kamieński , Zbigniew Mitzner and the Ossolineum publishing house , paid writers for books that would be delivered after the war . = = = Education = = = In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools , resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large @-@ scale underground educational activities . Most notably , the Secret Teaching Organization ( Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska , TON ) was created as early as in October 1939 . Other organizations were created locally ; after 1940 they were increasingly subordinated and coordinated by the TON , working closely with the Underground 's State Department of Culture and Education , which was created in autumn 1941 and headed by Czesław Wycech , creator of the TON . Classes were either held under the cover of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other venues . By 1942 , about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 students took part in underground primary education ; in 1944 , its secondary school system covered 100 @,@ 000 people , and university level courses were attended by about 10 @,@ 000 students ( for comparison , the pre @-@ war enrollment at Polish universities was about 30 @,@ 000 for the 1938 / 1939 year ) . More than 90 @,@ 000 secondary @-@ school pupils attended underground classes held by nearly 6 @,@ 000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in four districts of the General Government ( centered on the cities of Warsaw , Kraków , Radom and Lublin ) . Overall , in that period in the General Government , one of every three children was receiving some sort of education from the underground organizations ; the number rose to about 70 % for children old enough to attend secondary school . It is estimated that in some rural areas , the educational coverage was actually improved ( most likely as courses were being organized in some cases by teachers escaped or deported from the cities ) . Compared to pre @-@ war classes , the absence of Polish Jewish students was notable , as they were confined by the Nazi Germans to ghettos ; there was , however , underground Jewish education in the ghettos , often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON . Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance . In Warsaw , there were over 70 underground schools , with 2 @,@ 000 teachers and 21 @,@ 000 students . Underground Warsaw University educated 3 @,@ 700 students , issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees . Warsaw Politechnic under occupation educated 3 @,@ 000 students , issuing 186 engineering degrees , 18 doctoral ones and 16 habilitations . Jagiellonian University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees , employed over 100 professors and teachers , and served more than 1 @,@ 000 students per year . Throughout Poland , many other universities and institutions of higher education ( of music , theater , arts , and others ) continued their classes throughout the war . Even some academic research was carried out ( for example , by Władysław Tatarkiewicz , a leading Polish philosopher , and Zenon Klemensiewicz , a linguist ) . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State , enabling them to continue their research . The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories . The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 , but lacked the manpower to put an end to it , probably prioritizing resources to dealing with the armed resistance . For the most part , closing underground schools and colleges in the General Government was not a top priority for the Germans . In 1943 a German report on education admitted that control of what was being taught in schools , particularly rural ones , was difficult , due to lack of manpower , transportation , and the activities of the Polish resistance . Some schools semi @-@ openly taught unauthorized subjects in defiance of the German authorities . Hans Frank noted in 1944 that although Polish teachers were a " mortal enemy " of the German states , they could not all be disposed of immediately . It was perceived as a much more serious issue in the annexed territories , as it hindered the process of Germanization ; involvement in the underground education in those territories was much more likely to result in a sentence to a concentration camp . = = = Print = = = There were over 1 @,@ 000 underground newspapers ; among the most important were the Biuletyn Informacyjny of Armia Krajowa and Rzeczpospolita of the Government Delegation for Poland . In addition to publication of news ( from intercepted Western radio transmissions ) , there were hundreds of underground publications dedicated to politics , economics , education , and literature ( for example , Sztuka i Naród ) . The highest recorded publication volume was an issue of Biuletyn Informacyjny printed in 43 @,@ 000 copies ; average volume of larger publication was 1 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 copies . The Polish underground also published booklets and leaflets from imaginary anti @-@ Nazi German organizations aimed at spreading disinformation and lowering morale among the Germans . Books were also sometimes printed . Other items were also printed , such as patriotic posters or fake German administration posters , ordering the Germans to evacuate Poland or telling Poles to register household cats . The two largest underground publishers were the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of Armia Krajowa and the Government Delegation for Poland . Tajne Wojskowe Zakłady Wydawnicze ( Secret Military Publishing House ) of Jerzy Rutkowski ( subordinated to the Armia Krajowa ) was probably the largest underground publisher in the world . In addition to Polish titles , Armia Krajowa also printed false German newspapers designed to decrease morale of the occupying German forces ( as part of Action N ) . The majority of Polish underground presses were located in occupied Warsaw ; until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944 the Germans found over 16 underground printing presses ( whose crews were usually executed or sent to concentration camps ) . The second largest center for Polish underground publishing was Kraków . There , writers and editors faced similar dangers : for example , almost the entire editorial staff of the underground satirical paper Na Ucho was arrested , and its chief editors were executed in Kraków on 27 May 1944 . ( Na Ucho was the longest published Polish underground paper devoted to satire ; 20 issues were published starting in October 1943 . ) The underground press was supported by a large number of activists ; in addition to the crews manning the printing presses , scores of underground couriers distributed the publications . According to some statistics , these couriers were among the underground members most frequently arrested by the Germans . Under German occupation , the professions of Polish journalists and writers were virtually eliminated , as they had little opportunity to publish their work . The Underground State 's Department of Culture sponsored various initiatives and individuals , enabling them to continue their work and aiding in their publication . Novels and anthologies were published by underground presses ; over 1 @,@ 000 works were published underground over the course of the war . Literary discussions were held , and prominent writers of the period working in Poland included , among others , Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Leslaw Bartelski , Tadeusz Borowski , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Maria Dąbrowska , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz , future Nobel Prize winner Czesław Miłosz , Zofia Nałkowska , Jan Parandowski , Leopold Staff , Kazimierz Wyka , and Jerzy Zawieyski . Writers wrote about the difficult conditions in the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps ( Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński , Stefan Flukowski , Leon Kruczkowski , Andrzej Nowicki and Marian Piechała ) , the ghettos , and even from inside the concentration camps ( Jan Maria Gisges , Halina Gołczowa , Zofia Górska ( Romanowiczowa ) , Tadeusz Hołuj , Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian Kubicki ) . Many writers did not survive the war , among them Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Wacław Berent , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Juliusz Kaden @-@ Bandrowski , Stefan Kiedrzyński , Janusz Korczak , Halina Krahelska , Tadeusz Hollender , Witold Hulewicz , Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski , Włodzimierz Pietrzak , Leon Pomirowski , Kazimierz Przerwa @-@ Tetmajer and Bruno Schulz . = = = Visual arts and music = = = With the censorship of Polish theater ( and the virtual end of the Polish radio and film industry ) , underground theaters were created , primarily in Warsaw and Kraków , with shows presented in various underground venues . Beginning in 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the Secret Theatrical Council . Four large companies and more than 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war , even in the Gestapo 's Pawiak prison in Warsaw and in Auschwitz ; underground acting schools were also created . Underground actors , many of whom officially worked mundane jobs , included Karol Adwentowicz , Elżbieta Barszczewska , Henryk Borowski , Wojciech Brydziński , Władysław Hańcza , Stefan Jaracz , Tadeusz Kantor , Mieczysław Kotlarczyk , Bohdan Korzeniowski , Jan Kreczmar , Adam Mularczyk , Andrzej Pronaszko , Leon Schiller , Arnold Szyfman , Stanisława Umińska , Edmund Wierciński , Maria Wiercińska , Karol Wojtyła ( who later became Pope John Paul II ) , Marian Wyrzykowski , Jerzy Zawieyski and others . Theater was also active in the Jewish ghettos and in the camps for Polish war prisoners . Polish music , including orchestras , also went underground . Top Polish musicians and directors ( Adam Didur , Zbigniew Drzewiecki , Jan Ekier , Barbara Kostrzewska , Zygmunt Latoszewski , Jerzy Lefeld , Witold Lutosławski , Andrzej Panufnik , Piotr Perkowski , Edmund Rudnicki , Eugenia Umińska , Jerzy Waldorff , Kazimierz Wiłkomirski , Maria Wiłkomirska , Bolesław Woytowicz , Mira Zimińska ) performed in restaurants , cafes , and private homes , with the most daring singing patriotic ballads on the streets while evading German patrols . Patriotic songs were written , such as Siekiera , motyka , the most popular song of occupied Warsaw . Patriotic puppet shows were staged . Jewish musicians ( e.g. Władysław Szpilman ) and artists likewise performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps . Although many of them died , some survived abroad , like Alexandre Tansman in the United States , and Eddie Rosner and Henryk Wars in the Soviet Union . Visual arts were practiced underground as well . Cafes , restaurants and private homes were turned into galleries or museums ; some were closed , with their owners , staff and patrons harassed , arrested or even executed . Polish underground artists included Eryk Lipiński , Stanisław Miedza @-@ Tomaszewski , Stanisław Ostoja @-@ Chrostowski , and Konstanty Maria Sopoćko . Some artists worked directly for the Underground State , forging money and documents , and creating anti @-@ Nazi art ( satirical posters and caricatures ) or Polish patriotic symbols ( for example kotwica ) . These works were reprinted on underground presses , and those intended for public display were plastered to walls or painted on them as graffiti . Many of these activities were coordinated under the Action N Operation of Armia Krajowa 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda . In 1944 three giant ( 6 m , or 20 ft ) puppets , caricatures of Hitler and Benito Mussolini , were successfully displayed in public places in Warsaw . Some artists recorded life and death in occupied Poland ; despite German bans on Poles using cameras , photographs and even films were taken . Although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station , underground auditions were recorded and introduced into German radios or loudspeaker systems . Underground postage stamps were designed and issued . Since the Germans also banned Polish sport activities , underground sport clubs were created ; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in Warsaw , Kraków and Poznań , although these were usually dispersed by the Germans . All of these activities were supported by the Underground State 's Department of Culture . = = = Warsaw Uprising = = = During the Warsaw Uprising ( August – October 1944 ) , people in Polish @-@ controlled territory endeavored to recreate the former day @-@ to @-@ day life of their free country . Cultural life was vibrant among both soldiers and the civilian population , with theaters , cinemas , post offices , newspapers and similar activities available . The 10th Underground Tournament of Poetry was held during the Uprising , with prizes being weaponry ( most of the Polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance ) . Headed by Antoni Bohdziewicz , the Home Army 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda even created three newsreels and over 30 @,@ 000 metres ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) of film documenting the struggle . Eugeniusz Lokajski took some 1 @,@ 000 photographs before he died ; Sylwester Braun some 3 @,@ 000 , of which 1 @,@ 500 survive ; Jerzy Tomaszewski some 1 @,@ 000 , of which 600 survived . = = Culture in exile = = Polish artists also worked abroad , outside of occupied Europe . Arkady Fiedler , based in Britain with the Polish Armed Forces in the West wrote about the 303 Polish Fighter Squadron . Melchior Wańkowicz wrote about the Polish contribution to the capture of Monte Cassino in Italy . Other writers working abroad included Jan Lechoń , Antoni Słonimski , Kazimierz Wierzyński and Julian Tuwim . There were artists who performed for the Polish forces in the West as well as for the Polish forces in the East . Among musicians who performed for the Polish II Corps in a Polska Parada cabaret were Henryk Wars and Irena Anders . The most famous song of the soldiers fighting under the Allies was the Czerwone maki na Monte Cassino ( The Red Poppies on Monte Cassino ) , composed by Feliks Konarski and Alfred Schultz in 1944 . There were also Polish theaters in exile in both the East and the West . Several Polish painters , mostly soldiers of the Polish II Corps , kept working throughout the war , including Tadeusz Piotr Potworowski , Adam Kossowski , Marian Kratochwil , Bolesław Leitgeber and Stefan Knapp . = = Influence on postwar culture = = The wartime attempts to destroy Polish culture may have strengthened it instead . Norman Davies wrote in God 's Playground : " In 1945 , as a prize for untold sacrifices , the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before . " Similarly , close @-@ knit underground classes , from primary schools to universities , were renowned for their high quality , due in large part to the lower ratio of students to teachers . The resulting culture was , however , different from the culture of interwar Poland for a number of reasons . The destruction of Poland 's Jewish community , Poland 's postwar territorial changes , and postwar migrations left Poland without its historic ethnic minorities . The multicultural nation was no more . The experience of World War II placed its stamp on a generation of Polish artists that became known as the " Generation of Columbuses " . The term denotes an entire generation of Poles , born soon after Poland regained independence in 1918 , whose adolescence was marked by World War II . In their art , they " discovered a new Poland " – one forever changed by the atrocities of World War II and the ensuing creation of a communist Poland . Over the years , nearly three @-@ quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II to the Polish national identity . Many Polish works of art created since the war have centered on events of the war . Books by Tadeusz Borowski , Adolf Rudnicki , Henryk Grynberg , Miron Białoszewski , Hanna Krall and others ; films , including those by Andrzej Wajda ( A Generation , Kanał , Ashes and Diamonds , Lotna , A Love in Germany , Korczak , Katyń ) ; TV series ( Four Tank Men and a Dog and Stakes Larger than Life ) ; music ( Powstanie Warszawskie ) ; and even comic books – all of these diverse works have reflected those times . Polish historian Tomasz Szarota wrote in 1996 : Educational and training programs place special emphasis on the World War II period and on the occupation . Events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on TV , on radio and in the print media . The theme remains an important element in literature and learning , in film , theater and the fine arts . Not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it . Probably no other country marks anniversaries related to the events of World War II so often or so solemnly .

= Arihant @-@ class submarine = The Arihant class ( Sanskrit , for Killer of Enemies ) is a class of nuclear @-@ powered ballistic missile submarines being built for the Indian Navy . They were developed under the US $ 2 @.@ 9 billion Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project to design and build nuclear @-@ powered submarines . The lead vessel of the class , INS Arihant was launched in 2009 and after extensive sea trials , was confirmed as ready for operations on 23 February 2016 . Arihant is the first ballistic missile submarine to have been built by a country other than one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . = = History = = In December 1971 , during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 , the US President Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group named Task Force 74 , led by the nuclear @-@ powered USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India . In response , the Soviet Union sent a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force . The event demonstrated the significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi . Following the 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear test , the Director of Marine Engineering ( DME ) at Naval Headquarters initiated a technical feasibility study for an indigenous nuclear propulsion system ( Project 932 ) . The Indian Navy 's Advanced Technology Vessel project to design and construct a nuclear submarine took shape in the 1990s . Then Defence Minister George Fernandes confirmed the project in 1998 . The initial intent of the project was to design nuclear @-@ powered fast attack submarines , though following nuclear tests conducted by India in 1998 at Pokhran Test Range and the Indian pledge of no first use , the project was re @-@ aligned towards the design of a ballistic missile submarine in order to complete India 's nuclear triad . = = Description = = The Arihant @-@ class submarines are nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines built under the Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project . They will be the first nuclear submarines designed and built by India . The submarines are 112 m ( 367 ft ) long with a beam of 11 m ( 36 ft ) , a draught of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , displacement of 6 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 900 long tons ; 6 @,@ 600 short tons ) and a diving depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . The complement is about 95 , including officers and sailors . The boats are powered by a single seven blade propeller powered by an 83 MW ( 111 @,@ 000 hp ) pressurised water reactor and can achieve a maximum speed of 12 – 15 knots ( 22 – 28 km / h ) when surfaced and 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) when submerged . The submarines have four launch tubes in their hump and can carry up to 12 K @-@ 15 Sagarika missiles with one warhead each ( with a range of 750 km or 470 mi ) or 4 K @-@ 4 missiles ( with a range of 3 @,@ 500 km or 2 @,@ 200 mi ) . The submarines are similar to the Akula @-@ class submarine of Russia . The Indian Navy will train on INS Chakra , an Akula @-@ class submarine leased from Russia in 2012 . = = Development = = The submarines are powered by a pressurised water reactor with highly enriched uranium fuel . The miniaturized version of the reactor was designed and built by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ( BARC ) at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research ( IGCAR ) in Kalpakkam . It included a 42 @-@ metre ( 138 ft ) section of the submarine 's pressure hull containing the shielding tank with water and the reactor , a control room , as well as an auxiliary control room for monitoring safety parameters . The prototype reactor became critical on 11 November 2003 and was declared operational on 22 September 2006 . Successful operation of the prototype for three years enabled the production version of the reactor for Arihant . The reactor subsystems were tested at the Machinery Test Center in Visakhapatnam . Facilities for loading and replacing the fuel cores of the naval reactors in berthed submarines were also established . The detailed engineering of the design was implemented at Larsen & Toubro 's submarine design center at their Hazira shipbuilding facility . Tata Power SED built the control systems for the submarine . The steam turbines and associated systems integrated with the reactor were supplied by Walchandnagar Industries . The lead vessel underwent a long and extensive process of testing after its launch in July 2009 . The propulsion and power systems were tested with high @-@ pressure steam trials followed by harbor @-@ acceptance trials that included submersion tests by flooding its ballast tanks and controlled dives to limited depths . INS Arihant 's reactor went critical for the first time on 10 August 2013 . On 13 December 2014 , the submarine set off for its extensive sea trials . = = Ships in class = = Exact number of planned submarines remains unclear , according to media reports about three to six submarines are planned to be built . The first boat of the class , INS Arihant is expected to be commissioned by 2016 . The first four vessels are expected to be commissioned by 2023 . In December 2014 , the work on a second nuclear reactor began and the second boat , INS Aridhaman is being prepared for sea trials . The next three ships in the class , after the lead ship , will be larger and have 8 missile launch tubes to carry up to 8 K4 and a more powerful pressurized water reactor than INS Arihant . A larger follow on class to the arihant class is also planned , these new boats will be capable of carrying 12 to 16 ballistic missiles . = = Timeline = =

= SMS Markgraf = SMS Markgraf was the third battleship of the four @-@ ship König class . She served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I. The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 4 June 1913 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 1 October 1914 , just over two months after the outbreak of war in Europe . Markgraf was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Markgraf was named in honor of the royal family of Baden . The name Markgraf is a rank of German nobility and is equivalent to the English Margrave , or Marquess . Along with her three sister ships , König , Grosser Kurfürst , and Kronprinz , Markgraf took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . At Jutland , Markgraf was the third ship in the German line and heavily engaged by the opposing British Grand Fleet ; she sustained five large @-@ caliber hits and her crew suffered 23 casualties . Markgraf also participated in Operation Albion , the conquest of the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 . The ship was damaged by a mine while en route to Germany following the successful conclusion of the operation . After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Markgraf and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike most of the scuttled ships , Markgraf was never raised for scrapping ; the wreck is still sitting on the bottom of the bay . = = Construction and design = = Markgraf was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Weissenburg and built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen under construction number 186 . Her keel was laid in November 1911 and she was launched on 4 June 1913 . At her launching ceremony , the ship was christened by Frederick II , Grand Duke of Baden , the head of the royal family of Baden , in honor of which the ship had been named . Fitting @-@ out work was completed by 1 October 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . She had cost the Imperial German Government 45 million Goldmarks . Markgraf displaced 25 @,@ 796 t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three Bergmann steam turbines , three oil @-@ fired and twelve coal @-@ fired boilers , which developed a total of 40 @,@ 830 shp ( 30 @,@ 450 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The ship had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 095 enlisted sailors . She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . Markgraf 's 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced with four 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's main armored belt was 350 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . The deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward conning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates . = = Service history = = Following her commissioning on 1 October 1914 , Markgraf conducted sea trials , which lasted until 12 December . By 10 January 1915 , the ship had joined III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet with her three sister ships . On 22 January 1915 , III Squadron was detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the Baltic . The ships returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank . In the aftermath of the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl from his post as fleet commander on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet ; von Pohl carried out a series of sorties with the High Seas Fleet throughout 1915 . The first such operation — Markgraf 's first with the fleet — was a fleet advance to Terschelling on 29 – 30 March ; the German fleet failed to engage any British warships during the sortie . Another uneventful operation followed on 17 – 18 April , and another three days later on 21 – 22 April . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet remained in port until 29 May , when the fleet conducted another two @-@ day advance into the North Sea . On 11 – 12 September , Markgraf and the rest of III Squadron supported a minelaying operation off Texel . Another uneventful fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 October . Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer became commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet on 18 January 1916 when Admiral von Pohl became too ill from liver cancer to continue in that post . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . Another sortie followed three weeks later on the 26th , with another on 21 – 22 April . On 24 April , the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group conducted a raid on the English coast . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet sailed in distant support . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters . = = = Battle of Jutland = = = Markgraf was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Markgraf was the third ship in the German line , behind her sisters König and Grosser Kurfürst and followed by Kronprinz . The four ships made up the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly astern were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . The III Squadron was followed by the Helgoland and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron . Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given . Markgraf opened fire on the battlecruiser Tiger at a range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . Markgraf and her two sisters fired their secondary guns on British destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the German fleet . Markgraf continued to engage Tiger until 18 : 25 , by which time the faster battlecruisers managed to move out of effective gunnery range . During this period , the battleships Warspite and Valiant of the 5th Battle Squadron fired on the leading German battleships . At 18 : 10 , one of the British ships scored a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell hit on Markgraf . Shortly thereafter , the destroyer Moresby fired a single torpedo at Markgraf and missed from a range of about 8 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . Malaya fired a torpedo at Markgraf at 19 : 05 , but the torpedo missed due to the long range . Around the same time , Markgraf engaged a cruiser from the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron before shifting her fire back to the 5th Battle Squadron for ten minutes . During this period , two more 15 @-@ inch shells hit Markgraf , though the timing is unknown . The hit at 18 : 10 struck on a joint between two 8 @-@ inch @-@ thick side armor plates ; the shell burst on impact and holed the armor . The main deck was buckled and approximately 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of water entered the ship . The other two shells failed to explode and caused negligible damage . Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to position his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The obsolescent armored cruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron also joined in the melee . Markgraf and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive them off . Markgraf fired both her 30 @.@ 5 cm and 15 cm guns at the armored cruiser Defence . Under a hail of fire from the German battleships , Defence exploded and sank ; credit is normally given to the battlecruiser Lützow , though Markgraf 's gunners also claimed credit for the sinking . Markgraf then fired on the battlecruiser Princess Royal and scored two hits . The first hit struck the 9 @-@ inch armor covering " X " barbette , was deflected downward , and exploded after penetrating the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The crew for the left gun were killed , the turret was disabled , and the explosion caused serious damage to the upper deck . The second shell penetrated Princess Royal 's 6 @-@ inch belt armor , ricocheted upward off the coal bunker , and exploded under the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The two shells killed 11 and wounded 31 . At the same time , Markgraf 's secondary guns fired on the cruiser Warrior , which was seriously damaged by 15 heavy shells and forced to withdraw . Warrior foundered on the trip back to port the following morning . Around 19 : 30 , Admiral John Jellicoe 's main force of battleships entered the battle ; Orion began firing at Markgraf at 19 : 32 ; she fired four salvos of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Armor @-@ Piercing , Capped ( APC ) shells and scored a hit with the last salvo . The shell exploded upon impacting the armor protecting the No. 6 15 cm gun casemate . The shell failed to penetrate but holed the armor and disabled the gun . The explosion seriously injured two and killed the rest of the gun crew . A heavy shell nearly struck the ship at the same time , and at 19 : 44 , a bent propeller shaft forced Markgraf 's crew to turn off the port engine ; naval historian John Campbell speculated that this shell was the one that damaged the shaft . Her speed dropped to 17 or 18 kn ( 31 or 33 km / h ; 20 or 21 mph ) , though she remained in her position in the line . Shortly after 20 : 00 , the German battleships engaged the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Markgraf fired primarily 15 cm shells . In this period , Markgraf was engaged by Agincourt 's 12 @-@ inch guns , which scored a single hit at 20 : 14 . The shell failed to explode and shattered on impact on the 8 @-@ inch side armor , causing minimal damage . Two of the adjoining 14 @-@ inch plates directly below the 8 @-@ inch armor were slightly forced inward and some minor flooding occurred . The heavy fire of the British fleet forced Scheer to order the fleet to turn away . Due to her reduced speed , Markgraf turned early in an attempt to maintain her place in the battle line ; this , however , forced Grosser Kurfürst to fall out of formation . Markgraf fell in behind Kronprinz while Grosser Kurfürst steamed ahead to return to her position behind König . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . Several British light cruisers and destroyers stumbled into the German line around 21 : 20 . In the ensuing short engagement Markgraf hit the cruiser Calliope five times with her secondary guns . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Grosser Kurfürst the 13th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships . Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line . Markgraf initially held her fire as the identities of the destroyers were unknown . But gunners aboard Grosser Kurfürst correctly identified the vessels as hostile and opened fire while turning away to avoid torpedoes , which prompted Markgraf to follow suit . Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw . At 05 : 06 , Markgraf and several other battleships fired at what they thought was a submarine . The High Seas Fleet managed to punch through the British light forces without drawing the attention of Jellicoe 's battleships , and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . Upon reaching Wilhelmshaven , Markgraf went into harbor while several other battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead . The ship was transferred to Hamburg where she was repaired in AG Vulcan 's large floating dock . Repair work was completed by 20 July . In the course of the battle , Markgraf had fired a total of 254 shells from her main battery and 214 rounds from her 15 cm guns . She was hit by five large @-@ caliber shells , which killed 11 men and wounded 13 . = = = Subsequent operations = = = Following repairs in July 1916 , Markgraf went into the Baltic for trials . The ship was then temporarily assigned to the I Scouting Group for the fleet operation on 18 – 19 August . Due to the serious damage incurred by Seydlitz and Derfflinger at Jutland , the only battlecruisers available for the operation were Von der Tann and Moltke , which were joined by Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst , and the new battleship Bayern . The British were aware of the German plans , and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close engagement at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports . Markgraf was present for the uneventful advance in the direction of Sunderland on 18 – 20 October . Unit training with the III Squadron followed from 21 October to 2 November . Two days later , the ship formally rejoined III Squadron . On the 5th , a pair of U @-@ boats grounded on the Danish coast . Light forces were sent to recover the vessels , and III Squadron , which was in the North Sea en route to Wilhelmshaven , was ordered to cover them . During the operation , the British submarine J1 torpedoed both Grosser Kurfürst and Kronprinz and caused moderate damage . For most of 1917 , Markgraf was occupied with guard duties in the North Sea , interrupted only by a refit period in January and periodic unit training in the Baltic . = = = Operation Albion = = = In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The II Squadron consisted of the four König @-@ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship Bayern . The IV Squadron consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . Three British C @-@ class submarines where also stationed in the Gulf . The Irben Strait , the main southern entrance to the Gulf of Riga , was heavily mined and defended by a number of coastal artillery batteries . The garrison on Ösel numbered nearly 14 @,@ 000 men , though by 1917 it had been reduced to 60 to 70 percent strength . The operation began on 12 October , when Moltke and the four König @-@ class ships covered the landing of ground troops by suppressing the shore batteries covering Tagga Bay . Markgraf fired on the battery located on Cape Ninnast . After the successful amphibious assault , III Squadron steamed to Putziger Wiek , although Markgraf remained behind for several days . On the 17th , Markgraf left Tagga Bay to rejoin her squadron in the Gulf of Riga , but early on the following morning she ran aground at the entrance to Kalkgrund . The ship was quickly freed , and she reached the III Squadron anchorage north of Larina Bank on the 19th . The next day , Markgraf steamed to Moon Sound , and on the 25th participated in the bombardment of Russian positions on the island of Kynö . The ship returned to Arensburg on 27 October , and two days later was detached from Operation Albion to return to the North Sea . Markgraf struck a pair of mines in quick succession while in the Irben Strait and took in 260 metric tons ( 260 long tons ; 290 short tons ) of water . The ship continued on to Kiel via Neufahrwasser in Danzig ; she then went on to Wilhelmshaven , where the mine damage was repaired . The work was completed at the Imperial Dockyard from 6 to 23 November . After repairs were completed , Markgraf returned to guard duty in the North Sea . She missed an attempted raid on a British convoy on 23 – 25 April 1918 , as she was in dock in Kiel from 15 March to 5 May for the installation of a new foremast . = = = Fate = = = Markgraf and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy in order to obtain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships , including Markgraf , mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . " Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the first opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Markgraf sank at 16 : 45 . The British soldiers in the guard detail panicked in their attempt to prevent the Germans from scuttling the ships ; they shot and killed Markgraf 's captain , Walter Schumann , who was in a lifeboat , and an enlisted man . In total , the guards killed nine Germans and wounded twenty @-@ one . The remaining crews , totaling some 1 @,@ 860 officers and enlisted men , were imprisoned . Markgraf was never raised for scrapping , unlike most of the other capital ships that were scuttled . Markgraf and her two sisters had sunk in deeper water than the other capital ships , which made any salvage attempt more difficult . The outbreak of World War II in 1939 put a halt to all salvage operations , and after the war it was determined that salvaging the deeper wrecks was financially impractical . The rights to future salvage operations on the wrecks were sold to Britain in 1962 . Owing to the fact that the steel that composed their hulls was produced before the advent of nuclear weapons , Markgraf and her sisters are among the few accessible sources of low @-@ background steel , which has occasionally been removed for use in scientific devices . Markgraf and the other vessels on the bottom of Scapa Flow are a popular dive site , and are protected by a policy barring divers from recovering items from the wrecks .

= Coldrum Long Barrow = The Coldrum Long Barrow , also known as the Coldrum Stones and the Adscombe Stones , is a chambered long barrow located near to the village of Trottiscliffe in the south @-@ eastern English county of Kent . Constructed circa 4000 BCE , during Britain 's Early Neolithic period , today it survives only in a ruined state . Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of agriculture to Britain from continental Europe . Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe , the Coldrum Stones belong to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the River Medway , now known as the Medway Megaliths . Of these , it is in the best surviving condition , and lies near to both Addington Long Barrow and Chestnuts Long Barrow on the western side of the river . Three further surviving long barrows , Kit 's Coty House , the Little Kit 's Coty House , and the Coffin Stone , are located on the Medway 's eastern side . Built out of earth and around fifty local sarsen megaliths , the long barrow consisted of a sub @-@ rectangular earthen tumulus enclosed by kerb @-@ stones . Within the eastern end of the tumulus was a stone chamber , into which human remains were deposited on at least two separate occasions during the Early Neolithic . Osteoarchaeological analysis of these remains has shown them to be those of at least seventeen individuals , a mixture of men , women , children and adults . At least one of the bodies had been dismembered prior to burial , potentially reflecting a funerary tradition of excarnation and secondary burial . As with other barrows , Coldrum has been interpreted as a tomb to house the remains of the dead , perhaps as part of a belief system involving ancestor veneration , although archaeologists have suggested that it may also have had further religious , ritual , and cultural connotations and uses . After the Early Neolithic , the long barrow fell into a state of ruined dilapidation , perhaps experiencing deliberate deposition in the late medieval period , either by Christian zealots or treasure hunters . Local folklore grew up around the site , associating it with the burial of a prince and the countless stones motif . The ruin attracted the interest of antiquarians in the 19th century , while archaeological excavation took place in the early 20th . After limited reconstruction , in 1926 ownership was transferred to heritage charity The National Trust . It is open without charge to visitors all year around . = = Name and location = = The Coldrum Stones are named after a nearby farm , Coldrum Lodge , which has since been demolished . The monument lies in a " rather isolated site " north @-@ east of the nearby village of Trottiscliffe , about 500 metres from a prehistoric track known as the Pilgrim 's Way . The tomb can be reached along a pathway known as Coldrum Lane , which is only accessible on foot . The nearest car park to Coldrum Lane can be found off of Pinesfield Lane in Trottiscliffe . Another nearby village is Addington , which is located one and a quarter miles away . = = Context = = = = = Early Neolithic Britain = = = The Early Neolithic was a revolutionary period of British history . Beginning in the fifth millennium BCE , it saw a widespread change in lifestyle as the communities living in the British Isles adopted agriculture as their primary form of subsistence , abandoning the hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle that had characterised the preceding Mesolithic period . Archaeologists have been unable to prove whether this adoption of farming was because of a new influx of migrants coming in from continental Europe or because the indigenous Mesolithic Britons came to adopt the agricultural practices of continental societies . Either way , it certainly emerged through contact with continental Europe , probably as a result of centuries of interaction between Mesolithic people living in south @-@ east Britain and Linear Pottery culture ( LBK ) communities in north @-@ eastern France . The region of modern Kent would have been a key area for the arrival of continental European settlers and visitors , because of its position on the estuary of the River Thames and its proximity to the continent . Between 4500 and 3800 BCE , all of the British Isles came to abandon its former Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle , to be replaced by the new agricultural subsistence of the Neolithic Age . Although a common material culture was shared throughout most of the British Isles in this period , there was great regional variation regarding the nature and distribution of settlement , architectural styles , and the use of natural resources . Throughout most of Britain , there is little evidence of cereal or permanent dwellings from this period , leading archaeologists to believe that the Early Neolithic economy on the island was largely pastoral , relying on herding cattle , with people living a nomadic or semi @-@ nomadic way of life . Although witnessing some land clearance , Britain was largely forested in this period , and it is unclear what level of deforestation the area of Kent had experienced in the Early Neolithic ; widespread forest clearance only took place on the chalklands of south @-@ east Britain in the Late Bronze Age . Environmental data from the area around the White Horse Stone supports the idea that the area was still largely forested in the Early Neolithic , covered by a woodland of oak , ash , hazel / alder and Maloideae . = = = The tomb building tradition = = = Across Western Europe , the Early Neolithic marked the first period in which humans built monumental structures in the landscape . These were tombs that held the physical remains of the dead , and though sometimes constructed out of timber , many were built using large stones , now known as " megaliths " . Individuals were rarely buried alone in the Early Neolithic , instead being interned in collective burials with other members of their community . The construction of these collective burial monumental tombs , both wooden and megalithic , began in continental Europe before being adopted in Britain in the first half of the fourth millennium BCE . The Early Neolithic people of Britain placed far greater emphasis on the ritualised burial of the dead than their Mesolithic forebears had done . Many archaeologists have suggested that this is because Early Neolithic people adhered to an ancestor cult that venerated the spirits of the dead , believing that they could intercede with the forces of nature for the benefit of their living descendants . Archaeologist Robin Holgate stressed that rather than simply being tombs , the Medway Megaliths were " communal mouments fulfilling a social function for the communities who built and used them . " Thus , it has furthermore been suggested that Early Neolithic people entered into the tombs – which doubled as temples or shrines – to perform rituals that would honour the dead and ask for their assistance . For this reason , historian Ronald Hutton termed these monuments " tomb @-@ shrines " to reflect their dual purpose . In Britain , these tombs were typically located on prominent hills and slopes overlooking the surrounding landscape , perhaps at the junction between different territories . Archaeologist Caroline Malone noted that the tombs would have served as one of a variety of markers in the landscape that conveyed information on " territory , political allegiance , ownership , and ancestors . " Many archaeologists have subscribed to the idea that these tomb @-@ shrines served as territorial markers between different tribal groups , although others have argued that such markers would be of little use to a nomadic herding society . Instead it has been suggested that they represent markers along herding pathways . Many archaeologists have suggested that the construction of such monuments reflects an attempt to stamp control and ownership over the land , thus representing a change in mindset brought about by Neolithicisation . Others have suggested that these monuments were built on sites already deemed sacred by Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers . Archaeologists have differentiated these Early Neolithic tombs into a variety of different architectural styles , each typically associated with a different region within the British Isles . Passage graves , characterised by their narrow passage made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers covered in earth or stone , were predominantly located in northern Britain and southern and central Ireland . Alternately , across northern Ireland and central Britain long chambered mounds predominated , while in the east and south @-@ east of Britain , earthen long barrows represented the dominant architectural trend . These earthen long barrows were typically constructed of timber because building stone was scarce in southern Britain ; archaeologist Aubrey Burl argued that these timber tombs might have been " even more eye @-@ catching " than their stone counterparts , perhaps consisting of " towering carved poles , flamboyantly painted " , but that evidence of such sculptures has not survived . The Medway Megaliths represent just one of these regional groups within the wider West European tradition of tomb building in this period . = = = The Medway Megaliths = = = Although now all in a ruinous state and not retaining their original appearance , at the time of construction the Medway Megaliths would have been some of the largest and most visually imposing Early Neolithic funerary monuments in Britain . Grouped along the River Medway as it cuts through the North Downs , they constitute the most south @-@ easterly group of megalithic monuments in the British Isles , and the only megalithic group in eastern England . Archaeologists Brian Philp and Mike Dutto deemed the Medway Megaliths to be " some of the most interesting and well known " archaeological sites in Kent , while archaeologist Paul Ashbee described them as " the most grandiose and impressive structures of their kind in southern England " . They can be divided into two separate clusters : one to the west of the River Medway and the other on Blue Bell Hill to the east , with the distance between the two clusters measuring at between 8 and 10 km . The western group includes Coldrum Long Barrow , Addington Long Barrow , and the Chestnuts Long Barrow . The eastern group consists of Kit 's Coty House , Little Kit 's Coty House , the Coffin Stone , and several other stones which might have once been parts of chambered tombs . It is not known if they were all built at the same time , or whether they were constructed in succession , while similarly it is not known if they each served the same function or whether there was a hierarchy in their usage . The Medway long barrows all conformed to the same general design plan , and are all aligned on an east to west axis . Each had a stone chamber at the eastern end of the mound , and they each probably had a stone facade flanking the entrance . The chambers were constructed from sarsen , a dense , hard , and durable stone that occurs naturally throughout Kent , having formed out of silicified sand from the Eocene . Early Neolithic builders would have selected blocks from the local area , and then transported them to the site of the monument to be erected . Such common architectural features among these tomb @-@ shrines indicate a strong regional cohesion with no direct parallels elsewhere in the British Isles . For instance , they would have been taller than most other tomb @-@ shrines in Britain , with internal heights of up to 10 ft . Nevertheless , as with other regional groupings of Early Neolithic tomb @-@ shrines ( such as the Cotswold @-@ Severn group ) , there are also various idiosyncrasies in the different monuments , such as Coldrum 's rectilinear shape , the Chestnut long barrow 's facade , and the long , thin mounds at Addington and Kit 's Coty . This variation might have been caused by the tomb @-@ shrines being altered and adapted over the course of their use ; in this scenario , the monuments would represent composite structures . It seems apparent that the people who built these monuments were influenced by pre @-@ existing tomb @-@ shrines that they were already aware of . Whether those people had grown up locally , or moved into the Medway area from elsewhere is not known . Based on a stylistic analysis of their architectural designs , Stuart Piggott thought that they had originated in the area around the Low Countries , while Glyn Daniel instead believed that the same evidence showed an influence from Scandinavia . John H. Evans instead suggested an origin in Germany , and Ronald F. Jessup thought that their origins could be seen in the Cotswold @-@ Severn megalithic group . Ashbee noted that their close clustering in the same area was reminiscent of the megalithic tomb @-@ shrine traditions of continental Northern Europe , and emphasised that the Medway Megaliths were a regional manifestation of a tradition widespread across Early Neolithic Europe . He nevertheless stressed that a precise place of origin was " impossible to indicate " with the available evidence . = = Design and construction = = The monument originally consisted of a sarsen stone chamber , covered by a low earthen mound , which was bounded by prostrate slabs . As such , the archaeologist Paul Ashbee asserted that the monument could be divided into three particular features : the chamber , the barrow , and the sarsen stone surround . It is located on the edge of a large lynchet scarp , although it is difficult to ascertain what views would have been possible from the monument at the time of construction , due to a lack of information on how densely forested the vicinity was . However , if the area was not highly wooded , then 360 ° views of the surrounding landscape would have been possible . The monument 's axis points toward both the North Downs and the Medway Valley , which is similar to the other Medway Megaliths . Archaeologist Sian Killick suggested that the Coldrum Long Barrow might have been built within view of a nearby settlement , and that this " may have been a key factor in the experience of ceremonies and rituals taking place at the tombs and may also have defined a link between the tomb builders and the landscape . " It had been built using about 50 stones . The barrow is sub @-@ rectangular in plan , and about 20 meters ( 64 feet ) in length . At its broader , eastern end , where the chamber is located , the monument measures 15 metres ( 50 feet ) , while at the narrower , western end , it is 12 metres ( 40 feet ) in breadth . As such , the barrow is a " truncated wedge @-@ shape " . The megalithic builders responsible for the Coldrum Stones positioned it on the top of a small ridge adjacent to the North Downs , and constructed it facing eastward , towards the River Medway . The chamber of the monument measures 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 13 feet ) in length , and 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 feet 6 inches ) in width , although it was potentially much larger when originally constructed . The chamber 's internal height would have been at least 2 metres ( 6 feet 6 inches ) . In its current state , the northern side of the chamber is made up of two slabs , one being 8 feet long , 7 feet , 6 inches deep , and 1 foot , 9 inches thick , and the other 5 feet long , 6 feet deep , and 2 feet thick . Conversely , the chamber 's southern side consists of a single slab , measuring 11 feet , 4 inches in length , 7 feet , 3 inches in depth , and 1 foot , 9 inches in depth at its thicker , eastern end . The western end of the chamber is closed off with a slab measuring about 14 feet , 6 inches wide , with a thickness of 1 foot and a depth of around 8 feet . A collapsed , broken slab lies at the opening eastern end of the chamber . It is also possible that a largely rectangular slab at the bottom of the slope had once been part of the eastern end of the chamber . Excavation has revealed that flint masonry was used to pack around the chamber and support its sarsens ; twentieth @-@ century renovation has seen this largely replaced with cement , allowing the stones to continue standing upright . It is possible that there was a facade in front of the chamber , as is evident at other chambered tombs in Britain , such as West Kennet Long Barrow and Wayland 's Smithy . It is also possible that there was a portal stone atop the chamber , as was apparent at Kit 's Coty House and Lower Kit 's Coty House . Many of the larger slabs of stone that have fallen down the slope on the eastern end of the monument may have been parts of this facade or portal . The earthen mound that once covered the tomb is now visible only as an undulation approximately 1 foot , 6 inches in height . In the nineteenth @-@ century , the mound was higher on the western end of the tomb , although this was removed by excavation to reveal the sarsens beneath during the 1920s . It is likely that in the Early Neolithic , the mound had a quarry ditch surrounding it , and it is inside this ditch that the kerb @-@ stones now sit . The kerb @-@ stones around the tomb display some patterning ; those on the northern side are mostly rectilinear , while those on the southern side are smaller and largely irregular in shape . It is probable that there was an ancillary dry @-@ stone wall constructed using blocks of ironstone from the geological Folkestone beds , as is evident at Chestnuts Long Barrow . Given that such blocks of stone rarely occur naturally , it may have been quarried . A concave line of abrasion and polishing can be found on both one of the central kerb @-@ stones on the western end of the monument and a kerb @-@ stone on the south @-@ east of the monument . These have been attributed to the sharpening of flint and other stone axe @-@ blades on these sarsens . It is possible that these tools were sharpened for use in cutting and carving the timber levers and struts which would have been used in erecting the stones and constructing the tomb . Similar evidence for the sharpening of tools has been found at West Kennet Long Barrow , as well as later prehistoric monuments such as Stonehenge . Coldrum Long Barrow is comparatively isolated from the other Medway Megaliths ; in this it is unique , given that the other surviving examples are clustered into two groups . However , it is possible that another chambered tomb was located nearby ; a razed , elongated earthen mound with an east @-@ west orientation is located in a hollow at the foot of the downs just under a quarter of a mile to the north of the Coldrum Stones . It may be that this represents the remnants of another such monument which has had its stones removed or buried . Several large sarsens to the south of the Coldrums might represent the remnants of a further such tomb , since destroyed . = = Human remains = = = = = Demographics = = = Ashbee suggested that given its size and comparisons with other long barrows , such as Fussell 's Lodge , the Coldrum tomb could have housed the remains of over a hundred individuals . Excavations conducted in the early 20th century have led to the methodical discovery and removal of what was believed to be the remains of twenty @-@ two human individuals . These remains were examined by Sir Arthur Keith , the conservator of the museum at the Royal College of Surgeons . He published his results in 1913 , in a paper largely concerned with discerning racial characteristics of the bodies . A subsequent re @-@ analysis of the bones was conducted in the early 21st century , and published in the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society in 2013 : the project presented " osteological analysis , Bayesian modelling of radiocarbon dates , and carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis to inform on the demography , burial practices , diet and subsistence , and chronology of the Coldrum population " . Disputing earlier conclusions , it stated that the minimum number of individuals was seventeen . These were then further identified as probably belonging to nine adults ( probably five males and four females ) , two sub @-@ adults , four older children , and two younger children ( one around five years old , the other between 24 and 30 months old ) . Keith had suggested that the crania he examined displayed similar features , which he attributed to the different individuals belonging to " one family - or several families united by common descent . " Similar observations had been made regarding the crania from other long barrows in Britain , although osteoarchaeologists Martin Smith and Megan Brickley noted that this was not necessarily representative of a family group . Instead , they stated that it would also be consistent with " a population that was still relatively small and scattered " , in which most individuals were interrelated . Wysocki 's team noted that in all but one case , the fracture morphologies are consistent with dry @-@ bone breakage . Three of the skulls exhibited evidence that they had experienced violence ; a probable adult female had an unhealed injury on the left frontal , while an adult of indeterminate sex had an unhealed fracture on the left frontal , and a second adult female had a healed depressed fracture on the right frontal . Isotope analysis of the remains revealed δ13C values that were typical of those found at many other Southern British Neolithic sites , albeit with significantly higher values of δ15C , which grew over time . Although this data is difficult to interpret , it was identified as probably reflecting a terrestrial diet high in animal protein that over time was increasingly supplemented with freshwater river or estuarine foods . In the case of the older individuals whose remains were interned in the tomb , the tooth enamel was worn away and the dentine had become exposed on the chewing area of the crowns . Radiocarbon dating of the remains suggested Early Neolithic activity began at the site during 3980 – 3800 calibrated BCE ( 95 % probability ) or 3960 – 3880 cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) , when the first human remains were buried at the site . It then suggested that after an interval of either 60 – 350 years ( 95 % probability ) or 140 – 290 years ( 68 % probability ) , further depositions of human remains were made inside the tomb . This second phase probably began in 3730 – 3540 cal BCE ( 95 % probability ) or 3670 – 3560 cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) . The radiocarbon dating of the human remains does not provide a date for the construction of Coldrum Long Barrow itself ; it is possible that the individuals died either some time before or after the monument 's construction . = = = Post @-@ mortem deposition = = = Cut @-@ marks were identified on a number of the bones ( two femora , two innominates , and one cranium ) , with osteoarchaeological specialists suggesting that these had been created post @-@ mortem as the bodies were dismembered and the bones removed from their attached ligaments . However , they further suggested that the lack of such cut @-@ marks on certain bones was suggestive that the body had already undergone partial decomposition or the removal of soft tissues prior to the process of dismemberment . The precision of the cut @-@ marks suggests that this dismemberment was done carefully ; " they do not suggest frenzied hacking or mutilation . " None of the criteria that osteoarchaeologists deem diagnostic of cannibalism were found on the bones . This cut @-@ marked human bone assemblage represented the largest yet identified from within a Neolithic long barrow in Southern Britain , although similar evidence for dismemberment has been found from a number of other Neolithic British sites , such as West Trump , Eyford , Aldestrop , and Haddenham . There are two possibilities for how this material developed . The first is that the bodies of the dead were excarnated or exposed to the elements , followed by a secondary burial within the tomb . The second is that they were placed in the tomb , where the flesh decomposed , before the bodies were then rearranged within the tomb itself . These practices may have been accompanied by necrophagy , shamanism , or magical practices , direct evidence for which does not survive . The inclusion of occupational debris over the bones was not unique to the site but common in chambered tombs from southern England . On the basis of an example discovered at Kit 's Coty House , Ashbee thought it apparent that the contents of the Coldrum 's chamber would have been compartmentalised by medial slabs , which served the same purpose as the side chambers of West Kennet and Wayland 's Smithy . = = Damage and dilapidation = = All of the surviving megalithic tombs from the Early Neolithic period have suffered from neglect and the ravages of agriculture . Although archaeologist Paul Ashbee noted that the Coldrum Stones represent " Kent 's least damaged megalithic long barrow " , it too has suffered considerable damage , having become dilapidated and fallen apart over the six millennia since its original construction . Most prominently , the eastern side has largely collapsed , with the stones that once helped to hold up the side of the barrow having fallen to the bottom of the slope . Conversely , it is possible that the sarsens at the bottom of the slope were not part of the original monument , but were stones found in nearby fields which were deposited there by farmers . Excavation of Chestnuts Long Barrow revealed that it had been systematically destroyed in one event , and Ashbee suggested that the same may have happened to the Coldrum Stones . He believed that the kerb @-@ stones around the barrow were toppled , laid prostrate in the surrounding ditch , and then buried during the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century , by Christians seeking to obliterate non @-@ Christian monuments . Conversely , the archaeologist John Alexander — who excavated Chestnuts — suggested that the Medway tombs were destroyed by robbers seeking to locate treasure within them . As evidence , he pointed to the Close Roll of 1237 , which ordered the opening of barrows on the Isle of Wight in search for treasure , a practice which may have spread to Kent around the same time . Alexander believed that the destruction n Kent may have been brought about by a special commissioner , highlighting that the " expertness and thoroughness of the robbery " at Chestnuts would have necessitated resources beyond that which a local community could likely produce . Ashbee further suggested that in subsequent centuries , locals raided the damaged Coldrum tomb for loamy chalk and stone , which was then re @-@ used as building material . = = Folklore and folk tradition = = In a 1946 paper published in the Folklore journal , John H. Evans recorded the existence of a local folk belief that a battle was fought at the site of the Coldrum Stones , and that a " Black Prince " was buried within its chamber . He suggested that the tales of battles taking place at this site and at other Medway Megaliths had not developed independently among the local population but had " percolated down from the theories of antiquaries " who believed that the Early Medieval Battle of Aylesford , which was recorded in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , took place in the area . Evans also recorded that there was a folk belief in the area that applied to all of the Medway megaliths and which had been widespread " up to the last generation " ; this was that it was impossible for any human being to successfully count the number of stones in the monuments . This " countless stones " motif is not unique to this particular site , and can be found at various other megalithic monuments in Britain . The earliest textual evidence for it is found in an early sixteenth @-@ century document , where it applies to the stone circle of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , although in an early seventeenth @-@ century document it was being applied to The Hurlers , a set of three stone circles in Cornwall . Later records reveal that it had gained widespread distribution in England , as well as a single occurrence each in Wales and Ireland . The folklorist S. P. Menefee suggested that it could be attributed to an animistic understanding that these megaliths had lives of their own . In the early twenty @-@ first century , a tradition developed in which the Hartley Morris Men , a morris dancing side , travel to the site at dawn every May Day in order to " sing up the sun " . This consists of a number of dances performed within the stones on top of the barrow , followed by a song performed at the base of the monument . = = Antiquarian and archaeological investigation = = = = = Early antiquarian descriptions = = = The earliest antiquarian accounts of Coldrum Long Barrow were never published . There are claims that at the start of the nineteenth century , the Reverend Mark Noble , Rector of Barming , prepared a plan of the site for Gentleman 's Magazine , although no copies have been produced to verify this . Between 1842 and 1844 , the Reverend Beale Post authored Druidical Remains at Coldrum , in which he described the monument , although it remained unpublished at the time . Associating the site with the druids of Britain 's Iron Age , Post 's suggestion was that the name " Coldrum " derived from the linguistically Celtic " Gael @-@ Dun " , and that the chiefs of some of the Belgic Gauls were interned there . He further reported that in both 1804 and 1825 , skulls had been found at the site . In 1844 , an antiquarian named Thomas Wright published a note on the Coldrum Stones and other Medway Megaliths in The Archaeological Journal . Wright had been alerted to their existence by a local vicar , the Reverend Lambert B. Larking , and proceeded to visit them with him . Describing the Coldrums , Wright mentioned " a smaller circle of stones " to the others in the area , with " a subterranean cromlech in the middle " . He further added that " it is a tradition of the peasantry that a continuous line of stones ran from Coldrum direct to the well @-@ known monument called Kit 's Cotty [ sic ] House " , attributing this belief to the variety of megaliths which were scattered throughout the landscape . In 1857 , the antiquarian J. M. Kemble excavated at the site with the help of the Reverend Larking , providing a report of their findings to the Central Committee of the British Archaeological Association . Describing the monument as a stone circle , they asserted that they discovered Anglo @-@ Saxon pottery at the site , and noted that as well as being called the Coldrum Stones , the monument also had the name of the Adscombe Stones , which Kemble believed originated with the Old English word for funeral pile , ad . In August 1863 , the Archaeological Institute , who were then holding their week @-@ long meeting in Rochester , took a tour to visit the site , guided by the antiquary Charles Roach Smith . That year , the monument was described in a copy of Gentleman 's Magazine by Yorkshire antiquary Charles Moore Jessop , who believed it to be a " Celtic " stone circle . In 1869 , the antiquarian A. L. Lewis first visited the site , and was informed by locals that several years previously a skull had been uncovered from inside or near to the chamber , but that they believed it to be that of a gypsy . A later account elaborated on this , stating that two individuals excavated in the centre of the dolmen without permission , discovering a human skeleton , the skull of which was then re @-@ buried in the churchyard at Meopham . In an 1878 note published in The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland , Lewis noted that while many tourists visited Kit 's Coty House , " very few goes to or ever hears of a yet more curious collection of stones at Colderham or Coldrum Lodge " . He believed that the monument consisted of both a " chamber " and an " oval " of stones , suggesting that they were " two distinct erections " . In 1880 , the archaeologist Flinders Petrie included the existence of the stones at " Coldreham " in his list of Kentish earthworks ; although noting that a previous commentator had described the stones as being in the shape of an oval , he instead described them as forming " a rectilinear enclosure " around the chamber . He then included a small , basic plan of the monument . In August 1889 , two amateur archaeologists , George Payne and A. A. Arnold , came across the monument , which they noted was known among locals as the " Coldrum Stones " and " Druid Temple " ; according to Payne , " the huge stones were so overgrown with brambles and brushwood that they could not be discerned " . He returned the next year , noting that at this point , the brushwood had been cut away to reveal the megaliths . In his 1893 book Collectanea Cantiana , Payne noted that although it had first been described in print in 1844 , " since that time no one seems to have taken the trouble to properly record them or make a plan " , an unusual claim given that a copy of Petrie 's published plan existed in his library . For this reason , after gaining permission from the landowner , he convinced Major A. O. Green , Instructor in Survey at Brompton , to conduct a survey of the monument in August 1892 . He also wrote to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , encouraging him to schedule the Coldrum Stones as a legally protected site under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 . Payne described the Coldrum Stones as " the finest monument of its class in the county , and one worthy of every care and attention . " Comparing it to other monuments of its type in Britain , he asserted that it was undoubtedly " of sepulchral origin , belonging to a period anterior to the Roman domination of Britain . " Payne also noted a folk tradition that there were stone avenues connecting Coldrum to the Addington Long Barrow , although added that he was unable to discover any evidence for the existence of this feature . In 1904 , George Clinch published a note on the Medway Megaliths in the Royal Anthropological Institute 's journal , Man , in which he referred to the Coldrum Stones as " at once the most remarkable and the least known of the whole series . " Suggesting that its design indicates that it was built during " a late date in the neolithic age " , he compared the workmanship in producing the megaliths to that at the stone circle of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , although noted that they differed in that the Coldrum Stones clearly represented " a sepulchral pile " . Ultimately , he ended his note by urging for the site to be protected under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 . In that same issue , Lewis included an added note in which he rejected the idea that the monument had once been covered by an earthen tumulus because he could see " no evidence that anything of that kind ever existed " , and instead he interpreted the site as a stone circle , comparing it to the examples at Avebury , Arborlow , and Stanton Drew , suggesting that the central chamber was a shrine . = = = Archaeological excavation = = = The Coldrum Stones have been excavated on multiple occasions . On 16 April 1910 , the amateur archaeologist F. J. Bennett began excavation at the site , after previously having uncovered some Neolithic lithics from Addington Long Barrow . He soon discovered human bones " under only a few inches of chalky soil " . He returned to the site for further excavation in August 1910 , this time with his niece and her husband , both of whom were dentists with an interest in craniology ; on that day they discovered pieces of a human skull , which they were able to largely reconstruct . A few days later he returned to excavate on the north @-@ west corner of the dolmen with the architect E. W. Filkins ; that day , they found a second skull , further bones , a flint tool , and pieces of pottery . Later that month , George Payne and F. W. Reader met with Bennett to discuss his finds . With the aid of two other interested amateur archaeologists , Mr Boyd and Miss Harker , both from Malling , excavation resumed in early September . In 2009 , the archaeologists Martin Smith and Megan Brickley asserted that Bennett 's excavations had taken heed of the advice of Pitt @-@ Rivers that excavations should be recorded in full . They noted that Bennett had provided " clear plan and section drawings , photographs of the monument and careful attempts to consider site formation processes . " Suggesting that the monument was constructed on agricultural land , in his published report Bennett cited the ideas of anthropologist James Frazer in The Golden Bough to suggest that the Coldrum Stones " monument may at one time have been dedicated , though not necessarily initially so , to the worship of the corn god and of agriculture . " He proceeded to theorise that the human remains found at the site were the victims of human sacrifice killed in fertility rites . However , Evans later stated that " we have no means of knowing " whether human sacrifice had taken place at the site . In September 1922 , Filkins once again began excavating at the site , this time with the aid of a resident of Gravesend , Charles Gilbert . Their project was financed through grants provided by the British Association and the Society of Antiquaries , with Filkins noting that at the time of its commencement , " a miniature jungle " had grown up around the site which had to be cleared . Excavation continued sporadically until at least 1926 . Human remains were discovered , and placed into the possession of Sir Arthur Keith of the Royal College of Surgeons . This excavation revealed all the existing sarsens surrounding the monument , a number of which had previously been buried beneath earth . The stones of the dolmen were shored up with concrete foundations where Filkins deemed it necessary . Although Filkins ' excavation was comprehensive , it did ignore stone holes , packing stones , and their relationship to the mound . In 1998 , Ashbee noted that while from " a present @-@ day perspective , it is possible to see shortcomings [ ... ] in terms of the general standards of the early part of this century , there is much to commend . " = = = Management by The National Trust = = = In his 1924 publication dealing with Kent , the archaeologist O. G. S. Crawford , then working as the archaeological officer for the Ordnance Survey , listed the Coldrum Stones alongside the other Medway Megaliths . In 1926 , the Coldrum Stones were given to The National Trust , who dedicated it as a memorial to the Kentish historian Benjamin Harrison . A plaque was erected to mark this , which erroneously termed the monument a stone circle ; in 1953 , the archaeologist Leslie Grinsell expressed the view that " it is hoped that this error may be rectified in the near future " . Still owned by the Trust , the site is open to visitors all year round , free of charge . On their website , the Trust advises visitors to look for " stunning views from the top of the barrow " . John H. Evans characterised the site as " the most impressive " of the Medway Megaliths , while Grinsell described it as " the finest and most complete " of the group .

= Soviet cruiser Krasnyi Kavkaz = Krasnyi Kavkaz ( from Russian : " Красный Кавказ " - " Red Caucasus " ) was a cruiser of the Soviet Navy that began construction during World War I , but was still incomplete during the Russian Revolution . Her design was heavily modified by the Soviets and she was completed in 1932 . During World War II she supported Soviet troops during the Siege of Odessa , Siege of Sevastopol , and the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation in the winter of 1941 — 42 . She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April 1942 . She was reclassified as a training ship in May 1947 before being used as a target in 1952 . = = Service history = = Laid down on 18 October 1913 at the Rossud Dockyard as Admiral Lazarev for the Imperial Russian Navy as a cruiser of the Svetlana class , she was launched on 8 June 1916 . Construction was abandoned in 1917 during the October Revolution when the ship was 63 % complete . In the second half of 1918 , the Marine Department of Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi was engaged in completion of ship . On 25 January 1919 , the ship was formally renamed in " Hetman Petro Doroshenko " , but Mykolaiv was captured shortly afterward by the Entente . The hull was relatively undamaged and the Soviets decided to finish the ship to a modified design . She was renamed Krasnyi Kavkaz on 14 December 1926 , and completed to a modernized design , being commissioned on 25 January 1932 . Krasnyi Kavkaz was initially intended to accommodate eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns in four twin turrets , but this was impossible given her small and lightly constructed hull . Three twin turrets mounting the new 57 @-@ caliber 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) B @-@ 1 @-@ K gun under development also proved impracticable and the Soviets had to settle for four MK @-@ 1 @-@ 180 single 180 mm gun turrets , two at each end . Her superstructure was massively revised to fit these turrets and all of the original casemated 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns were removed . As completed her secondary armament was only four 30 @-@ caliber 76 @.@ 2 mm Lender AA guns mounted between her funnels . Her original internal torpedo tubes were replaced by four triple 533 @-@ millimetre ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo mounts mounted on each side of the main deck abaft the forecastle break . She was given an aircraft @-@ handling crane , but a catapult wasn 't installed aft of her rear funnel until 1935 when a Heinkel catapult was imported from Germany . She was also fitted for mine rails with a capacity of up to 120 mines . The light cruiser Komintern collided with her in May 1932 , shortly after her commissioning , and badly damaged her bow . It was extensively rebuilt and increased her overall length by over 11 metres ( 36 ft ) . In 1933 she made port visits in Turkey , Greece and Italy . She was refitted before Operation Barbarossa , probably about 1940 , her catapult was removed , and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was greatly increased . Her four 76 @.@ 2 mm Lender AA guns were exchanged for four Italian Minizini twin gun 50 @-@ caliber 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) AA mounts and she received four single mounts for the semi @-@ automatic 76 @.@ 2 mm 34 @-@ K were fitted as well as six 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) AA machine guns . Two single mounts for 76 @.@ 2 mm ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K guns were also fitted , one on each side of the quarterdeck just aft of the rearmost main gun turret . Some of these guns may have been received earlier , the sources are unclear . While under repair at Poti in late 1942 she landed her aft pair of torpedo tubes and received two more Minizini mounts salvaged from the sunken cruiser Chervona Ukraina . Ten single mounts for the naval version of the 37 mm AA gun was also fitted . By 1944 she was also carrying one quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun MK III mount on top of each of her superfiring main gun turrets and she may have been using Oerlikon 20 mm cannon . = = = World War II = = = Krasnyi Kavkaz , in company with the cruisers Chervona Ukraina , Komintern and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive mine barrage protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June . She provided gunfire support to Soviet forces defending Odessa and escorted convoys bringing the 157th Rifle Division into Odessa during the month of September 1941 . She also transported one battalion of the 3rd Marine Regiment from Sevastopol in a successful amphibious assault behind Romanian lines to destroy Romanian coastal batteries near Fontanka and Dofinovka . She escorted convoys from 3 — 6 October that evacuated the 157th Rifle Division from Odessa to Sevastopol and escorted the final evacuation convoy during the night of 15 – 16 October . During the Siege of Sevastopol she provided gunfire support and evacuated cut @-@ off troops from elsewhere in the Crimea into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports . She helped to transport the 388th Rifle Division from Novorossiysk and Tuapse to Sevastopol between 7 and 13 December and the 354th Rifle Division between 21 and 22 December , bombarding German positions in the interim . During the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation Krasnyi Kavkaz sailed into the harbor of Feodosiya on 29 December 1941 and disembarked reinforcements and provided gunfire support for Soviet troops already ashore . She was hit seventeen times by Axis artillery and mortar fire in retaliation . On 1 and 3 January she ferried supplies and reinforcements for the Soviet bridgehead on the Kerch Peninsula . On the return voyage she was severely damaged by German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers from II . / StG 77 . Four near @-@ misses close to her stern damaged her steering , her left propeller shaft , blew off one propeller and put enough holes in her stern that flooding caused her draft to increase by 5 metres ( 16 ft ) . She made it to Novorossiysk , escorted by the destroyer Sposobnyi , where she was patched up enough to make to Poti where more permanent repairs could be made . These took until October 1942 and the opportunity was taken to reinforce her anti @-@ aircraft armament . She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April in recognition of her performance . Between 20 and 23 October , Krasnyi Kavkaz , her half @-@ sister Krasnyi Krym , and three destroyers ferried 12 @,@ 600 men of the 8th , 9th and 10th Guards Rifle Brigades from Poti to Tuapse to reinforce the defenses there . On the night of 4 February 1943 the Soviets made a series of amphibious landings to the west of Novorossiysk , behind German lines . Krasnyi Krym , Krasnyi Kavkaz , and three destroyers provided fire support for the main landing , but the Soviet troops there were wiped out by 6 February , although one secondary landing was successful . The loss of three destroyers attempting to interdict the German evacuation of the Taman Bridgehead on 6 October 1943 caused Stalin to forbid the deployment of large naval units without his express permission and this meant the end of Krasnyi Kavkaz 's active participation in the war . = = = Post @-@ war history = = = Little is known about her activities after the end of the war other than she was redesignated as a training ship on 12 May 1947 . She was sunk as a target ship by SS @-@ N @-@ 1 missiles on 21 November 1952 .

= Rhode Island Route 4 = Route 4 , also known as the Colonel Rodman Highway , is a 10 @.@ 37 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 69 km ) long numbered state highway located in Washington County and southern Kent County , Rhode Island , United States . The route is a major north – south freeway in the southern Providence metropolitan area , directly linking Providence with eastern Washington County , the beaches of Narragansett and South Kingstown , and the city of Newport . Route 4 begins as a two @-@ lane divided highway at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in the town of North Kingstown , becoming a limited @-@ access freeway after 1 @.@ 89 miles ( 3 @.@ 04 km ) . The route has four numbered interchanges before terminating in the city of Warwick , where the northbound lanes merge into Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) . The origins of Route 4 date back to 1952 , when construction began on a short , unnumbered arterial from US 1 to the modern location of exit 5 at Routes 2 and 102 in Wickford . In 1965 , the Rhode Island Department of Public Works began work on a 5 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) freeway from modern exit 6 north to the merge with I @-@ 95 . The freeway , designated as Route 4 , was completed in 1972 . At that time , the Route 4 designation was also applied to the Wickford arterial . In 1988 , the missing link in Route 4 between exits 5 and 6 was completed and opened . The Rhode Island Department of Transportation has long @-@ term plans to upgrade the southernmost portion of Route 4 to freeway status by constructing overpasses at Oak Hill Road and West Allenton Road and a grade separation with US 1 . Although the project was originally scheduled to be completed by 2007 , the $ 55 million project has been postponed indefinitely . = = Route description = = Route 4 begins at a fork in the alignment of U.S. Route 1 in the community of North Kingstown ; the two left lanes of US 1 default onto Route 4 north , with the right @-@ hand lane carrying Tower Hill Road and US 1 north into the village of Wickford . Route 4 heads in a northwestern direction as a four @-@ lane divided highway , crossing West Allenton Road at an at @-@ grade intersection with a traffic signal after approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . The highway continues on a northwesterly projection , passing to the northeast of Kettle Hole Pond and to the southwest of Secret Lake in a heavily forested region . After Secret Lake , the highway curves to the north , crossing Oak Hill Road at another at @-@ grade intersection . Shortly after the intersection with Oak Hill Road , Route 4 transitions from a divided arterial highway into a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access freeway . The freeway passes to the west of Belleville Pond and begins to parallel the alignment of Route 102 ( Ten Rod Road ) near the community of Lafayette . Route 4 passes over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad before entering the business district of Wickford Junction . The freeway interchanges with Routes 2 and 102 at exit 5 , a partial cloverleaf interchange . After the interchange , Route 4 bends to the northeast , beginning a parallel alignment with Route 2 that continues to its northern terminus . Route 4 crosses into the town of East Greenwich , passing under South Road before interchanging with Route 2 at exit 6 , a partial cloverleaf interchange . After exit 6 , Route 4 passes the Rhode Island Army National Guard base to the east and to the Hunt River to the west . Route 4 northbound interchanges with Route 403 at exit 7 ; Route 403 , or the Quonset Freeway , is a four @-@ lane , limited access freeway and spur route of Route 4 that serves the Quonset Business Park and the village of Davisville . Heading southbound , exit 7 is split into exit 7B , which serves the Quonset Freeway , and exit 7A , which serves Route 402 ( Frenchtown Road ) , another spur route connecting the highway to US 1 and Route 2 . After exit 7 , Route 4 continues northward as a six @-@ lane expressway , passing farmlands to the west and entering a suburban region of East Greenwich . The highway crosses under an overpass at Middle Road before interchanging with Route 401 , the freeway 's final spur , at another partial cloverleaf interchange . Exit 8 is also used to access Route 2 and I @-@ 95 south , which has no direct freeway connection with Route 4 north . Shortly after exit 8 , the Route 4 designation ends and the mainline of the highway defaults onto I @-@ 95 north . = = History = = In 1950 , the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a $ 12 million ( equivalent to $ 118 million in 2016 ) bond issue to fund the construction of a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , four @-@ lane divided arterial bypass of U.S. Route 1 in Wickford . Construction on the highway began in 1952 and was completed in 1954 , at which time the roadway opened as an unnumbered state highway leading from US 1 to Routes 2 and 102 in Wickford . During the late 1950s , a few years after the completion of the arterial , the Rhode Island Department of Public Works ( RIDPW ) proposed a relocation of Route 2 , which , at the time , was the major thoroughfare in the area . No action was taken until 1964 , when the RIDPW introduced a study for the " Relocated Route 2 " proposal . During the study , drivers who used the Colonel Rodman Highway arterial and were bound for the state capital of Providence were redirected onto Route 2 , an accident @-@ prone , four @-@ lane undivided highway near the modern exit 5 . In 1965 , the planned Route 2 freeway was given the new number of Route 4 , leaving Route 2 on its existing alignment . A public hearing was held by the state of Rhode Island on the proposed freeway , which was to be four lanes and have a divided , grassy median . This proposal was later accepted , and construction began two years later . Construction of a 5 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) long section of Route 4 from what is now exit 6 in East Greenwich to I @-@ 95 in Warwick began in 1967 and was completed in 1972 . That year , the 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) arterial south of the modern exit 5 was also designated as part of Route 4 . The divided highway remains largely intact to this date as the stretch of Route 4 from US 1 to Routes 2 and 102 at exit 5 ; the only piece of the arterial that has been significantly altered is the construction of a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor line . By the early 1970s , Route 4 was complete north of exit 6 and south of what would become exit 5 , but there was a still a missing piece in the highway between the two exits . In the 1970s , the state of Rhode Island faced several budget problems and environmental concerns , both of which delayed the construction of the missing link for nearly eleven years . Environmental studies on the missing link began in 1977 , and the state estimated that the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long section of freeway would cost $ 15 – 21 million ( equivalent to $ 59 – 82 million in 2016 ) to construct . In 1983 , the Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) began construction of the new segment of Route 4 between exits 5 and 6 . The project , which ultimately went over budget at $ 24 million ( equivalent to $ 52 million in 2016 ) ) , was financed from a $ 63 million federal grant . In 1986 , during excavation for the new right @-@ of @-@ way , the Department of Transportation found archeological items from the Narragansett Indians dating from about 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 500 years prior . Although the findings were not centralized in the area , this caused delays for the extension of the freeway . On August 6 , 1988 , RIODT completed construction and performed a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony for the new highway . In January 1990 , two police cruisers were severely damaged during a chase on Route 4 . A driver was speeding in the southbound lanes of Route 4 near exit 7 ; when the driver exited at Route 402 ( Frenchtown Road ) , two police officers got into serious accidents in their attempts to pursue the vehicle . After the crashes , the American Civil Liberties Union restarted efforts to amend police chase policy and avoid further crash @-@ related injuries for officers in the line of duty . In 2000 , construction began on the Quonset Freeway , a relocated Route 403 that serves the Quonset Business Park from Route 4 . The project included the reconstruction and reworking of exit 7 off Route 4 , which was a southbound @-@ only exit serving both Route 403 and Route 402 when constructed . The exit was converted into a trumpet interchange with new ramps between Route 4 , Route 403 and Route 402 and was completed in December 2008 , one year ahead of schedule . The project included the construction of a new northbound exit 7 serving Route 403 east . = = Future = = The Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) has laid out long @-@ term plans for improvements to both the southern and northern termini of Route 4 . During the 1980s and 1990s , RIDOT announced plans to eliminate the three traffic lights along the southern end of the highway . The department planned to replace the existing signalized US 1 and Route 4 merge , converting it into a grade @-@ separated interchange with an extensive overpass . This would cut @-@ off access to three local roads that intersect US 1 near the signal . The plan also included the replacement of the two other signaled intersections at West Allenton Road and Oak Hill Road with overpasses ; the overpass for West Allenton Road is planned to be constructed as a new exit 4 . In the 1990s , the state purchased and demolished several houses in the region to allow for an expanded Route 4 right @-@ of @-@ way in the vicinity of West Allenton Road . The upgrade proposal proved to be very unpopular with North Kingstown residents who lived on the affected local roads . Additionally , RIDOT laid the highway out so that Route 4 would cross through wetlands in the area . This sparked environmental concerns , as one of the large wetlands that would be affected , Froberg 's Marsh , was deemed to be of high value by Rhode Island environmentalists . Despite local and environmental concerns , RIDOT still considers the Route 4 upgrade to be the safest way to improve traffic flow in the region . While the Department of Transportation considered upgrading nearby Route 2 to freeway standards as a potential alternative , this plan was ultimately rejected because of its effects on wells in the area . Although the project was originally scheduled to be completed by 2007 , the $ 55 million project has been postponed indefinitely . RIDOT also has long @-@ range plans to construct direct freeway connections linking Route 4 north with I @-@ 95 south and I @-@ 95 north with Route 4 south . As of November 2010 , environmental studies are being prepared for a reconfiguration of the interchange . = = Exit list = = Italics denote future exit numbers .

= West End Girls = " West End Girls " is a song by British pop duo Pet Shop Boys . Written by Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe , the song was released twice as a single . The song is influenced by hip hop music , with lyrics concerned with class and the pressures of inner @-@ city life which were inspired partly by T. S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land . It was generally well received by contemporary music critics and has been frequently cited as a highlight in the duo 's career . The first version of the song was produced by Bobby Orlando and was released on Columbia Records ' Bobcat Records imprint in April 1984 , becoming a club hit in the United States and some European countries . After the duo signed with EMI , the song was re @-@ recorded with producer Stephen Hague for their first studio album , Please . In October 1985 , the new version was released , reaching number one in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1986 . In 1987 , the song won Best Single at the Brit Awards , and Best International Hit at the Ivor Novello Awards . In 2005 , 20 years after its release , the song was awarded Song of The Decade between the years 1985 and 1994 by the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters . In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's 12th favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV . The song was performed by Pet Shop Boys at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony and was included as part of the soundtrack of the 2013 game Grand Theft Auto V on the Non @-@ Stop @-@ Pop radio station . = = Background = = = = = Recording and production = = = In 1983 , Neil Tennant met producer Bobby Orlando , while on an assignment in New York interviewing Sting for Smash Hits . After listening to some demos , Orlando offered to produce for the duo . In 1983 – 84 , the duo recorded eleven songs with Orlando , at Unique Studios in New York , " West End Girls " , " Opportunities ( Let 's Make Lots of Money ) " , " One More Chance " , " I Want A Lover " , " A Man Could Get Arrested " , " I Get Excited " , " Two Divided by Zero " , " Rent " , " It 's A Sin " , " Pet Shop Boys " , and " Later Tonite " . Orlando played most of the instruments on " West End Girls " , including the jazz riff at the end . Lowe played one chord and the bassline . It included a drum part lifted from Michael Jackson 's " Billie Jean " , and an arrangement involving what Tennant called " Barry White chords " . Orlando was thrilled by the song 's production ; his idea was to make a rap record in a British accent . In April 1984 , " West End Girls " was released , becoming a club hit in Los Angeles and San Francisco , and a minor dance hit in Belgium , and France , but was only available in the United Kingdom as a 12 " import . In March 1985 , after long negotiations , Pet Shop Boys cut their contractual ties with Orlando , and hired manager Tom Watkins , who signed them with EMI . They re @-@ recorded " West End Girls " with producer Stephen Hague , and re @-@ released the song in late 1985 , topping the charts in both the UK and the U.S. In an interview on BBC4 's Synth Britannia programme ( Video on YouTube at 1h 21m 19s ) , Neil Tennant explains the role of the then new sampling technology on the track and how every single sound came from the newly introduced E @-@ mu Emulator keyboard . = = = Music and lyrics = = = " West End Girls " is a synthpop song influenced by hip hop music . The song 's socially conscious streak , as well as the propulsive bass line , derives from Grandmaster Flash 's protest rap song " The Message " . Lowe and Hague created a " snaky , obsessive rhythm punch " for the music , replacing the song 's previously sparse beats and minimal keyboard lines . Tennant started to write the song when he was staying at his cousin 's house in Nottingham while watching a gangster film . Just when he was going to sleep he came up with the lines : " Sometimes you 're better off dead , there 's a gun in your hand and it 's pointing at your head " . The lyrics were inspired by T.S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land , particularly in the use of different narrative voices and arcane references . The song 's lyrics are largely concerned with class , inner @-@ city pressure . Tennant later said that some listeners had assumed the song referred to prostitutes , but was actually , " about rough boys getting a bit of posh . " The lyric " From Lake Geneva to the Finland Station " refers to the train route taken by Vladimir Lenin when he was smuggled by the Germans to Russia during World War I , a pivotal event in the Russian Revolution . Indeed , it is highly likely the lyric was inspired by the book To the Finland Station by Edmund Wilson , a very famous work on the history of revolutionary thought and Socialism that Tennant would have at least heard of , if not read , as a student . The Bobby Orlando @-@ produced version of the single included another line , " All your stopping , stalling and starting , / Who do you think you are , Joe Stalin ? " which was removed for the 1985 version . = = Critical reception = = " West End Girls " has been generally well received by music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic in a review of the album Please called the song " hypnotic " , adding that " it 's not only a classic dance single , it 's a classic pop single " . In a review for the group 's second studio album Actually , Rob Hoerburger from Rolling Stone magazine commented that " West End Girls " was " as catchy as anything on the radio in 1986 " , praising " its enticing bass line and foreboding synth riffs " , but felt that it was almost " nullified by peevish spoken asides and the cryptic posturing of the duo 's lyrics " . In a review of the live album Concrete , Michael Hubbard from musicOMH said that " West End Girls " was one of the songs that " round out a collection that never feels too long or superfluous " , adding that it " goes some way to installing Tennant and Lowe as national treasures " . Nitsuh Abebe from Pitchfork Media , in a review of their compilation album PopArt : Pet Shop Boys - The Hits commented that in the song " we meet Tennant not as a singer , but as a speaker " , adding that " he mumbles the verses to us not like a star , but like a stranger in a raincoat , slinking alongside you and pointing out the sights " . In 1987 , " West End Girls " won for Best Single at The BRIT Awards , and for Best International Hit at the Ivor Novello Awards . In 2005 , the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters gave to West End Girls the Ivor Novello Award for Song of The Decade between the years 1985 and 1994 . = = Music video = = The video was directed by Andy Morahan and Eric Watson , and consists of shots of the duo around London . At the beginning of the video , noises from the city can be heard , a camera passes Lowe on the street , and focus on two vintage dolls in a shop window . Then appears a sequence of quick cuts with shots of the city 's different sub @-@ cultures , the video freezes and cuts to Tennant and Lowe , who walk through an empty Wentworth Street in Petticoat Lane Market . They stand in front of a red garage door , Tennant is in front dressed with a long coat , white shirt and dark necktie , directly addressing the camera , with Lowe standing behind him with a blank expression . Lowe is filmed in double @-@ exposure and appears almost ghostlike . In other shots , Tennant walks imperiously while Lowe follows behind , as if one were a master and the other an apprentice . Then the video shows various shots at Waterloo station , as the chorus starts . In slow motion , the camera pans across the WHSmith shop on the station concourse as the duo walk past . It cuts to a brief shot of a No. 42 red double @-@ decker bus , showing the destination as Aldgate , also advertising the stage @-@ show Evita , then black and white shots of the Tower Bridge , Westminster and the Westminster Palace Clock Tower from the sky . The duo poses on the South Bank of the River Thames in a pastiche of a postcard image , with the Houses of Parliament as a background . The camera shows shots of young women , and passes through arcades and cinemas in Leicester Square . The camera now passes South Africa House showing protestors in the Non @-@ Stop Picket , an anti @-@ apartheid vigil . The video cuts to a closeup of Tennant singing the chorus , with a purple neon sign passing across his face . At the end the camera passes again through Leicester Square , where people queue to see Fletch and Desperately Seeking Susan . The video was nominated for Best New Artist in a Video at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to a @-@ ha 's Take On Me . = = Chart performance = = " West End Girls " was first released in April 1984 through writer and producer Bobby Orlando 's label . The song was a club hit in the United States , and in some European countries , such as Belgium , where it debuted at number 24 on the VRT Top 30 chart on 28 July 1984 , peaking at 17 four weeks later . In Canada , " West End Girls " first entered the RPM singles chart in April 1985 , reaching a peak position of 81 in June 1985 . Having signed with EMI , the group released their first major label single " Opportunities ( Let 's Make Lots of Money ) " in mid @-@ 1985 , but it failed to attract attention . The Pet Shop Boys then decided to re @-@ record " West End Girls " , and issue this new version as a single . Producer Stephen Hague helmed the new , re @-@ recorded version of " West End Girls " . The re @-@ recorded version of " West End Girls " was released in the United Kingdom in October 1985 , debuting on the UK Singles Chart at number 80 , and within eight weeks of its release it had reached the top of the chart . It maintained the number one position for two weeks and received a gold certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in January 1986 . Across Europe , " West End Girls " also topped the singles chart in Norway , as well as peaking in the top three in Belgium , Germany , Ireland , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland . In Canada , where the original recording of " West End Girls " had already been a minor hit in 1985 , the re @-@ recorded version was issued as a single in early 1986 . The re @-@ recorded song entered the chart in March 1986 , peaking at number one for one week on 17 May 1986 . In the United States , West End Girls debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 71 , reaching the number one position on 10 May 1986 , and remained on the chart for 20 weeks . The song also peaked at number one on Billboard 's Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart for two weeks . = = Formats and track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Neil Tennant – vocals , lyrics Chris Lowe – keyboards , artwork design Helena Springs – additional vocals Bobby Orlando – producer , ( 1984 release ) Stephen Hague – producer ( 1985 release ) Steve Jerome – engineer – 1984 release David Jacob – engineer Frank Roszak – remixing Eric Watson – photography = = Charts and certifications = = = = = Chart positions = = = = = = Year @-@ end charts = = = = = = Certifications = = = = = East 17 version = = In 1993 East 17 covered " West End Girls " for their album Walthamstow , with limited chart success . = = = Track listings = = = 7 " . West End Girls ( Faces on Posters Mix ) . West End Girls ( Kicking in Chairs ) = = = Charts = = =

= Wrapped in Red = Wrapped in Red is the sixth studio album by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson , released on October 25 , 2013 , by RCA Records . The album is a follow @-@ up to her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One , and its companion extended play , The Smoakstack Sessions Vol . 2 . Produced by Greg Kurstin , it is her first Christmas album and her first record to be solely released by RCA . Wrapped in Red consists of sixteen tracks , featuring five co @-@ penned original songs and eleven cover versions of Christmas standards and carols , two of which are duets featuring recording artists Ronnie Dunn , Reba McEntire and Trisha Yearwood . Weary of constantly being asked for her primary genre , Clarkson had long @-@ desired to record a Christmas album as a means to defy genre limitations . She commissioned Kurstin , who had studied jazz music under the tutelage of Jaki Byard , to produce the entire album . Drawing inspirations from the soundtracks to the features A Charlie Brown Christmas and White Christmas , as well as the Christmas albums by Mariah Carey , McEntire , and Phil Spector , they experimented on various styles and sounds using Spector 's famed Wall of Sound technique to a create a contemporary holiday theme to classics . The Christmas music of Wrapped in Red comprises a variety of the genres such pop , jazz , country , and soul , marking a departure from the pop rock sound established from her previous studio albums ; while its lyrics share a singular theme of the color red , which represents a plethora of emotions during the holidays . Wrapped in Red debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 3 and topped the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart with 70 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . For nine consecutive weeks , Wrapped in Red stayed on the top ten of both charts and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and Music Canada . By the end of 2013 , it became the year 's best @-@ selling Christmas release in the United States and the second best @-@ selling Christmas release in Canada . Its lead single " Underneath the Tree " became an international top forty Christmas hit song and was radio 's most @-@ played new holiday song of 2013 . In promoting Wrapped in Red , she appeared in red dresses on various televised appearances ; and filmed an accompanying television special , Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , at The Venetian Las Vegas , which premiered on NBC on December 11 , 2013 . In 2014 , Clarkson released the title track as the second single and hosted an annual Christmas benefit concert , Miracle on Broadway , at the Bridgestone Arena on December 20 , 2014 . = = Background = = Clarkson had expressed interest in recording a Christmas album for years , having recorded various Christmas songs such as " Oh Holy Night " and " My Grown Up Christmas List " on the American Idol : The Great Holiday Classics ( 2003 ) , " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " on iTunes Session ( 2011 ) , and being featured on Blake Shelton 's Christmas album Cheers , It 's Christmas ( 2012 ) . Weary of constantly being asked for her primary genre , she felt that recording a Christmas album would finally pave a way for her to explore other different genres . She remarked , " I always get asked what genre I 'm in : ' Is this country or pop or rock ? What are you ? ' And what 's cool about making the Christmas album was , ' Oh , there are no limitations ! We can do whatever we want ! ' " . She further added , " The thing about Christmas is that it almost doesn 't matter what mood you 're in or what kind of a year you 've had — it 's a fresh start . I 'm going to clear the air and take stock of the good that 's happened . " Discussions about making her sixth studio album being a Christmas record began on December 2012 , a month after releasing her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One . Having found the opportunity to do so , Clarkson commissioned producer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Greg Kurstin , whom she had previously collaborated with on her albums Stronger and Chapter One , to solely produce the whole album . Despite having been raised in a Jewish faith and unfamiliar with Christmas songs , Kurstin still agreed to produce the project . As a result , the record marked the second time her studio album only had a single producer ( the first being David Kahne solely producing My December in 2007 ) . It also marked the fourth time Kurstin had solely produced an entire studio album apart from being a member of the musical groups The Bird and the Bee and Geggy Tah ( the first three being Lily Allen 's It 's Not Me , It 's You in 2009 , Sia 's We Are Born in 2010 , and The Shins ' Port of Morrow in 2012 ) . = = Recording = = Recording sessions of the basic instrumental tracks for Wrapped in Red took place in Kurstin 's Echo Studio in Los Angeles while orchestral sessions were recorded at EastWest Studios in Hollywood and featured vocals recorded in The Barn studio in Nashville . In recording tracks for the album , Clarkson and Kurstin wanted to showcase as many different styles as they could by experimenting in various sounds and styles to create fresh , contemporary sound to classic @-@ sounding music . He recalled , " It was a lot of fun for us because we got to go back to our roots . When Kelly started singing , it was clear she had the chops and had been trained to do anything . " Further adding , " We really experimented . It was so much fun and liberating . And it pays off . " Kurstin , who studied with jazz musician Jaki Byard at The New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music , recruited various jazz and soul musicians such as James Gadson , Kevin Dukes , Roy McCurdy , and Bill Withers to perform on the record to resonate a Memphis soul sound . He also collaborated with Joseph Trapanese to arrange and conduct a chamber orchestra . In providing instrumentation for the record , Kurstin used all of his instruments such as a Mellotron and a Chamberlin , taping them from a distance to stimulate the Wall of Sound , a recording technique originally developed by Phil Spector that was popular in the early 1960s . He enlisted Clarkson to provide all the background vocals herself . Clarkson , who grew up singing in a chorus , was pleased with the aspect ; saying , " Blending is something I knew how to do from childhood . Sometimes I 'd have to do an alto instead of a soprano because they needed a bigger sound . But I 've never had to do anything like this before — doing all my backup vocals , essentially being my own choir . " Together , they began to record in May 2013 and continued through the summer of that year , beginning by recording " White Christmas " with Clarkson in the vocal booth and with Kurstin on a piano . She commented , " The production is all him . I would be just like ' Hey , can we make this more jazz ? Hey , can we make this more bluesy . And he just , like Harry Potter , made this happen . It 's so weird . " = = Composition = = = = = Theme and influences = = = Clarkson has cited the color red as the album 's only theme . A color traditionally associated with Christmas , she affiliated the color to various emotions in the holidays . Wanting to stray away from her usual pop sound , she described Wrapped in Red 's music as a representation to explore different genres such as jazz , country and Memphis soul . She recalled , " What 's cool about Christmas albums is you can do jazz , rock and roll , you can do pop , you can do blues , like you can do all that stuff and it works — cause it 's all classic and it 's Christmasy sounding . " She also noted that the album 's multitude of styles positively contributes to her artistic goal , saying , " My best friend from childhood heard it and said , ' This is what you sound like , before everything else . ' And I agree , It 's my core sound . Back in the day , when artists came out with things like " Fall to Pieces " and " Bridge over Troubled Water " , those songs transcended genres . It wasn 't , ' Where is it going to fit ? ' You catered to whatever the song calls for . And that 's exactly what I did — without having to have an umbrella for everything . " In gathering inspirations for Wrapped in Red , Clarkson started by listening to Bing Crosby 's and Rosemary Clooney 's soundtracks from the 1954 feature film White Christmas as well as Mariah Carey 's Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) and Merry Christmas to You ( 1997 ) by Reba McEntire . While Kurstin , who used to play in a jazz band , took influences from A Charlie Brown Christmas by the Vince Guaraldi Trio and A Christmas Gift for You by Phil Spector as his inspirations , which resulted to the album 's Wall of Sound resonance . Clarkson also cited that her relationship with her then @-@ fiancé Brandon Blackstock had inspired some of the album 's lyrical content . = = = Song analysis = = = Clarkson shares writing credits on all five original songs on Wrapped in Red , some of which were written in December 2012 to avoid writing Christmas tunes during the 2013 summer season . She co @-@ wrote the opening and the title track , " Wrapped in Red " , with Ashley Arrison , Aben Eubanks , and Shane McAnally . A Christmas ballad , the song was inspired by a scene in the holiday feature film Love Actually ( 2003 ) , in which someone confesses unrequited love towards another . Critics singled out the track the one that resonates the Wall of Sound the most . The second track , " Underneath the Tree " , was written by Clarkson and Kurstin , making it the first time they had co @-@ written a track together . Clarkson remarked , " Greg and I have worked a lot together , but usually I just come in and I just sing . We 've never have actually written a song together at this point . And he and I were like , ' Let 's just try to write something for the record . " RCA Records chief executive Peter Edge remarked that its release as a single was partly inspired by the success of " All I Want for Christmas Is You " by Carey . The following track is a rendition of the holiday standard " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , which Clarkson had selected for its saccharine content . Clarkson favored " Run Run Rudolph " as her favorite classic , saying " Just because it got to be a little more rock and roll . " She also remarked that " Please Come Home for Christmas ( Bells Will Be Ringing ) " , was the first song selected for inclusion after her mother 's recommendation and the song 's melancholic lyrics . Written by Clarkson and Eubanks , " Every Christmas " , was the first song to be written for the album . She revealed that the song narrates of her holiday life prior to meeting Blackstock , McEntire 's stepson , saying " Every Christmas , I was just like , ' This is going to be different , right ? I 'm going to actually find someone and not be pathetically alone for the rest of my life ? ' " . The seventh track is a cover of Elvis Presley 's " Blue Christmas " . Its follow @-@ up , a rendition of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , features Ronnie Dunn . Clarkson had approached Dunn thinking that his personality suited the song 's content well , saying " Like , it 's straight @-@ up his personality to say all of that to try and get you to stay , and have a drink . " " Winter Dreams ( Brandon 's Song ) " was written by Clarkson , Arrison , and Eubanks as a companion piece to " Every Christmas " . Dedicated to Blackstock , the song accounts her holiday after meeting him . She remarked , " Christmas changes , it morphs , it comes to life a little more … It ’ s just a happier time . " The tenth track , " White Christmas " , was the first song to be recorded for Wrapped in Red . A cover of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's " My Favorite Things " follows up as the eleventh track . Clarkson opted for the Broadway performance of the song to stray away from Julie Andrews 's version , citing " I think you shouldn 't go near anywhere of what she 's doing because she 's so good . " Clarkson and Kurstin co @-@ wrote " 4 Carats " with Cathy Dennis and Livvi Franc . Originally written a pop song , they converted it as a Christmas song to fit the album 's theme , describing it as a crossover between Eartha Kitt 's " Santa Baby " ( 1953 ) and Madonna 's " Material Girl " ( 1984 ) . A rendition of Imogen Heap 's " Just for Now " was described by Clarkson as her highly dysfunctional environment , saying " Can we just stop for like five minutes and have like a normal Christmas setting ? " The song begins by sampling the melody of the Christmas tune " Carol of the Bells " . The closing track , a rendition of the traditional carol " Silent Night " , features McEntire and Trisha Yearwood and ends in an a capella setting between the trio . In addition , two tracks were also included in the deluxe edition of the album : the first , Clarkson 's cover of " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " from iTunes Session ; and the second , her rendition of the first stanza of the ecclesiastical hymn " Oh Come , Oh Come Emmanuel " . = = Release = = Wrapped in Red was first released internationally on October 25 , 2013 by RCA Records through Sony Music Entertainment . It then received a North American release on October 29 , 2013 by RCA as part of its holiday promotional campaign with the soundtracks to the feature films Black Nativity and The Best Man Holiday , with Wrapped in Red being promulgated as the one that will transcend formats and become a new holiday classic . In an interview with Billboard , RCA marketing executive Aaron Borns remarked that the album was their main release of the holidays , quoting " The angle on this album is that , like all great Christmas records , it 's about amazing vocal performances . That 's what this is intended to be @-@ an album launched this year but timeless and genre @-@ defying . " In preparation for its release in the United States , RCA shipped a half @-@ million units on Amazon.com and Target , which exclusively released a deluxe edition . A red LP pressing of Wrapped in Red by United Record Pressing followed the CD release on November 25 , 2013 , marking the first time an album by Clarkson was released on a vinyl record . A deluxe LP and CD edition was also released on the Sony Music store which included a scarf , a holiday ornament , and a snow globe , all of which were decorated in red as inspired from the album . A international promotion campaign was also planned for Clarkson , but was later halted due her pregnancy . On October 21 , 2014 , Wrapped in Red was reissued by RCA with a special edition CD + DVD release exclusive to Walmart stores in the United States . A green LP pressing of the album will also have a limited 500 @-@ copy release on December 9 , 2014 . = = = Promotion = = = On October 15 , 2013 , " White Christmas " was released as a promotional single from Wrapped in Red . Three days after , " Underneath the Tree " premiered on Clarkson 's Vevo channel . A television Christmas special , titled Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , was filmed by concert director Hamish Hamilton on October 30 , 2013 , the eve after its street date , at The Venetian Las Vegas . A pastiche of A Christmas Carol , the Christmas special featured live performances of selections from Wrapped in Red ( one of which features McEntire and Yearwood ) . Produced by Done and Dusted , Cautionary Christmas Music Tale premiered on NBC in the United States and Global in Canada on December 11 , 2013 , being pegged by RCA as the album 's primary promotional medium . NBC 's premiere broadcast of the special was seen by 5 @.@ 31 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It also received a 1 @.@ 4 share among adults between the ages of 18 to 49 , generated NBC ’ s second biggest overall audience its time slot . NBC had also a rerun broadcast of Cautionary Christmas Music Tale on Christmas Day , which was seen by an additional 3 @.@ 54 million viewers . Clarkson had also promoted Wrapped in Red in various televised performances , all of which she was dressed in red attire . She first performed " Underneath the Tree " on the The Today Show on November 26 , 2013 . On December 4 , 2013 , she performed " Run Run Rudolph " and " Blue Christmas " on the Christmas at Rockefeller Center television special . Clarkson had then performed " Underneath the Tree " on more televised events : such as on the fifth season of the The Voice on December 3 , 2013 , The Ellen DeGeneres Show on December 5 , 2013 , and on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on December 12 , 2013 . On December 25 , 2013 , Clarkson returned to The Today Show on its Christmas Day broadcast , performing " Blue Christmas " . Selected tracks from the album were also used in advertisements , such as " Run Run Rudolph " , which was used in a Belk holiday advertisement , and " Underneath the Tree " , which was featured in an Amazon.com and Amazon Kindle Fire HDX advertisement with an appearance by Clarkson performing the song . On December 20 , 2014 , She will host a Christmas concert , Miracle on Broadway , at the Bridgestone Arena . An annual Christmas benefit concert , Miracle on Broadway , will feature live performances of various Christmas songs by McEntire , Yearwood , Garth Brooks , Ronnie Dunn , Kacey Musgraves , Hayley Williams , Charles Esten , and Meghan Trainor , some of whom will also join Clarkson in performing selections from Wrapped in Red . Wrapped in Red 's lead single , " Underneath the Tree " , was released to radio airplay on November 5 , 2013 . Praised in its initial release , music critics approvingly compared the song to " All I Want for Christmas is You " and blazoned it as a future Christmas standard . Reviewing for Slant Magazine , Sal Cinquemani wrote that track is likely to become Clarkson 's very own contemporary standard ; while The Independent 's Hugh Montgomery applauded it as " a winner on all fronts . " After debuting on the Billboard Holiday 100 chart at number 34 , it became holiday top ten hit by peaking at number eight on the chart . It also topped the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart for four consecutive weeks , becoming Clarkson 's third track and the fifteenth holiday song to top the chart . " Underneath the Tree " also charted on the main Billboard Hot 100 chart at number seventy @-@ eight and became a top forty hit internationally : including the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart , the Dutch Top 40 chart , and the Official UK Singles Chart . USA Today reported that " Underneath the Tree " was American radio 's most @-@ played new holiday song of 2013 , while Edison Media Research reported that the single was the first holiday song to receive a considerable support on mainstream contemporary hit radio in almost 20 years . Wrapped in Red 's second single , the title track , was serviced to radio airplay on November 25 , 2014 . On the week ending December 28 , 2014 , it debuted on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart at number 11 on the week ending December 13 , 2014 . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 73 , based on 6 reviews , and scoring higher than any other album by Clarkson . AllMusic 's senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave it a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars . He described its uptempo arrangements , as well as Clarkson 's vocal performance , as " bold and brassy " and its mid @-@ tempo arrangements as " even more alluring " . He also noted the track selection " favors the bold , " but that " she fares well in this setting , always sounding like the strongest element in the mix " Towards the end of his review , he wrote that " Perhaps the concept and execution are conventional , but even in this utterly expected setting , Clarkson retains her fiery , individual spirit , and that 's what makes Wrapped in Red appealing : to the letter , it delivers what it promises . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also gave it a similar rating . He noted that the album " largely offers a respite from the pop @-@ rock template she 's been relentlessly pursuing since Breakaway , with less shouting and more of the varied range and texture on full display that helped coronate her the winner of the inaugural season of American Idol . For better or worse , a decade of recording and touring has roughed up the edges of her voice , lending a lived @-@ in quality that imbues lyrics about love and longing with an authenticity that might have otherwise been missing had she recorded these songs just a few years earlier . " NPR 's Ken Tucker described the album as a " glossy but heartfelt work " and approvingly compared its contrasting philosophy to Nick Lowe 's Quality Street : A Seasonal Selection for All the Family , both of which he described as " will put you in a holiday mood " . Matt Casarino of PopMatters gave the album a generally favorable review , claiming that " Clarkson plays it safe and spends too much time showing off her upper register , but Wrapped in Red is a warm and romantic addition to the Christmas pop Zeitgeist , " adding " Wrapped in Red doesn ’ t need edge ; it ’ s just dynamic and varied enough to be satisfying , and it ’ s light @-@ years better than any of the whitewashed Christmas crap Simon Cowell has inflicted on the world " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe gave a favorable review , particularly lauding " Underneath the Tree " , and described Clarkson 's rendering the Christmas standards as " fairly straight " . She added , " She starts gently on " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " before belting out the money notes . She ambles assuredly through the soulful favorite " Please Come Home for Christmas ( Bells Will Be Ringing ) " and hangs by the piano for a torchy “ White Christmas . " Newsday 's music columnist Glenn Gamboa wrote that " Clarkson handles it all expertly — hitting remarkably high notes on " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " and swinging jazzily on " Baby It 's Cold Outside " with Dunn . The new songs make Wrapped in Red a real gift , as the title track and " Underneath the Tree " channel the Phil Spector Christmas albums ; and " 4 Carats " somehow blends " Stronger " and " Santa Baby " . Reviewing for HitFix , Melinda Newman gave the album an " A " rating , praising Clarkson 's vocal performances and noting that she and Kurstin " have clearly studied legendary Christmas albums of yore — most notably Spector 's A Christmas Gift For You and Andy Williams ' Merry Christmas — to lovingly recreate Christmas standards , as well as craft new ones in the image of those sets . " Chris Klimek of Slate declared Wrapped in Red as the best of 2013 's new Christmas records , noting for its vintage sound . He also observed that its five original tracks , most notably " Wrapped in Red " and " Underneath the Tree " , have reasonable odds of remaining in the yuletide rotation five years from now . In his review for The New York Times , Jon Caramanica wrote that Clarkson is very likely the only singer working in pop with a real possibility of creating a modern holiday classic along the lines of Carey 's " All I Want for Christmas Is You . " and remarked that her takes on familiar songs , however accomplished , are " also faithful in the way that someone mindful of pop history would be . " = = = Commercial performance = = = Wrapped in Red became a commercial success in the United States . Prior it its release , music commercial analysts predicted that the album would likely sell at least 60 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in the region , and foresaw it to be the front @-@ runner as the bestselling holiday release of the season . On the week ending November 16 , 2013 , it debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 3 with 70 @,@ 000 copies sold in all retailers , a 93 @,@ 000 decrease from Stronger 's first week sales of 163 @,@ 000 copies in 2011 . Nielsen Music analyst Dave Bakula attributed its low performance to the falling market share of the holiday music in general , which saw 3 @.@ 8 percent decrease in 2012 . The album 's chart debut on the Billboard 200 earned Clarkson her sixth consecutive top three studio album as well as the highest debut for a Christmas record by a female artist since Susan Boyle 's first Christmas album The Gift debuted at the top of the chart in 2010 . Wrapped in Red also debuted three other different charts , most notably at the top of the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart . On the week ending November 30 , 2013 , by charting at number six on the Billboard 200 , the album became the lone Sony release inside the chart 's top ten , with the others being Universal Music Group releases . Despite its modest debut week , Wrapped in Red began to gain traction at the beginning of the holiday season , selling up to 131 @,@ 000 copies during the Thanksgiving week . It experienced its best sales week after benefiting from NBC 's premiere broadcast of Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , selling up to 136 @,@ 000 copies on its seventh week of release . For nine consecutive weeks , it stayed in the top ten of the Billboard 200 , the most by any studio album by Clarkson . On December 5 , 2013 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , making it her fifth platinum studio album . Wrapped in Red subsequently became the bestselling Christmas release of 2013 by selling over 763 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen Soundscan , making her the first American female artist to have the number @-@ one Christmas album of the Soundscan era . Twelve of the album cuts from Wrapped in Red have also entered the Billboard Holiday Digital Songs chart during its first week of release — led by " Silent Night " , " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , and " Underneath the Tree " at numbers one , two , and four , respectively . Other songs have also appeared in various Billboard charts throughout the holiday season : songs such as " Blue Christmas " and " Please Come Home for Christmas " charted on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at numbers 5 and 6 , respectively ; whereas " My Favorite Things " , " Run Run Rudolph " , " Please Come Home for Christmas " , " Silent Night " and " Wrapped in Red " peaked on the Billboard Canada AC chart at numbers eight , seven , 14 , 22 , and 49 , respectively . Tracks such as " My Favorite Things " have charted on the Billboard Mexico Inglés Airplay chart at number 49 ; while " Silent Night " attained a position in both the Billboard Holiday 100 and the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts , peaking at numbers 86 and 51 , respectively . Amazon.com listed Wrapped in Red as their second bestselling album during the holiday season , and listed it as their sixth bestselling title of 2013 . The album has sold 785 @,@ 300 copies in the US as of November 2014 . And in 2014 peaked at 7 on the holiday chart . Internationally , Wrapped in Red had a relatively limited commercial performance . In Canada , the album debuted on the Billboard Canadian Albums chart at number 6 on the week ending November 16 , 2013 , making it her fifth top ten debut on the Nielsen @-@ tracked chart . It peaked on the chart at number 5 on the week ending December 28 , 2013 . Wrapped in Red became the second bestselling Christmas album of 2013 in Canada with 67 @,@ 000 copies sold in the region , behind A Christmas Gift to You by Johnny Reid . In Australia , the album debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number 82 on the week ending November 4 , 2013 , and peaked at number 29 on the week ending December 30 , 2013 . In Switzerland , it debuted on the Schweizer Hitparade at number 97 on the week ending November 10 , 2013 . In the United Kingdom , Wrapped in Red charted on the Official UK Albums Chart at number 65 on the week ending December 14 , 2013 . Despite its limited performance , Sony Corporation listed the album as their fifth bestselling release worldwide during the holiday season , which included albums , album cut tracks , and singles sales . = = Track listing = = All tracks were produced by Greg Kurstin , with vocal production on " Every Christmas " made by Jason Halbert . Note " Just for Now " contains a portion of the composition " Carol of the Bells " , written by Peter J. Wilhousky . Tracks from the concert DVD were filmed from the television special Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits lifted from the album 's liner notes . Instruments Production = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =

= Christmas 1994 nor 'easter = The Christmas 1994 nor 'easter was an intense cyclone along the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada . It developed from an area of low pressure in the southeast Gulf of Mexico near the Florida Keys , and moved across the state of Florida . As it entered the warm waters of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean , it began to rapidly intensify , exhibiting traits of a tropical system , including the formation of an eye . It attained a pressure of 970 millibars on December 23 and 24 , and after moving northward , it came ashore near New York City on Christmas Eve . Because of the uncertain nature of the storm , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not classify it as a tropical cyclone . Heavy rain from the developing storm contributed to significant flooding in South Carolina . Much of the rest of the East Coast was affected by high winds , coastal flooding , and beach erosion . New York State and New England bore the brunt of the storm ; damage was extensive on Long Island , and in Connecticut , 130 @,@ 000 households lost electric power during the storm . Widespread damage and power outages also occurred throughout Rhode Island and Massachusetts , where the storm generated 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) waves along the coast . Because of the warm weather pattern that contributed to the storm 's development , precipitation was limited to rain . Two people were killed , and damage amounted to at least $ 21 million . = = Meteorological history = = The storm originated in an upper @-@ level low pressure system that moved southeastward from the central Great Plains into the Deep South of the United States . After reaching the southeast Gulf of Mexico , the disturbance underwent cyclogenesis , and the resultant system moved through Florida on December 22 in response to an approaching trough . National Hurricane Center forecaster Jack Beven noted that " as it moved out into the Bahamas , it appeared to take on the characteristics of a tropical storm . " The uncertain nature of the storm prevented the NHC from issuing advisories on it , and forecasters lacked sufficient data to fully assess the cyclone for potential tropical characteristics . The same trough that pushed the storm across Florida had moved to the north , allowing for high pressure to develop in the upper levels of the atmosphere . Deemed a " hybrid storm " , the cyclone rapidly intensified in warm waters of up to 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) from the Gulf Stream combined with a cold air mass over the United States . The system continued to rapidly intensify while moving within the Gulf Stream ; it developed central convection , an unusual trait for an extratropical cyclone , and at one point exhibited an eye . Despite these indications of tropical characteristics , " There was no front associated with it and it had a warm core , but the radius of maximum winds was more than 150 nautical miles ( 170 mi ; 280 km ) , so under the standard NHC criteria it didn 't qualify as a tropical storm . " On December 23 and 24 , the nor 'easter intensified to attain a barometric pressure of 970 mb ( 29 inHg ) . An upper @-@ level low pressure system that developed behind the storm began to intensify and grew to be larger in size than the original disturbance . In an interaction known as the Fujiwhara effect , the broad circulation of the secondary low swung the primary nor 'easter northwestward towards southern New York and New England . The original low passed along the south shore of Long Island , and made landfall near New York City on December 24 . Subsequently , it moved over southeastern New York State . On December 25 , the system began to rapidly weaken as it moved towards Nova Scotia , before the pair of low pressure systems moved out to sea in tandem in the early hours of December 26 . = = Effects = = = = = Southeast United States = = = In South Carolina , flooding associated with the cyclone was considered to be the worst since 1943 . Over 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rainfall was reported , while winds brought down trees and ripped awnings . In addition , the coast suffered the effects of beach erosion . Thousands of electric customers in the state lost power . As a result of the heavy rainfall , several dams became overwhelmed by rising waters . Extensive flooding of roads and highways was reported , many of which were closed as a result . Up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water flooded some homes in the region . Approximately 300 people in Florence County were forced to evacuate because of the flooding , and at least 200 homes were damaged . Two deaths were reported in the state . One woman was killed when her vehicle hydroplaned and struck a tree , and another person drowned after her car was struck by another vehicle . Total damage in South Carolina amounted to at least $ 4 million . Strong winds occurred along the North Carolina coast . Diamond Shoals reported sustained winds of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) , and offshore , winds gusted to 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . On Wrightsville Beach , rough surf eroded an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ledge into the beach . On Carolina Beach , dunes were breached and some roads , including portions of North Carolina Highway 12 , were closed . = = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = = As the primary storm entered New England , the secondary low produced minor coastal flooding in the Tidewater region of Virginia on December 23 . Winds of 35 to 45 miles per hour ( 56 to 72 km / h ) and tides to 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal were reported . In Sandbridge , Virginia Beach , Virginia , a beachfront home collapsed into the sea . Several roads throughout the region suffered minor flooding . Strong winds resulting from the tight pressure gradient between the nor 'easter and an area of high pressure located over the United States brought down a few utility poles , which sparked a brush fire on December 24 . The fire , quickly spread by the wind , burned a field . The winds brought down several trees . Damage was light in Maryland . Some sand dunes and wooden structures were damaged , and above @-@ normal tides occurred . In New Jersey , high winds caused power outages and knocked down trees and power lines . Minor coastal flooding of streets and houses was reported . Otherwise , damage in the state was minor . The storm brought heavy rainfall and high winds to New York State and New York City on December 23 and 24 . Gusts of 60 to 80 miles per hour ( 97 to 129 km / h ) downed hundreds of trees and many power lines on Long Island . Several homes , in addition to many cars , sustained damage . Roughly 112 @,@ 000 Long Island Lighting Company customers experienced power outages at some point during the storm . As the cyclone progressed northward into New York State , high winds occurred in the Hudson Valley region . Throughout Columbia , Ulster and Rensselaer Counties , trees , tree limbs , and power lines were downed by the winds . At Stephentown , a gust of 58 miles per hour ( 93 km / h ) was reported . Ulster County suffered substantial impacts , with large trees being uprooted and striking homes . Across eastern New York State , 25 @,@ 000 households lost power as a result of the nor 'easter . On the North Fork of Long Island , in Southold , a seaside home partially collapsed into the water . = = = New England = = = In Connecticut , the storm was described as being more significant than anticipated . Gale @-@ force wind gusts , reaching 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) , blew across the state from the northeast and later from the east . Trees , tree limbs , and power lines were downed , causing damage to property and vehicles . The high winds caused widespread power outages , affecting up to 130 @,@ 000 electric customers . As a result , electric companies sought help from as far as Pennsylvania and Maine to restore electricity . Bruno Ranniello , a spokesman for Northeast Utilities , reported that " We 've had outages in virtually every community . " In New Haven , the nor 'easter ripped three barges from their moorings . One of the barges traveled across the Long Island Sound and ran aground near Port Jefferson , New York . A man in Milford was killed indirectly when a tree that was partially downed by the storm fell on him during an attempt to remove it from a relative 's yard . Northeast Utilities , which reported the majority of the power outages , estimated storm damage in the state to be about $ 6 – $ 8 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 8 @.@ 8 – $ 11 @.@ 8 million 2008 USD ) . Effects were less severe in New Hampshire and Vermont . In southern New Hampshire , a line of thunderstorms produced torrential rainfall , causing flooding on parts of New Hampshire Route 13 . Flash flooding of several tributaries feeding into the Piscataquog River was reported . In Maine , the storm brought high winds and heavy rain . Along the coast of southern Maine and New Hampshire , beach erosion was reported . Additionally , minor flooding was reported across the region , as a result of heavy surface runoff and small ice jams . In Rhode Island , the power outages were the worst since Hurricane Bob of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season . Throughout the state , approximately 40 @,@ 000 customers were without electric power . As with Massachusetts , downed trees and property damage were widespread . There were many reports of roof shingles being blown off roofs and of damage to gutters . In Warwick , several small boats were damaged after being knocked into other boats . The highest reported wind gust in the state was 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) at Ashaway , Rhode Island . Statewide damage totaled about $ 5 million . Massachusetts , particularly Cape Cod and Nantucket , bore the brunt of the nor 'easter . Reportedly , wind gusts approached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) on Cape Cod and , offshore , waves reached 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . At Walpole , wind gusts peaked at 88 miles per hour ( 142 km / h ) , while on Nantucket gusts of 84 miles per hour ( 135 km / h ) were reported . The winds left 30 @,@ 000 electric customers without power during the storm , primarily in the eastern part of the state . Power was out for some as long as 48 hours . Property damage was widespread and many trees , signs , and billboards were blown down . A large tent used by the New England Patriots was ripped and blown off its foundation . The winds also spread a deadly house fire in North Attleboro . Although not directly related to the storm , it caused seven fatalities . Because tides were low , little coastal flooding occurred . Outside the Prudential Tower Center in Boston , the storm toppled a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) Christmas tree . Rainfall of 2 to 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 51 to 89 mm ) was recorded throughout the eastern part of the state , contributing to heavy runoff that washed away a 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) section of a highway . Total damage in Massachusetts was estimated at about $ 5 million .

= Sholay = Sholay ( pronunciation , meaning " Embers " ) is a 1975 Indian Hindi @-@ language action @-@ adventure film directed by Ramesh Sippy and produced by his father G. P. Sippy . The film follows two criminals , Veeru and Jai ( played by Dharmendra and Amitabh Bachchan ) , hired by a retired police officer ( Sanjeev Kumar ) to capture the ruthless dacoit Gabbar Singh ( Amjad Khan ) . Hema Malini and Jaya Bhaduri also star , as Veeru and Jai 's love interests . Sholay is considered a classic and one of the best Indian films . It was ranked first in the British Film Institute 's 2002 poll of " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time . In 2005 , the judges of the 50th annual Filmfare Awards named it the Best Film of 50 Years . The film was shot in the rocky terrain of Ramanagara , in the southern state of Karnataka , over a span of two and a half years . After the Central Board of Film Certification mandated the removal of several violent scenes , Sholay was released with a length of 198 minutes . In 1990 , the original director 's cut of 204 minutes became available on home media . When first released , Sholay received negative critical reviews and a tepid commercial response , but favourable word @-@ of @-@ mouth publicity helped it to become a box office success . It broke records for continuous showings in many theatres across India , and ran for more than five years at Mumbai 's Minerva theatre . By some accounts , Sholay is the highest grossing Indian film of all time , adjusted for inflation . The film drew heavily from the conventions of Westerns , and is a defining example of the masala film , which mixes several genres in one work . Scholars have noted several themes in the film , such as glorification of violence , conformation to feudal ethos , debate between social order and mobilised usurpers , homosocial bonding , and the film 's role as a national allegory . The combined sales of the original soundtrack , scored by R. D. Burman , and the dialogues ( released separately ) , set new sales records . The film 's dialogues and certain characters became extremely popular , contributing to numerous cultural memes and becoming part of India 's daily vernacular . In January 2014 , Sholay was re @-@ released to theatres in the 3D format . = = Plot = = In the small village of Ramgarh , the retired policeman Thakur Baldev Singh ( Sanjeev Kumar ) summons a pair of small @-@ time thieves that he had once arrested . Thakur feels that the duo — Veeru ( Dharmendra ) and Jai ( Amitabh Bachchan ) — would be ideal to help him capture Gabbar Singh ( Amjad Khan ) , a dacoit wanted by the authorities for a ₹ 50 @,@ 000 reward . Thakur tells them to surrender Gabbar to him , alive , for an additional ₹ 20 @,@ 000 reward . The two thieves thwart the dacoits sent by Gabbar to extort the villagers . Soon afterwards , Gabbar and his goons attack Ramgarh during the festival of Holi . In a tough battle , Veeru and Jai are cornered . Thakur , although he has a gun within his reach , does not help them . Veeru and Jai fight back and the bandits flee . The two are , however , upset at Thakur 's inaction , and consider leaving the village . Thakur explains that Gabbar had killed nearly all of his family members , and cut off both his arms a few years earlier , which is why he could not use the gun . He had concealed the dismemberment by always wearing a shawl . Living in Ramgarh , the jovial Veeru and cynical Jai find themselves growing fond of the villagers . Veeru is attracted to Basanti ( Hema Malini ) , a feisty , talkative young woman who makes her living by driving a horse @-@ cart . Jai is drawn to Radha ( Jaya Bhaduri ) , Thakur 's reclusive , widowed daughter @-@ in @-@ law , who subtly returns his affections . Skirmishes between Gabbar 's gang and Jai @-@ Veeru finally result in the capture of Veeru and Basanti by the dacoits . Jai attacks the gang , and the three are able to flee Gabbar 's hideout with dacoits in pursuit . Fighting from behind a rock , Jai and Veeru nearly run out of ammunition . Veeru , unaware that Jai was wounded in the gunfight , is forced to leave for more ammunition . Meanwhile , Jai , who is continuing the gunfight singlehandedly , decides to sacrifice himself by using his last bullet to ignite dynamite sticks on a bridge from close range . Veeru returns , and Jai dies in his arms . Enraged , Veeru attacks Gabbar 's den and catches the dacoit . Veeru nearly beats Gabbar to death when Thakur appears and reminds Veeru of the promise to hand over Gabbar alive . Thakur uses his spike @-@ soled shoes to severely injure Gabbar and destroy his hands . The police then arrive and arrest Gabbar . After Jai 's funeral , Veeru leaves Ramgarh and finds Basanti waiting for him on the train . Radha is left alone again . = = Cast = = Dharmendra as Veeru Sanjeev Kumar as Thakur Baldev Singh , usually addressed as " Thakur " Hema Malini as Basanti Amitabh Bachchan as Jai ( Jaidev ) Jaya Bhaduri as Radha , Thakur 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law Amjad Khan as Gabbar Singh Satyen Kappu as Ramlaal , Thakur 's servant A. K. Hangal as Rahim Chacha , the imam in the village Sachin as Ahmed , son of the imam Jagdeep as Soorma Bhopali , a comical wood trader Leela Mishra as Mausi , Basanti 's maternal aunt Asrani as the Jailor , a comical character modelled after Charlie Chaplin in The Great Dictator ( 1940 ) Keshto Mukherjee as Hariram , prison barber and Jailor 's side @-@ kick Mac Mohan as Sambha , Gabbar Singh 's sidekick Viju Khote as Kaalia , another of Gabbar 's men whom he kills in a game of Russian roulette Iftekhar as Inspector Khurana , Radha 's Father Helen in a special appearance in song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " Jalal Agha in a special appearance in song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " = = Production = = = = = Development = = = The idea for Sholay began as a four @-@ line snippet which screenwriter pair Salim @-@ Javed told G. P. Sippy and Ramesh Sippy ; two other producer / director teams had earlier rejected the idea . Ramesh Sippy liked the concept and hired them to develop it . The original idea of the film involved an army officer who decided to hire two ex @-@ soldiers to avenge the murder of his family . The army officer was later changed to a policeman because Sippy felt that it would be difficult to get permission to shoot scenes depicting army activities . Salim @-@ Javed completed the script in one month , incorporating names and personality traits of their friends and acquaintances . The film was loosely styled after Akira Kurosawa 's 1954 film Seven Samurai , and drew heavily from the conventions of Westerns , especially Sergio Leone 's Spaghetti Westerns such as Once Upon a Time in the West ( 1968 ) , and John Sturges ' film The Magnificent Seven ( 1960 ) . Sholay was also influenced by the westerns of Sam Peckinpah , such as The Wild Bunch ( 1969 ) and Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid ( 1973 ) ; and by George Roy Hill 's Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ( 1969 ) . A scene depicting an attempted train robbery was inspired by a similar scene in North West Frontier ( 1959 ) , and a scene showing the massacre of Thakur 's family has been compared with the massacre of the McBain family in Once Upon a Time in the West . Some plot elements were borrowed from the Indian films Mera Gaon Mera Desh ( 1971 ) and Khote Sikkay ( 1973 ) . The character Gabbar Singh was modelled on a real @-@ life dacoit of the same name who had menaced the villages around Gwalior in the 1950s . Any policeman captured by the real Gabbar Singh had his ears and nose cut off , and was released as a warning to other policemen . The character was also influenced by the villain " El Indio " ( played by Gian Maria Volontè ) of Sergio Leone 's For a Few Dollars More ( 1965 ) . Soorma Bhopali , a minor comic relief character , was based on an acquaintance of actor Jagdeep , a forest officer from Bhopal named Soorma . The real @-@ life Soorma eventually threatened to press charges when people who had viewed the film began referring to him as a woodcutter . The main characters ' names , Jai and Veeru , mean " victory " and " heroism " in Hindi . = = = Casting = = = The producers considered Danny Denzongpa for the role of bandit chief Gabbar Singh , but he could not accept it as he was committed to act in Feroz Khan 's Dharmatma ( 1975 ) , under production at the same time . Amjad Khan , who was the second choice , prepared himself for the part by reading the book Abhishapta Chambal , which told of the exploits of Chambal dacoits . The book was written by Taroon Kumar Bhaduri , the father of fellow cast member Jaya Bhaduri . As cast members had read the script ahead of time , many were interested in playing different parts . Pran was considered for the role of Thakur Baldev Singh , but Sippy thought Sanjeev Kumar was a better choice . Initially , Dharmendra was also interested to play the role of Thakur . He eventually gave up the role when Sippy informed him that Sanjeev Kumar would play Veeru if that happened , and would be paired with Hema Malini , who Dharmendra was trying to woo . Dharmendra knew that Kumar was also interested in Malini . Sippy wanted Shatrughan Sinha to play the part of Jai , but there were already several big stars signed , and Amitabh Bachchan , who was not extremely popular yet , lobbied hard to get the part for himself . During the film 's production , four of the leads became romantically involved . Bachchan married Bhaduri four months before filming started . This led to shooting delays when Bhaduri became pregnant with their daughter Shweta . By the time of the film 's release , she was pregnant with their son Abhishek . Dharmendra had begun wooing Malini during their earlier film Seeta Aur Geeta ( 1972 ) , and used the location shoot of Sholay to further pursue her . During their romantic scenes , Dharmendra would often pay the light boys to spoil the shot , thereby ensuring many retakes and allowing him to spend more time with her . The couple married five years after the film 's release . = = = Filming = = = Much of Sholay was shot in the rocky terrain of Ramanagara , a town near Bangalore , Karnataka . The filmmakers had to build a road from the Bangalore highway to Ramanagara for convenient access to the sets . Art director Ram Yedekar had an entire township built on the site . A prison set was constructed near Rajkamal Studio in Mumbai , also outdoors , to match the natural lighting of the on @-@ location sets . One part of Ramanagara was for a time called " Sippy Nagar " as a tribute to the director of the film . As of 2010 , a visit to the " Sholay rocks " ( where much the film was shot ) was still being offered to tourists travelling through Ramanagara . Filming began on location on 3 October 1973 , with a scene featuring Bachchan and Bhaduri . The film had a lavish production for its time ( with frequent banquets and parties for the cast ) , took two and a half years to make , and went over budget . One reason for its high cost was that Sippy re @-@ filmed scenes many times to get his desired effect . " Yeh Dosti " , a 5 @-@ minute song sequence , took 21 days to shoot , two short scenes in which Radha lights lamps took 20 days to film because of lighting problems , and the shooting of the scene in which Gabbar kills the imam 's son lasted 19 days . The train robbery sequence , shot on the Mumbai – Pune railway route near Panvel , took more than 7 weeks to complete . Sholay was the first Indian film to have a stereophonic soundtrack and to use the 70 mm widescreen format . However , since actual 70 mm cameras were expensive at the time , the film was shot on traditional 35 mm film and the 4 : 3 picture was subsequently converted to a 2 @.@ 2 : 1 frame . Regarding the process , Sippy said , " A 70mm [ sic ] format takes the awe of the big screen and magnifies it even more to make the picture even bigger , but since I also wanted a spread of sound we used six @-@ track stereophonic sound and combined it with the big screen . It was definitely a differentiator . " The use of 70 mm was emphasised by film posters on which the name of the film was stylised to match the CinemaScope logo . Film posters also sought to differentiate the film from those which had come before ; one of them added the tagline : " The greatest star cast ever assembled – the greatest story ever told " . = = = Alternate version = = = The director 's original cut of Sholay has a different ending in which Thakur kills Gabbar , along with some additional violent scenes . Gabbar 's death scene , and the scene in which the imam 's son is killed , were cut from the film by India 's Censor Board , as was the scene in which Thakur 's family is massacred . The Censor Board was concerned about the violence , and that viewers may be influenced to violate the law by punishing people severely . Although Sippy fought to keep the scenes , eventually he had to re @-@ shoot the ending of the film , and as directed by the Censor Board , have the police arrive just before Thakur can kill Gabbar . The censored theatrical version was the only one seen by audiences for fifteen years . The original , unedited cut of the film finally came out in a British release on VHS in 1990 . Since then , Eros International has released two versions on DVD . The director 's cut of the film preserves the original full frame and is 204 minutes in length ; the censored widescreen version is 198 minutes long . = = Themes = = Scholars have noted several themes in the film , such as glorification of violence , conformation to feudal ethos , debate between social order and mobilised usurpers , homosocial bonding , and the film 's role as a national allegory . Koushik Banerjea , a sociologist in the London School of Economics , notes that Sholay exhibits a " sympathetic construction of ' rogue ' masculinity " exemplified by the likeable outlaws Jai and Veeru . Banerjea argues during the film , the moral boundary between legality and criminality gradually erodes . Film scholar Wimal Dissanayake agrees that the film brought " a new stage in the evolving dialectic between violence and social order " to Indian cinema . Film scholar M. Madhava Prasad states that Jai and Veeru represent a marginalised population that is introduced into conventional society . Prasad says that , through the elements of revenge included in the plot and the application of Jai and Veeru 's criminality for the greater good , the narrative reflects reactionary politics , and the audience is compelled to accept feudal order . Banerjea explains that though Jai and Veeru are mercenaries , they are humanised by their emotional needs . Such dualism makes them vulnerable , in contrast to the pure evil of Gabbar Singh . Gabbar Singh , the film 's antagonist , was well received by the audience , despite his pervasive sadistic cruelty . Dissanayake explains that the audience was fascinated by the dialogues and mannerisms of the character , and this element of spectacle outweighed his actions , a first for Indian melodrama . He notes that the picturisation of violence in the film was glamourised and uninhibited . He further notes that , unlike earlier melodramas in which the female body occupies the audience 's attention as an object of male fetish , in Sholay , the male body becomes the centrepiece . It becomes the battleground where good and evil compete for supremacy . Dissanayake argues that Sholay can be viewed as a national allegory : it lacks a comforting logical narrative , it shows social stability being repeatedly challenged , and it shows the devaluation of human life resulting from a lack of emotions . Taken together , these elements comprise the allegorical representation of India . The narrative style of Sholay , with its violence , revenge , and vigilante action , is occasionally compared by scholars to the political unrest in India at the time of its release . This tension culminated in the Emergency ( rule by decree ) declared by prime minister Indira Gandhi in 1975 . Dissanayeke and Sahai note that , although the film borrowed heavily from the Hollywood Western genre , particularly in its visuals , it was successfully " Indianised " . As an example , William van der Heide has compared a massacre scene in Sholay with a similar scene in Once Upon a Time in the West . Although both films were similar in technical style , Sholay emphasised Indian family values and melodramatic tradition , while the Western was more materialistic and restrained in its approach . Maithili Rao , in Encyclopedia of Hindi Cinema , notes that Sholay infuses the style of the Western genre into a " feudalistic ethos " . Ted Shen of the Chicago Reader notes Sholay 's " hysterical visual style " and intermittent " populist message " . Cultural critic and Islamist scholar Ziauddin Sardar lampoons the film in his book The Secret Politics of Our Desires : Innocence , Culpability and Indian Popular Cinema , both for its caricature and stereotyping of Muslim and women characters , and for what he calls mockery of innocent villagers . Sardar notes that the two most prominent Muslim characters in the film are Soorma Bhopali ( a buffoonish criminal ) , and an impotent victim of the bandits ( the imam ) . Meanwhile , the sole function of one female character ( Radha ) is to suffer her fate in silence , while the other female lead ( Basanti ) is just a garrulous village belle . Some scholars have indicated that Sholay contains homosocial themes . Ted Shen describes the male bonding shown in the film as bordering on camp style . Dina Holtzman , in her book Bollywood and Globalization : Indian Popular Cinema , Nation , and Diaspora , states that the death of Jai , and resultant break of bonding between the two male leads , is necessary for the sake of establishing a normative heterosexual relationship ( that of Veeru and Basanti ) . = = Music = = R. D. Burman composed the film 's music , and the lyrics were written by Anand Bakshi . The songs used in the film , and released on the original soundtrack are listed below . Following that is a list of unused tracks and dialogues which were released later on an updated soundtrack . The album 's cover image depicts an emotional scene from the film in which Basanti is forced to sing and dance on the song " Haa Jab Tak Hai Jaan " on broken glass under the blazing sun to save Veeru 's life . The song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " was sung by its composer , R. D. Burman , who received his sole Filmfare Award nomination for playback singing for his effort . The song , which is often featured on Bollywood hit song compilations , samples " Say You Love Me " by Greek singer Demis Roussos . " Mehbooba Mehbooba " has been extensively anthologised , remixed , and recreated . A version was created in 2005 by the Kronos Quartet for their Grammy @-@ nominated album You 've Stolen My Heart , featuring Asha Bhosle . It was also remixed and sung by Himesh Reshammiya , along with Bhosle , in his debut acting film Aap Kaa Surroor ( 2007 ) . " Yeh Dosti " has been called the ultimate friendship anthem . It was remixed and sung by Shankar Mahadevan and Udit Narayan for the 2010 Malayalam film Four Friends , and also in 2010 it was used to symbolise India 's friendship with the United States during a visit from President Barack Obama . Several songs from the soundtrack were included in the annual Binaca Geetmala list of top filmi songs . " Mehbooba Mehooba " was listed at No. 24 on the 1975 list , and at No. 6 on the 1976 list . " Koi Haseena " was listed at No. 30 in 1975 , and No. 20 in 1976 . " Yeh Dosti " was listed at No. 9 in 1976 . Despite the soundtrack 's success , at the time , the songs from Sholay attracted less attention than the film 's dialogue — a rarity for Bollywood . The producers were thus prompted to release records with only dialogue . Taken together , the album sales totalled an unprecedented 500 @,@ 000 units , and became one of the top selling Bollywood soundtracks of the 1970s . Music critic Oli Marlow reviewed the soundtrack in 2013 , calling it a unique fusion of religious , folk , and classical music , with influences from around the world . He also commented on the sound design of the film , calling it psychedelic , and saying that there was " a lot of incredible incidental music " in the film that was not included in the soundtrack releases . In a 1999 paper submitted to London 's Symposium on Sound in Cinema , film critic Shoma A. Chatterji said , " Sholay offers a model lesson on how sound can be used to signify the terror a character evokes . Sholay is also exemplary in its use of soundmatching to jump cut to a different scene and time , without breaking the continuity of the narrative , yet , intensifying the drama . " = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = Sholay was released on 15 August 1975 , Indian Independence Day , in Mumbai . Due to lacklustre reviews and a lack of effective visual marketing tools , it saw poor financial returns in its first two weeks . From the third week , however , viewership picked up owing to positive word of mouth . During the initial slow period , the director and writer considered re @-@ shooting some scenes so that Amitabh Bachchan 's character would not die . When business picked up , they abandoned this idea . After being helped additionally by a soundtrack release containing dialogue snippets , Sholay soon became an " overnight sensation " . The film was then released in other distribution zones such as Delhi , Uttar Pradesh , Bengal , and Hyderabad on 11 October 1975 . It became the highest grossing Bollywood film of 1975 , and film ranking website Box Office India has given the film a verdict of " All Time Blockbuster " . Sholay went on to earn a still @-@ standing record of 60 golden jubilees across India , and was the first film in India to celebrate a silver jubilee at over 100 theatres . It was shown continuously at Mumbai 's Minerva theatre for over five years . Sholay was the Indian film with the longest theatrical run until Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge ( 1995 ) broke its record of 286 weeks in 2001 . Exact figures are not available on the budget and box office earnings of Sholay , but film trade websites provide estimates of its success . According to Box Office India , Sholay earned about ₹ 150 million nett gross ( valued at about US $ 16 @,@ 778 @,@ 000 in 1975 ) in India during its first run , which was many times its ₹ 30 million ( valued at about US $ 3 @,@ 355 @,@ 000 in 1975 ) budget . Those earnings were a record that remained unbroken for nineteen years , which is also the longest amount of time that a film has held the record . Its original gross was increased further with re @-@ releases during the late 1970s , 1980s , 1990s , and early 2000s . It is often cited that after adjusting the figures for inflation , Sholay is one of the highest grossing films in the history of Indian cinema , although such figures are not known with certainty . In 2012 , Box Office India gave ₹ 1 @.@ 63 billion ( US $ 24 million ) as Sholay 's adjusted net gross , whereas Times of India , in a 2009 report of business of Indian films , reported over ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) as the adjusted gross . = = = Critical response = = = Initial critical reviews of Sholay were negative . Among contemporary critics , K.L. Amladi of India Today called the film a " dead ember " and " a gravely flawed attempt " . Filmfare said that the film was an unsuccessful mincing of Western style with Indian milieu , making it an " imitation western — neither here nor there . " Others labelled it as " sound and fury signifying nothing " and a " second @-@ rate take @-@ off " of the 1971 film Mera Gaon Mera Desh . Trade journals and columnists initially called the film a flop . In a 1976 article in the journal Studies : An Irish Quarterly Review , author Michael Gallagher praised the technical achievement of the film , but otherwise criticised it stating , " As a spectacle it breaks new ground , but on every other level it is intolerable : formless , incoherent , superficial in human image , and a somewhat nasty piece of violence " . Over time , the critical reception to Sholay greatly improved ; it is now considered a classic , and among the greatest Hindi @-@ language films . In a 2005 BBC review , the well @-@ rounded characters and simple narrative of the film were commended , but the comical cameos of Asrani and Jagdeep were considered unnecessary . On the film 's 35th anniversary , the Hindustan Times wrote that it was a " trailblazer in terms of camera work as well as music , " and that " practically every scene , dialogue or even a small character was a highlight . " In 2006 , The Film Society of Lincoln Center described Sholay as " an extraordinary and utterly seamless blend of adventure , comedy , music and dance " , labelling it an " indisputable classic " . Chicago Review critic Ted Shen criticised the film in 2002 for its formulaic plot and " slapdash " cinematography , and noted that the film " alternates between slapstick and melodrama " . In their obituary of the producer G.P. Sippy , the New York Times said that Sholay " revolutionized Hindi filmmaking and brought true professionalism to Indian script writing " . = = = Awards = = = Sholay was nominated for nine Filmfare Awards , but the only winner was M. S. Shinde , who won the award for Best Editing . The film also won three awards at the 1976 Bengal Film Journalists ' Association Awards ( Hindi section ) : " Best Actor in Supporting Role " for Amjad Khan , " Best Cinematographer ( Colour ) " for Dwarka Divecha , and " Best Art Director " for Ram Yedekar . Sholay received a special award at the 50th Filmfare Awards in 2005 : Best Film of 50 Years . = = Legacy = = Sholay has received many " Best Film " honours . It was declared the " Film of the Millennium " by BBC India in 1999 . It topped the British Film Institute 's " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time poll of 2002 , and was voted the greatest Indian movie in a Sky Digital poll of one million British Indians in 2004 . It was also included in Time Magazine 's " Best of Bollywood " list in 2010 , and in CNN @-@ IBN 's list of the " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " in 2013 . Sholay inspired many films and pastiches , and spawned a subgenre of films , the " Curry Western " , which is a play on the term Spaghetti Western . It was an early and most definitive masala film , and a trend @-@ setter for " multi @-@ star " films . The film was a watershed for Bollywood 's scriptwriters , who were not paid well before Sholay ; after the film 's success , script writing became a more respected profession . Certain scenes and dialogues from the film earned iconic status in India , such as " Kitne aadmi the " ( How many men were there ? ) , " Jo dar gaya , samjho mar gaya " ( One who is scared is dead ) , and " Bahut yaarana laagta hai " ( Looks like you two are very close ) – all dialogues of Gabbar Singh . These and other popular dialogues entered the people 's daily vernacular . Characters and dialogues from the film continue to be referred to and parodied in popular culture . Gabbar Singh , the sadistic villain , ushered in an era in Hindi films characterised by " seemingly omnipotent oppressors as villains " , who play the pivotal role in setting up the context of the story , such as Shakal ( played by Kulbhushan Kharbanda ) of Shaan ( 1980 ) , Mogambo ( Amrish Puri ) of Mr. India ( 1987 ) and Bhujang ( Amrish Puri ) of Tridev ( 1989 ) . Filmfare , in 2013 , named Gabbar Singh the most iconic villain in the history of Indian cinema , and four actors were included in its 2010 list of " 80 Iconic Performances " for their work in this film . The film is often credited with making Amitabh Bachchan a " superstar " , two years after he became a star with Zanjeer ( 1973 ) . Some of the supporting actors remained etched in public memory as the characters they played in Sholay ; for example , Mac Mohan continued to be referred to as " Sambha " , even though his character had just one line . Major and minor characters continue to be used in commercials , promos , films and sitcoms . Amjad Khan acted in many villainous roles later in his career . He also played Gabbar Singh again in the 1991 spoof Ramgarh Ke Sholay , and reprised the role in commercials . The British Film Institute in 2002 wrote that fear of Gabbar Singh " is still invoked by mothers to put their children to sleep " . The 2012 film Gabbar Singh , named after the character , became the highest grossing Telugu film up to that point . Comedian Jagdeep , who played Soorma Bhopali in the film , attempted to use his Sholay success to create a spinoff . He directed and played the lead role in the 1988 film Soorma Bhopali , in which Dharmendra and Bachchan had cameos . In 2004 , Sholay was digitally remastered and shown again to packed theatres in India , including Mumbai 's Minerva , where it had run successfully 29 years earlier . An attempt to remake Sholay , Ram Gopal Varma 's film Aag ( 2007 ) , starring Amitabh Bachchan as the villain , was a commercial and critical disaster . Because of television and home media , Sholay is widely available and still popular . Twenty years after its release , Sholay was first shown on the Indian DD National television channel , where it drew the highest ratings ever for a film broadcast . Video game producer Mobile2win released the " Sholay Ramgarh Express " game for mobile phones in 2004 , along with other Sholay themed content such as wallpapers , video clips , and ringtones . Sholay has been the subject of two books and many articles . Wimal Dissanayake and Malti Sahai 's Sholay , A Cultural Reading ( 1992 ) attempts a comprehensive scholarly study that sets the film within the broader history of popular cinema in India . Anupama Chopra 's Sholay : The Making of a Classic ( 2000 ) provides an inside look at the film 's production based on interviews with the director , stars , and crew members . Sholay has been labelled by Chopra as the gold standard in Indian cinema , and a reference point for audiences and trade analysts . Over the years , the film has reached a mythic stature in popular culture , and has been called the greatest Hindi film of all time . It belongs to only a small collection of films , including Kismet ( 1943 ) , Mother India ( 1957 ) , Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( 1960 ) and Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! ( 1994 ) , which are repeatedly watched throughout India , and are viewed as definitive Hindi films with cultural significance . The lasting effect of Sholay on Indian cinema was summarised by Anupama Chopra , when in 2004 she called it " no longer just a film , [ but ] an event " . In the 2000 book Sholay : The Making of a Classic , the noted director Shekhar Kapur stated " there has never been a more defining film on the Indian screen . Indian film history can be divided into Sholay BC and Sholay AD " . The film was jointly released in Pakistan by Geo films and Mandviwalla Entertainment on 17 April 2015 , almost 40 years after its theatrical release . The film 's premiere in the country was held in Karachi . = = 3D re @-@ release = = Filmmaker Ketan Mehta 's company Maya Digital was responsible for converting Sholay into the 3D format . Mehta was approached by G. P. Sippy 's grandson , Sasha Sippy , about the project in 2010 . In March 2012 , Shaan Uttam Singh , the grandson of producer G. P. Sippy , said that he would sponsor a conversion of the film to 3D , and release it in late 2012 ; this was later postponed to late 2013 , and eventually finalised for 3 January 2014 . It took ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) to convert Sholay to 3D . Under the leadership of computer animator Frank Foster , 350 people worked to convert the film into the digital 3D format , for which every scene had to be individually restored , colour @-@ corrected and re @-@ composited in 3D to match the depth . New set @-@ pieces , particularly those suited to the new format were also included , such as digital logs which scatter in the direction of the camera during the first half of the film when the train collides with them , the gunshot scene which frees Jai and Veeru from their handcuffs , and panoramic views of Gabbar 's hideout in the caves . The theatrical trailer and release date were unveiled by the original script @-@ writers Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar . The two original leads , Bachchan and Dharmendra , were also involved in promoting the re @-@ release . The film was released in 1 @,@ 000 screens in India , and additional screens overseas . It earned approximately ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) during its re @-@ release , not enough to recover its conversion cost .

= Adam Stansfield = Adam Stansfield ( 10 September 1978 – 10 August 2010 ) was an English professional footballer who played as a striker . He competed professionally for Yeovil Town , Hereford United and Exeter City , and won promotion from the Football Conference to The Football League with all three teams . Having played for three counties as a child , Stansfield began his career in non @-@ league with Cullompton Rangers and Elmore , and had unsuccessful trials at league teams . At the age of 23 , he signed his first professional contract with Yeovil Town , after impressing their manager Gary Johnson in a match against them . In his first season , he helped them win the FA Trophy , scoring in the 2002 final . The following season , Yeovil won the Conference and promotion into The Football League , although Stansfield was ruled out with a broken leg in the first game . In 2004 , he transferred to Hereford United , where he won promotion to The Football League via the 2006 play @-@ offs , and repeated the feat with Exeter City a year later . He also helped Exeter earn promotion into League One in 2008 . At international level , Stansfield played five matches and scored one goal for England 's national semi @-@ professional team , winning the 2005 Four Nations Tournament . Stansfield was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in April 2010 . He returned to training after surgery and chemotherapy , but died on 10 August that year . A foundation in his name was posthumously set up by his family to provide sporting opportunities and raise awareness of colorectal cancer . He has posthumously been featured on a Flybe airliner livery and tourist currency in Exeter . = = Early and personal life = = Stansfield was born in Plymouth , Devon , as the third of four children , and supported Nottingham Forest . On 2 June 2001 he married Marie , with whom he had three sons . Devon journalist Gary Andrews remembered Stansfield as a man who would spend time with his family after matches while speaking to fans and the press . He wrote that " I had the pleasure of interviewing Adam on a regular basis ... I say pleasure , because his answers were thoughtful and intelligent and he came across as a man who was delighted to be back home with his friends and family " . = = Career = = = = = Early career = = = Stansfield 's first club was Evesham Colts under @-@ 10s . He played at county level for Worcestershire , Leicestershire and Devon . When his family settled back in Devon he joined Twyford Spartans , scoring 84 goals in 54 matches . He played in Tiverton Town 's youth team as a left back before reverting to being a striker at his first senior club , non @-@ League side Cullompton Rangers . He later moved to Elmore , where he attracted trials from Exeter City , Wolverhampton Wanderers and Torquay United , all of which were unsuccessful . His siblings joined the Royal Air Force and he thought of joining them , but continued searching for a breakthrough in professional football . = = = Yeovil Town = = = In October 2001 , Stansfield 's performances for Elmore impressed Yeovil Town manager Gary Johnson to sign him . He made his debut in the Conference on 9 November , playing the entirety of a 3 – 0 loss away to Southport . His first goal came on 1 December , concluding a 3 – 1 victory at Northwich Victoria . His first season at Huish Park was a success , finishing as the top scorer with 16 goals , 8 of which came in the club 's victorious FA Trophy run . He scored twice in a fourth round replay at Doncaster Rovers , as Yeovil came from 0 – 3 down for an eventual 5 – 4 victory . In the final on 12 May he scored the second goal of a 2 – 0 win over Stevenage Borough at the Millennium Stadium . On the first day of the following season , Stansfield was substituted through injury after 16 minutes of an eventual 2 – 2 home draw with Gravesend & Northfleet to be replaced by Abdoulai Demba . It was later confirmed to be a break of the tibia and fibula . He missed the remainder of the season , in which Yeovil won the Conference to be promoted to The Football League for the first time . He recovered to feature in the next campaign , making his league debut on 16 August 2003 . In that match , Yeovil 's first in The Football League , he came on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute for Kirk Jackson in a 3 – 0 win against Carlisle United . His first of six goals in the Third Division season came on 6 September , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Swansea City . He was given a rare start in that match as first @-@ choice forward Kevin Gall was away with Wales under @-@ 21 . = = = Hereford United = = = On 14 June 2004 , Stansfield returned to the Conference with Hereford United , signed by Graham Turner to replace their previous season 's top scorer Steve Guinan , who had been sold to Cheltenham Town . He scored 20 goals across the season , including two on 25 March 2005 in a 6 – 0 win at Farnborough Town . In that match , he came on in the 77th minute for Daniel Carey @-@ Bertram , who had also scored two . Hereford reached the promotion play @-@ offs , where they lost in the semi @-@ finals to Stevenage . In the following season they won promotion by the play @-@ offs , with Stansfield starting in the final on 20 May 2006 at the Walkers Stadium in Leicester , a 3 – 2 extra @-@ time victory over Halifax Town . = = = Exeter City = = = On 12 June 2006 , with his contract expired , Stansfield decided to remain in the Conference , joining Exeter City . He told local radio that his aim was not to achieve promotion or reach a certain tally of goals , but to influence the club 's younger players . He scored nine times in 40 league games in his first season , including two in a 2 – 1 home win over relegated Southport on 28 April 2007 in order to seal a play @-@ off place . Eleven days later , in the second leg of the play @-@ off semi @-@ final away to Oxford United , he scored a goal which took the match to extra time and eventually a penalty shootout which his side won . In the final on 20 May at Wembley Stadium , he came on as a 36th @-@ minute substitute for goalscorer Lee Phillips in a 1 – 2 loss to Morecambe . On 26 April 2008 , Stansfield scored in Exeter 's 4 – 4 draw at Burton Albion which qualified them for that season 's play @-@ offs . He started in the final , whereby the team returned to The Football League for the first time in five years with a 1 – 0 Wembley win over Cambridge United . He scored 10 goals in 37 league games as they won a second consecutive promotion into League One in the 2008 – 09 season . This included consecutive braces on 27 September and 4 October , in wins over Macclesfield Town ( 4 – 1 away ) and Gillingham ( 3 – 0 home ) . The following campaign , despite never having previously played at as high a level , he was a regular starter for Exeter in League One , scoring eight goals in a season curtailed by his cancer diagnosis . = = = International career = = = Stansfield earned five caps and scored one goal for the England national semi @-@ professional team . He featured in the 2002 edition of the Four Nations Tournament , and made his debut in England 's opening match , a 1 – 1 draw with Wales at York Street in Boston on 14 May . Stansfield was injured in the first half of the last match , a 2 – 0 win against Scotland at Rockingham Road in Kettering on 18 May , while Wales won the title . In 2005 , while back in the Conference with Hereford , he was again called up for the tournament by manager Paul Fairclough . Stansfield played in two matches as England won the tournament with three wins . = = Illness and death = = Stansfield suffered from persistent abdominal pain in the early part of 2010 , and was admitted to hospital for tests at the end of March . On 8 April 2010 , Exeter City confirmed to the media that he had been diagnosed with a form of colorectal cancer . Manager Paul Tisdale told local news programme BBC Spotlight that " there 's little good on this subject " , but " if there 's someone who can deal with it and meet it head on with real purpose , Adam 's the man . Later that month , Stansfield underwent surgery to remove part of his colon . Club vice @-@ chairman Julian Tagg reported that the operation was successful , and that Stansfield appeared happy and was making jokes . He joined the Exeter squad for the first day of pre @-@ season training in July , appearing weak from chemotherapy . His condition deteriorated rapidly and he died on 10 August , with his death being announced shortly after Exeter 's loss to Ipswich Town in the Football League Cup . As a mark of respect , Dagenham & Redbridge postponed the game Exeter were due to play against them at Victoria Road four days after his death . Exeter retired his shirt number 9 for nine seasons . Stansfield 's body was taken from St James Park to his funeral service at Exeter Cathedral on 25 August , attended by over 1 @,@ 000 mourners . A private family service was held later . = = = Posthumous recognition = = = Stansfield continues to be remembered by fans of Exeter . On 9 August 2014 , as they started the new season against Portsmouth , a giant flag resembling his club shirt was displayed by the crowd . At his funeral , Stansfield 's widow Marie had an idea to set up the Adam Stansfield Foundation , which by the fourth anniversary of his death had raised over £ 150 @,@ 000 . It works in offering children football in Devon , Somerset and Herefordshire , the three counties in which he played professionally , as well as increasing opportunities for the disabled to take part in the sport . The foundation also aims to increase awareness of bowel cancer . From 2011 to 2015 , an aeroplane belonging to Flybe bore an image of Stansfield , with other aeroplanes belonging to the company featuring such former footballers as George Best and Kevin Keegan . In 2015 , Stansfield was featured on £ 5 Exeter Pound notes in the city . Exeter City and Yeovil Town agreed that on their meeting at St James Park on 8 August 2015 , there would be a minute 's applause in the seventh minute and ninth , for the numbers he wore at each club . Earlier the same day , there was also a match between the two clubs ' supporters in Topsham , Devon , to raise funds for his foundation . = = Career statistics = = = = Honours = = Yeovil Town FA Trophy : 2001 – 02 Football Conference : 2002 – 03 Hereford United Conference National play @-@ offs : 2006 Exeter City Conference National play @-@ offs : 2008 England semi @-@ professional Four Nations Tournament : 2005

= Saprang Kalayanamitr = General Saprang Kalayanamitr ( Thai : สพรั ่ ง กัลยาณมิตร ; rtgs : Sa @-@ phrang Kanlayanamit , also known as Poei ( Thai : เปย ) or Big Poei ( Thai : บิ ๊ กเปย ) , born 8 July 1948 in Lampang , Thailand ) is a retired officer of the Royal Thai Army , Assistant Secretary @-@ General of the Council for National Security , Commander of the junta 's 14 @,@ 000 @-@ man anti @-@ protest force , Chairman of the Board of Directors of Airports of Thailand ( AoT ) , and also Chairman of the Boards of TOT and CAT Telecom , two major Thai state @-@ owned telecommunication companies . Saprang grew up in an aristocratic military family and graduated from the 7th Class of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School and the 18th Class of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . He served for nearly three decades in the Army cavalry corp , and was promoted to 3rd Army Region Commander in 2005 . He was a key leader of the September 2006 coup that overthrew the government of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra . Saprang is one of the fiercest critics of Thaksin Shinawatra , calling him a " traitor " and claiming that he should be " banished to live forever in the jungle . " Upon appointment to chair Airports of Thailand and TOT , he purged the management , initiated investigations into the overthrown government , and donated 200 million baht of the agency 's funds to the Army . He fired the President of TOT for questioning an 800 million baht donation that the agency made to the Army . As head of CAT Telecom , he was accused of blocking attempts to launch People 's Television , a new television station founded by ex @-@ leaders of Thaksin 's Thai Rak Thai party . Saprang was considered one of the top contenders to lead the army and the junta after CNS @-@ leader Sonthi Boonyaratkalin 's mandatory retirement in 2007 . However , in September 2007 he was demoted to be Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Defense Ministry , while his rival , General Anupong Paochinda , was promoted to lead the Army . As a result , Saprang retired from the Army in 2010 . = = Education and early career = = = = = Education = = = Born 8 July 1948 in Lampang , Thailand , Saprang graduated from the 7th Class of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School ( AFAPS ) and the 18th Class of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . His classmates included General Paisan Katanyu ( appointed Deputy Army Commander after the coup ) , Admiral Bannawit Kengrien ( appointed to the National Legislative Assembly after the coup , and leader of its Suvarnabhumi Airport committee ) , and General Lertrat Rattavanich . He later graduated from the 43rd class of the National Defence College of Thailand in 2001 . His NDC thesis concerned the role of military forces in the control of illegal narcotics . His NDC classmates included Kraisi Karnasuta , governor of state energy company EGAT . = = = Early career = = = Saprang started his military career in 1969 as Rifle Platoon Leader in the 3rd Infantry Battalion , 4th Regimental Combat Team . He claims to have fought 200 battles during the course of his military career . He was appointed Commander of the 1st Infantry Battalion of the 4th Infantry Regiment in 1982 , stationed in Nakhonsawan ( on the northwestern border with Burma ) . In 1985 , he became Commander of the 1st Infantry Battalion in the 19th Infantry Regiment , stationed in Surasee Fort , Kanchanaburi ( on the western border with Burma ) . He was then promoted to be Regimental Commanding Officer of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School in 1990 . In 1991 , he began a six @-@ year stint as Regimental Commanding Officer of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . In April 1997 , Saprang was shortly transferred to the Ministry of Defense as a staff officer , before being promoted in October 1997 to Commanding General of the 15th Infantry Division , at the time stationed in Pran Buri , Prachuap Khiri Khan Province . In 2003 , he was promoted to 3rd Corps Commander . In 2004 , it was strongly rumored that Saprang might be promoted to command the 4th Army , replacing General Pongsak Ekbannasingh . General Pongsak had been criticized for ineffectually fighting the South Thailand insurgency , after 39 successful arson attacks occurred in just one night . Pongsak ended up being replaced in April 2004 by Pisarn Wattanawongkhiri . = = = 2006 Coup = = = In a surprise to many observers , Saprang was promoted to 3rd Army Area Commander in October 2005 , headquartered in Phitsanulok and responsible most of northern and northeastern Thailand . Analysts had expected Prime Minister Thaksin to promote his own classmates from AFAPS Class 10 to the powerful position instead . At the same time , also in a surprise move , Deputy Army Commander Sonthi Boonyaratkalin was promoted to Army Commander . Saprang and Sonthi started planning for the coup 7 to 8 months in advance , in approximately February 2006 . Coup planning occurred prior to the April 2006 elections , during Thaksin 's controversial sale of Shin Corporation to Temasek Holdings and the peak of the People 's Alliance for Democracy 's campaign to oust the government . In July 2006 , Saprang gave an interview where he stated that Thai politics was below standard and that the Kingdom 's leadership was weak . He also claimed that Thailand had a false democracy . He denied that such criticism constituted military interference in politics . At the same time , the Thai media speculated that in the October 2006 annual Army reshuffle , Saprang would not be promoted to Assistant Army Commander and would not be allowed to retain his position of 3rd Army Area Commander . In July , Saprang 's own Deputy Commander in the 3rd Army Area , Major General Manas Paorik , warned the media that " a certain military officer who aspires to become Assistant Army Commander " was planning a coup . In the weeks leading up to coup , Saprang openly mobilised soldiers and northern residents to rebel against the government . Saprang played a key role on the evening of 19 September 2006 , securing Thaksin 's home town and power base of Chiang Mai . That same night , he was appointed assistant Secretary @-@ General of the CNS . The coup was executed just a week before the announcement of the Army 's annual reshuffle . = = After the 2006 coup = = A week after the coup , Saprang was promoted to Assistant Army Commander , alongside fellow coup leader Anupong Paochinda . His predecessor , General Pornchai Kranlert , had not taken part in the coup and was transferred to an inactive position . Saprang was also promoted from Lieutenant General to General . = = = CNS Special Operations Center = = = On 27 December 2006 , it was revealed that the Cabinet had approved over half a billion baht worth of funding for a 14 @,@ 000 @-@ man secret anti @-@ protest special operations force , of which General Saprang was Commander . The so @-@ called CNS Special Operations Center , funded with 556 million baht diverted from the Defense Ministry , Police Office , and government emergency reserve fund , had been secretly established by the CNS on 1 December 2006 in order to control protests . = = = TOT and CAT Telecom = = = Saprang was appointed by the junta to become Chairman of the Board of Directors of Airports of Thailand ( AoT ) and also Chairman of the Boards of TOT and CAT Telecom , two major state @-@ owned telecommunication companies . Saprang 's first move as TOT Chairman was to hand @-@ pick three Army colonels and vocal Thaksin @-@ critic Vuthiphong Priebjrivat to sit on the state enterprise 's Board of Directors . Saprang transferred TOT President Somkuan Bruminhent to an inactive position and appointed Vuthiphong new President . He then hand @-@ picked all 10 other directors . Saprang noted in an interview that , " if telecommunication businesses are in private hands , the country won 't be safe . " The junta had earlier announced plans to cancel the initial public offering of both TOT and CAT Telecom and to merge the two state enterprises . Under Saprang 's leadership , TOT reaffirmed its ownership rights to all existing backbone telecommunications networks under a new strategy to act as a " genuine " national telecom company . The new strategy was expected to increase political and business tensions . Under the Build @-@ Transfer @-@ Operate ( BTO ) concession agreements that TOT signed with private telecom operators , the TOT technically owns all fixed @-@ line , mobile , and optical fibre networks in Thailand . However , it had never exercised those rights in the past . Vuthiphong was fired from the TOT board and his position of acting TOT President in June 2007 . He immediately accused the Army of using the TOT as an unmonitored slush fund . He claimed that an unnamed Army unit had requested that TOT buy it 800 million baht worth of electronic equipment . Upon receiving the request , Vuthipong demanded to know why neither the Army nor the Defence Ministry used their own secret budgets to purchase the equipment , and why an internal Army unit , rather than the Kingdom 's main national security organisations , had made the request . Saprang denied that there was any lack of transparency in the request for financial support . Vuthipong claimed that the equipment should only have cost 30 million baht , not 800 million baht . He was fired and expelled from the Board soon after refusing to sign off on the deal . The Board later appointed Col. Natee Sukolrat as the new TOT President and accepted the army 's donation request . Under his leadership , TOT 's performance dropped . Revenues for the first half of 2007 fell 13 % year @-@ on @-@ year , while net profit fell 36 @.@ 1 % . Fixed line revenue dropped 16 % , while public telephone and international call revenue by 30 % each . As Chairman of CAT Telecom , Saprang was accused by the founders of People 's Television ( PTV ) , a new satellite television station , of being behind CAT Telecom 's refusal to grant an internet link from Bangkok to a satellite up @-@ link station in Hong Kong . PTV was established by several ex @-@ executives of the Thai Rak Thai party . CAT Telecom claimed that it never received PTV 's application for internet access . Under Saprang 's leadership , 80 @,@ 000 subscribers of Thai Mobile , a TOT / CAT joint venture mobile phone operator , were cut off temporarily in early May 2007 when owners TOT and CAT Telecom failed to pay the bills of a major supplier . Thai Mobile had accumulated significant losses and the company was not able to make its debt payments or supplier payments . The partners had stopped payments to the supplier , Samart Corporation , for nearly a year , until Samart threatened to suspend services within three days . After no payment , it delivered on its threat . TOT was subsequently able to negotiate with Samart to restart the service . = = = Airports of Thailand = = = = = = = Purging of AoT management = = = = A week after Saprang hinted at a reshuffle of AoT top management , AoT President Chotisak Asapaviriya was forced to resign , citing health reasons , while the Directors of Suvarnabhumi Airport and AoT Commercial Operations were dismissed . Police Commissioner General Seripisut Temiyavej was appointed as an AoT Director . = = = = Suvarnabhumi Airport = = = = As AoT Chairman , Saprang spearheaded an effort to reopen Don Muang Airport in parallel with the newly opened Suvarnabhumi Airport , despite objections from the Civil Aviation Department , airlines , and internal studies within Airports of Thailand . 60 airlines threatened to halt flights to Thailand if they were forced to move back to Don Muang airport . Saprang also refused to authorize urgent repairs on the airport tarmac , despite warnings from engineers . Karun Chandrarangsu , president of the Engineering Institute of Thailand noted , " Suvarnabhumi is like a patient in a coma who continues to suffer from severe bleeding . Stopping the blood flow now is more urgent and important than debating what caused the injury . " The Engineering Institute of Thailand sent a formal warning to AoT in November 2006 about the urgent need to drain water from beneath the tarmac , and noted that immediate action should be taken . " The AOT did nothing about the problem " , Suebsak Promboon of the EIT noted . " The situation might not have become this bad if the water had been drained then . " Suebsak Promboon , a senior foundation engineer and a member of the Tortrakul Yomnak @-@ led airport tarmac inspection panel , accused the AOT of refusing to take any actions to solve the problems at the airport . The airport faced ongoing operational challenges , including a computer virus that shut down the automated luggage bomb @-@ scanning system in June 2007 . A study by the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) released in July 2007 found the airport unsafe , citing numerous spots where checked passengers can meet people who have not passed through security checkpoints . Serious security gaps at Suvarnabhumi Airport became known to the public beginning in early 2007 . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) found that there were many spots in the passenger terminal where checked passengers can meet people who have not passed through security checks and could receive unchecked objects and then carry them on board aircraft . The IATA also suggested that AoT deploy its own security staff instead of contracting out the job to the Loxley @-@ ICTS consortium . AoT threatened the consortium with contract termination , but didn 't follow through with its threat , even though the consortium failed to live up to its contract . Six months later , AoT stated that it still couldn 't make up its mind on how it should improve airport security . AoT said it was open to all possible options , and has taken no action to upgrade the problem . = = = = Trip to Europe = = = = On Tuesday 27 February 2007 , Saprang led a 13 @-@ member delegation to Europe , on what was claimed to be a week @-@ long trip to study safety and security measures at major European airports . Many delegates and accompanying members shared the same surname , and the trip , which cost 7 @.@ 2 million baht was attacked for " squandering " state funds for personal pleasure , disbursing unrealistic expenses , and inflating costs . The travel agent along received a 500 @,@ 000 baht commission fee for booking the trip . Saprang denied any wrongdoing and claimed he was the victim of a smear campaign . He also noted that " If you knew my character , you would know that even if a relative joined the trip he should have realised that he should work hard . " He also noted that instead of being a viewed as a defendant , he should be viewed as a hero for bringing down the Thaksin government . Saprang then summoned the leader of the AoT labor union in order to identify who leaked information about the trip to his accusers . = = = = Financial performance = = = = The first quarter after Saprang was appointed Chairman , AoT profits plunged 90 % compared to the previous year , despite higher traffic volumes and increased passenger service charters and airline fees . Operating expenses surged 137 % , contributing to the AoT 's worst quarterly earnings report since it was listed on the Stock Exchange of Thailand . The AoT board also granted 200 million baht to the Army , which had requested a financial donation . AoT also lent some of its explosives detectors to the Army for use in the South Thailand insurrection . Financial performance continued to spiral downwards in the 3rd quarter of 2007 . Net profit for the period ending June fell by 84 % from a year before , despite higher traffic and a 17 @.@ 9 % increase in revenue . The fall in profit was attributed to AoT 's court case against King Power , the operator of duty @-@ free shops within Suvarnabhumi Airport . King Power 's concession was suspended while the case was in court , forcing AOT to stop reporting earnings from the concessionaire . = = = Thaksin Shinawatra = = = Saprang had long been a fierce critic of Thaksin Shinawatra , and prior to the coup had even called Thaksin 's supporters within the military " evil . " After the coup , Saprang called Thaksin a " traitor " and said that he should be " banished to live forever in the jungle . " He also accused Thaksin of spying on the military while he was Prime Minister . Although Saprang and General Sonthi accused Thaksin of insulting and disrespecting King Bhumibol , he noted that the junta did not pursue lèse majesté charges against Thaksin because " the police corrupted the evidence " , and delivered such a weak case that the attorney @-@ general could not file a lawsuit . A vocal self @-@ proclaimed royalist , he insisted that various groups actively tried to challenge the monarchy , and that he " couldn 't stand it . " He noted , " I am a soldier , born to protect the Crown . They could only challenge the monarchy over my dead body . " Saprang also suspected that Oliver Jufer , a Swiss man who was jailed for lèse majesté for spraying paint on a portrait of image of King Bhumibol , was hired by somebody to perform his vandalism . Saprang ordered a military investigation into the matter . The results have not been made public . = = = 2007 New Years bombings = = = Saprang had a public confrontation with former Prime Minister Chavalit Yongchaiyudh regarding the 2006 Bangkok New Year 's Eve bombings after Chavalit accused him of incompetence . Saprang claimed that " the evidence and intelligence information proves that the bombs were the dirty work of politicians who lost power and benefits . Bad soldiers loyal to bad politicians collaborated with them with the intention to topple this government . " However , his claim was contradicted just an hour later by Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont . In May 2007 , Saprang claimed that he had information regarding the seizure of instructional manual on terrorism in Bangkok from a London apartment by English soldiers and police . He said he could not disclose any further information , but told the public to connect the dots themselves . Days later , a bomb exploded outside of Chitrlada Palace . Saprang later clarified his remark , saying the Bangkok terrorism manual discovery had been made in the early 1990s . Deputy Chief of the British Mission in Bangkok Andy Pierce said he was " concerned " by Saprang 's remarks , which he insisted were " baseless " . = = = Resignation of Pridiyathorn Devakula = = = Saprang was implicated in the resignation of Finance Minister Pridiyathorn Devakula on 28 February 2007 . The Bangkok Post reported that Pridiyathorn resigned in protest after a CNS member lobbied him to sell shares of IRPC ( formerly known as Thai Petrochemical Industry ) back to a former shareholder . The newspaper identified Saprang as the unnamed CNS member . Saprang 's brother , Chienchuang , was a key financial advisor to Prachai Liaophairat , the estranged founder of TPI . Chienchuang 's relations with the junta came under further public scrutiny when it was revealed that he was hired by the junta in order to lead a campaign to discredit deposed premier Thaksin Shinawatra . Politicians hired as part of the CNS campaign included Chat Pattana party leader Korn Dabbaransi , Democrats Korn Chatikavanij , Alongkorn Palabutr and Korbsak Sabavasu , Prapat Panya @-@ chatraksa , a key Thai Rak Thai member who defected to the Chat Thai party , plus ex @-@ senator Kraisak Choonhavan . Academics hired by the CNS included Wuttipong Piebjriya @-@ wat , Sophon Supapong , Narong Phet @-@ prasert , and Somkiat Osotspa . = = = Mad dogs and machine guns = = = Saprang was an extremely vocal critic of those who he perceived as his political opponents . In an interview with Thai Rath ( Thailand 's most popular newspaper ) on 8 April 2007 , he called an unspecified enemy a " mad dog " who he claimed was destroying the monarchy . He said that it was necessary to shoot the dog with a machine gun . In the same interview , he threatened violent response to the " bold words that came from the mouths of evil people who did not know restraint " . He urged decisive action , so that the public would believe that good had triumphed over evil . = = = Post @-@ coup role = = = Saprang was considered a strong contender to lead the junta given the mandatory retirement of Army commander @-@ in @-@ chief and CNS President Sonthi Boonyaratkalin in September 2007 . He unofficially competed with fellow Assistant Army Commander Anupong Paochinda , who , as 1st Army Area Commander , secured Bangkok on the night of the coup . The Bangkok Post reported in October 2006 that Sonthi was grooming Anupong to be his successor by giving him responsibilities over coup logistics , a greater task than had been assigned to Saprang . The Asia Times quoted a former MP as saying that " Anupong is seen as the real force behind the coup . Saprang is more vocal , but he has no real base . The only way he could be seen as a promising leader is by pushing the country to the brink . " In an interview , Saprang warned that " the three pillars of society - the nation , the religion and the monarchy - might crumble ... If rogue politicians return to power following the next [ post coup ] general election . " Saprang also held the opinion that military coups against the government " should never be ruled out . " The abrogated 1997 constitution had outlawed coups . A replacement constitution was , at the time of Saprang 's statement , being drafted by a military appointed panel . Saprang was sidelined in security plans preceding the Constitutional Tribunal 's 20 May 2007 ruling on the dissolution of the Thai Rak Thai and Democrat Parties . After the 2006 coup , Sonthi had delegated the task of securing Bangkok to Saprang . The pre @-@ ruling plan put Sonthi directly in charge of Bangkok crowd security , allying him with alum of AFPS Class 9 , including Army Chief of Staff General Montri Sangkhasap and First Army Region commander Lt General Prayuth Chan @-@ ocha . Panitan Wattanayagorn , a military scholar at Chulalongkorn University and a personal adviser to Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont noted in early September 2007 that " if the army is going to take a full step into politics , then it will be Saprang . If only a half @-@ step , then Anupong . And if it intends to beat a full retreat or take one step back , it will be [ Army chief of staff ] Montri [ Sangkhasap ] . " On 19 September 2007 , Saprang 's rival , Assistant Army Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Gen Anupong Paochinda , was appointed as the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Army , replacing the retiring General Sonthi . Anupong 's mandatory retirement occurred 2010 . Sonthi was , after resignation , appointed Deputy Prime Minister . Saprang was transferred to become Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Defense . Saprang 's ally , Defence Ministry Deputy Permanent Secretary Admiral Bannawit Kengrien , called Saprang 's transfer a " demotion " and a " punishment . " However , Saprang himself claimed that he did not feel slighted for being passed over , noting that " everything is over " for him . Bannawit himself was later transferred from Defence Ministry Deputy Permanent Secretary to be a Chief Adviser of the Ministry , replaced by Chief Advisor General Toosarat Muang @-@ am . Bannawit denied that his own transfer was the result of his criticism of Saprang 's transfer . Bannawit then announced that he would resign from the military and enter politics . There was also rampant speculation that Saprang himself would resign and enter politics . Although the Kyodo News Agency noted speculation that Saprang would stage a coup against Anupong , Saprang denied coup rumors , saying that another coup would be " suicide . " = = Family = = Saprang is the youngest of 9 children of Lieutenant Colonel Sri ( Thai : ศรี กัลยาณมิตร ) and Phenkaew Kalayanamitr ( Thai : เพ ็ ญแก ้ ว กัลยาณมิตร ) . Sri was the eldest of the 8 children of Phraya Sucharitraksa , ruler ( Chao Muang ) of the northern border city of Tak . The Kalayanamitrs are a military aristocratic family with Chinese ( Hokkien ) -Northern Thai roots . Saprang 's ancestor , Luang Phichai Waree ( original name Ung Mang , Thai : หลวงพิไชยวารี , มั ่ ง แซ ่ อึ ้ ง ) migrated to Siam during the reign of King Taksin plying the samphao trade , and was given a feudal title during the reign of King Rama I. Saprang has evoked his aristocratic background in order to increase his credibility in public confrontations . Saprang is married to Viphada ( Thai : วิภาดา ) and has 3 sons : Army Cadet Ekawee ( Thai : เอกวีร ์ ) , Air Force Cadet Akharawat ( Thai : อัครวัต ) , Air Force Cadet Ekwarit ( Thai : เอกวริษฐ ์ ) . = = Trivia = = Saprang stands 161 centimeters tall and as of March 2007 , weighed 52 kilograms .

= Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video = The Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video was an award that was presented to recording artists at the 30th Grammy Awards in 1988 , and the 31st Grammy Awards in 1989 , for quality , concept music videos . The Grammy Awards ( Grammys ) is an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and was originally called the Gramophone Awards ; awards are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " . Beginning in 1982 , the Academy began to honor quality music videos with the Video of the Year category , which was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 and was replaced with two awards ; Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album . Criteria changes for the 1988 and 1989 ceremonies resulted in the Best Concept Music Video award being presented alongside the award for Best Performance Music Video . Best Concept Music Video award recipients were the English rock band Genesis for " Land of Confusion " and the American singer " Weird Al " Yankovic for " Fat " . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories are now known as Best Short Form Music Video and Best Long Form Music Video . = = Background = = The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences began to honor quality music videos with the Grammy Award for Video of the Year category in 1982 . The first two award recipients were former member of The Monkees Michael Nesmith for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts ) and Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical . The Video of the Year category was discontinued in 1984 when MTV established the MTV Video Music Awards whose top award is also presented for Video of the Year . For the 26th Grammy Awards the Academy replaced the category with awards for Best Video , Short Form , and Best Video Album . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and awards for the categories Best Concept Music Video , and Best Performance Music Video were presented . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories were renamed Best Music Video , Short Form , and Best Music Video , Long Form . In 1998 , the categories were retitled Best Short Form Music Video , and Best Long Form Music Video , respectively . = = Recipients = = For the 30th Grammy Awards ( 1988 ) , Best Concept Music Video nominees included0 David Bowie for " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , Kate Bush for The Whole Story , the English rock band Genesis for " Land of Confusion " , David Lee Roth for David Lee Roth , and Janet Jackson for Control – The Videos Part II . The music video for Bowie 's " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , directed by Julien Temple , included " offending " scenes such as a man urinating on Ronald Reagan 's Hollywood Walk of Fame star , which was edited out for television broadcast . Bush 's " imaginative " video sampler accompanies her greatest hits album of the same name and includes music videos for songs throughout her career to that point . The music video for " Land of Confusion " , a song included on the band 's 1986 album Invisible Touch , contained Spitting Image puppets of Ronald Reagan , Margaret Thatcher and other notable individuals . David Lee Roth 's self @-@ titled video consisted of promotional clips created for his debut solo EP Crazy from the Heat and album Eat ' Em and Smile . Jackson 's video collection , which was certified gold in the United States , contained six promotional videos recorded for singles from her album Control . Awards were presented to members of Genesis ( Tony Banks , Phil Collins , and Mike Rutherford ) as the performing artists , Jim Yukich and John Lloyd as the video directors , and Jon Blair as the video producer . Nominees for the 31st Grammy Awards were the Hampton String Quartet for " Get a Job " , George Harrison for " When We Was Fab " , the American rock band Talking Heads for Storytelling Giant , " Weird Al " Yankovic for " Fat " , and Neil Young for " This Note 's for You " . " Get a Job " , a song recorded originally by the American group The Silhouettes , appears on the Hampton String Quartet 's album What If Mozart Wrote " Roll Over Beethoven " , a collection of 1950s R & B and pop music songs performed in the styles of Beethoven , Debussy , Mozart , and other composers . " When We Was Fab " , a song from the album Cloud Nine , is constructed from quotations written when The Beatles were at the height of their fame and features Harrison playing a sitar . The music video shows Elton John dressed as a walrus , a reference to the 1967 song " I Am the Walrus " . Storytelling Giants is a collection of Talking Heads ' music videos and additional material linking them together . Two of the nominated music videos had connections to Michael Jackson ; " Fat " is a parody of Jackson 's song " Bad " , and the video for " This Note 's for You " depicts a Jackson look @-@ alike 's hair catching fire ; a parody of an incident that occurred during a shoot for a Pepsi television advertisement in 1984 . In the " Fat " video , Yankovic becomes a " grossly overweight guy " through the use of cosmetics and special effects , and leads a group of overweight people on a parade . The award was presented to Yankovic as the performing artist , along with Jay Levey as the video director and Susan Zwerman as the video producer .

= Hadji Ali = Hadji Ali ( c . 1887 – 92 – November 5 , 1937 ) was a vaudeville performance artist , thought to be of Egyptian descent , who was famous for acts of controlled regurgitation . His best @-@ known feats included water spouting , smoke swallowing , and nut and handkerchief swallowing followed by disgorgement in an order chosen by the audience . Ali 's most famous stunt , and the highlight of his act , was drinking copious amounts of water followed by kerosene , and then acting by turns as a human flamethrower and fire extinguisher as he expelled the two liquids onto a theatrical prop . While these stunts were performed , a panel of audience members was invited to watch the show up close to verify that no trickery was employed . Although never gaining wide fame , Ali had a dedicated following on the vaudeville circuit in the United States . He performed for heads of state including Tsar Nicholas II of Russia . Judy Garland named him her favorite vaudevillian and David Blaine identified Ali as his favorite magician . Portions of his act were captured in the short film Strange as It Seems ( 1930 ) and in Politiquerias ( 1931 ) , the Spanish @-@ language version of Laurel and Hardy 's Chickens Come Home . Two documentaries contain footage of Ali taken from Politiquerias : 1977 's Gizmo ! , and 1999 's Vaudeville . Ali 's unusual gastric abilities led to rumors that the Rockefeller Institute had offered a large sum of money to obtain his stomach post @-@ mortem . After he died in England , his body was offered to Johns Hopkins University for study , though the offer was declined . = = Background = = Hadji Ali was born into a working @-@ class family in approximately 1887 or 1892 , depending on the source consulted , probably in Egypt . His fame was as a practitioner of a recognized vaudeville subgenre known as a " regurgitation act " , involving the swallowing of material or objects and their regurgitation in various ways . Ali became aware as a child that he possessed an unusual gastric ability . He explained in response to audience questions at a performance held at St. Mary 's Hospital in Niagara Falls , New York , in May 1926 , that while swimming in the Nile as a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , he naturally discovered that he could swallow a large amount of water and blow it out like a whale spouting . He continued to develop and refine the ability as he grew older . A more dramatic version of these events was provided by Ali 's daughter , Almina Ali , in an interview in England after his death . She stated that his abilities were first learned through a single incident : while bathing in the Nile , he inadvertently swallowed a fish and an ample volume of water . Instead of dying , as those present thought he might , Ali simply regurgitated the liquid and the fish without ill effect . Ali learned that his regurgitation talents had the potential to entertain and to earn money through performance at the age of fifteen : I tried out my tricks first of all in the street , swallowing many glasses of water and then pouring forth a great fountain from one side of the road to the other ... A cafe proprietor saw me doing this one day , and chased me down the street . I thought he wanted to beat me up , but no — all he did was to put a coin in my hand and ask me to repeat the trick . Finally , he was so delighted that he asked me to come to his cafe and entertain the customers . Taking his abilities on the road , Ali met an Italian man in Cairo who signed him to a contract for music hall performances . Ali performed under contract throughout Europe and at times for heads of state . According to Ali , in or about 1914 he was summoned by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to perform at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg , Russia . He stated that the Tsar " must have liked my performance because he awarded me a special decoration , which is now one of my most treasured possessions . " Following World War I , Ali began managing his own affairs and toured the world , learning more tricks as he went . Ali came to the United States with Almina in the mid @-@ 1920s . They performed together at fairs , carnivals and in vaudeville , sometimes advertised under the collective name , " Hadji Ali & Co . " Almina played the part of assistant in her father 's act , billed in his shows as " The Princess " . Ali alone had a variety of stage names , including : " The Great Egyptian Miracle Man " , " The Amazing Regurgitator " , " The Egyptian Enigma " , " The Human Aquarium " , " The Human Volcano " and " The 9th Wonder of the Scientific World " . Ali has been described as a " large , barrel @-@ chested and bearded man ... [ that cut ] an imposing figure in his Arab costume . " Although Ali spoke a number of languages and became a naturalized U.S. citizen , it was reported that Almina acted as his interpreter in the United States and other places , as he did not speak English and was illiterate . Once he had gained some notoriety , Ali took on as his manager Hubert Julian , a former colonel in the Abyssinian Air Force . Although he developed a significant following , even being named Judy Garland 's favorite vaudevillian , Ali " remained more a sideshow curiosity than a true vaudeville headliner " according to at least one source . Nevertheless , at the time of his death in 1937 , Julian commented that Ali had " earned big money in America — $ 1 @,@ 000 a week sometimes . I was building him up here [ in Europe ] and had a Continental tour arranged . " = = Performance = = The mainstay of Ali 's act was " water spouting " . After swallowing large amounts of water , 60 to 100 glasses at a time , he spouted the water in a continuous stream for a sustained period of time , sometimes approaching one minute . Another common trick was to swallow 30 to 50 unshelled hazelnuts ( although one of his posters advertised 40 pecans ) , followed by another nut of a different variety , such as an almond . Ali then brought them up one by one with the odd @-@ nut @-@ out produced at a mark called out by the audience . In another trick , Ali swallowed three to six handkerchiefs of different hues and then produced them in a color order requested by audience members . In a 1929 article appearing in the Lowell Sun newspaper , physician Morris Fishbein speculated that for Ali 's nut feat , the one nut of a different variety was held in the mouth rather than swallowed , thus allowing him to produce it on cue . Dr. Fishbein also stated that unnamed " investigators " were convinced that for Ali 's handkerchief stunt , to produce them in the sequence stipulated by the audience Ali flavored the cloth , and could therefore taste for the correct one as he brought them up . Ali also swallowed live goldfish , watches , coins , costume jewelry , paper money , peach pits , stones , live mice , buttons , pool balls and other odd objects . In another standard performance segment , he placed eight or more lit cigarettes in his mouth but instead of inhaling , he swallowed the smoke and , after a significant time had passed , issued it forth in a steady stream like an erupting volcano . Ali 's longstanding finale was the swallowing of copious amounts of water again , but this time followed by a pint of kerosene . A prop was then produced , typically a model castle or house made of metal set on a table , within which a small flame burned . Lighter than water and immiscible with it , the kerosene floated above the liquid in Ali 's gut , allowing him to disgorge it first . The stage thus set , and to a drum roll or an imitation of fire bells , Ali became a " human flamethrower " , spewing the accelerant in a long stream over the sacrificial prop , setting it ablaze . Once the kerosene was exhausted , the water followed , streaming out his mouth in a long flow from up to six feet away , extinguishing the fire . At some performances , a panel or " jury " from the audience was invited on stage to verify that no trick mechanism was being employed — that he was actually swallowing the items in question and delivering them back through acts of regurgitation . Sometimes Ali would stroll into the audience during his nut swallowing trick . His stomach exposed by his standard costume , he invited audience members to pat his stomach , allowing them to hear the nuts rattling within . One newspaper reported that Ali 's feats , essentially controlled vomiting , were performed in " a manner without the least bit of unpleasantness or anything bordering on repulsiveness . " Not everyone felt the same : at least one of Ali 's engagements was cut short once the proprietor realized that the nature of the act " was killing their supper shows " . Famed escapologist and magician Harry Houdini remarked in his 1920 work Miracle Mongers and Their Methods that water spouting was a " performance that could not fail to disgust a modern audience . " The abilities of Ali fascinated the public and medical authorities . As reported in a 1928 Sheboygan Press article , at one of Ali 's acts a number of doctors attended and thoroughly examined him during the performance . They came away satisfied that he was actually imbibing and regurgitating the material and objects as claimed , but remained " mystified over his extraordinary performance . " According to an article appearing in the Naugatuck Daily News , " Physicians of three continents have puzzled over the gastronomical mechanism of this human ostrich without success . X @-@ ray experiments have been made during his exhibition without a plausible explanation forthcoming that satisfies the critical , in fact , the profession of surgery has thrown up its hands in amazement over this human ostrich . " = = Film appearances = = Ali 's act was captured in two films : the 1930 short Strange as It Seems , and Politiquerias ( 1931 ) , the expanded Spanish @-@ language version of Laurel and Hardy 's Chickens Come Home . Ali also had a bit part as the " Turkish landlord " in Warner Bros. ' 1932 film Scarlet Dawn starring Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. and Nancy Carroll . Two documentaries contain footage of Ali taken from Politiquerias : 1977 's Gizmo ! , and 1999 's Vaudeville , a documentary produced by KCTS @-@ TV that exhibits 90 vaudeville acts over a two @-@ hour running time . The documentary has since aired on the Public Broadcasting Service 's American Masters series numerous times . Speaking about the democratic nature of the vaudeville performance circuit , Vaudeville 's writer and executive producer said in reference to Ali that the film " embraced everything from Caruso to a guy who threw up . " By contrast , in episode 30 of the Sundance Channel television program Iconoclasts , magician David Blaine speaks enthusiastically of Ali . During the episode , Blaine shows artist Chuck Close Ali 's kerosene and water finale footage from Politiquerias and comments that Ali is his " favorite magician ... it 's real but nobody 's been able to do it since ... his name was Hadji Ali ... he 's my favorite of all time . " = = Death = = Ali died on November 5 , 1937 , in Wolverhampton , England , from heart failure during a bout of bronchitis . Even before his death , a rumor had circulated that the Rockefeller Institute sought to procure Ali 's stomach upon his death , and would pay as much as $ 50 @,@ 000 for it . This claim appeared in a poster advertising Ali 's impending appearance at a theater during his lifetime . After Ali 's death was reported , the rumor resurfaced as an active offer of $ 10 @,@ 000 . When a Rockefeller Institute manager was interviewed about the story , he said the offer had never been made but that nevertheless , " we should very much like to see the body . " Almina and Julian transported Ali 's body back to the United States on board the Queen Mary . According to a November 29 , 1937 article in the New York Post , upon their arrival , Almina offered her father 's body to Maryland 's Johns Hopkins University for investigation by surgeons , after which it would be transported to Egypt for interment in a mausoleum . However , The Afro @-@ American newspaper reported on December 11 , 1937 , that Johns Hopkins ' officials had declined the offer .

= Battle of Tellicherry = The Battle of Tellicherry was a naval action fought off the Indian port of Tellicherry between British and French warships on 18 November 1791 during the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Britain and France were not at war at the time of the engagement , but French support for the Kingdom of Mysore in the conflict with the British East India Company had led to Royal Navy patrols stopping and searching French ships sailing for the Mysorean port of Mangalore . When a French convoy from Mahé passed the British port of Tellicherry in November 1791 , Commodore William Cornwallis sent a small squadron to intercept the French ships . As the British force under Captain Sir Richard Strachan approached the convoy , the escorting frigate Résolue opened fire . A general action followed , with Strachan succeeding in forcing the French ship to surrender within twenty minutes and both sides suffering damage and casualties . All of the French vessels were searched and subsequently returned to Mahé , the local French authorities reacting furiously at what they perceived as a violation of their neutral position . Messages were sent back to France reporting the action from Commodore Saint @-@ Félix but they evoked little response . Although under normal circumstances the battle might have provoked a diplomatic incident , the upheavals of the ongoing French Revolution meant that the despatches had little effect . = = Background = = In December 1789 , after five years of diplomatic wrangling about the terms of the Treaty of Mangalore that had ended the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , the ruler of Mysore Tipu Sultan again declared war on the British East India Company and their allies in Southern India . For the next two years the war continued as British forces and their allies drove the Mysore armies back towards the capital of Seringapatam . Both sides were reliant on supply by sea to maintain their campaigns inland : the British forces were supported from their major ports at Bombay and Madras , later stationing additional forces at the small port of Tellicherry inside Mysore territory . The Mysorean forces were supplied through Mangalore by French ships . France had been an ally of the Tipu Sultan 's father Hyder Ali during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War and although the political instability caused by the French Revolution in Europe prevented active involvement , they ensured that their ships kept up a supply of equipment to Mysore throughout the war . In an effort to eliminate French support Commodore William Cornwallis , the British naval commander in the region , stationed a squadron of frigates at Tellicherry , where they were ideally situated to blockade Mangalore and prevent the passage of shipping into Mysorean territory . The squadron consisted of Cornwallis in HMS Minerva , Captain Sir Richard Strachan in HMS Phoenix and HMS Perseverance under Captain Isaac Smith . The French operated a squadron of their own on the coast , led by Commodore Saint @-@ Félix and consisting of two frigates based at Mahé , a small French port 7 miles ( 11 km ) south of Tellicherry . The French had communicated to the British at Tellicherry that they would not submit to any attempts to search their vessels , but Strachan and Cornwallis replied that they would enforce the blockade of Mangalore whatever the consequences . = = Battle = = In November 1791 , a French convoy sailed from Mahé on the short journey to Mangalore . The convoy included two merchant vessels and the frigate Résolue , a 36 @-@ gun warship under Captain Callamand . Passing northwards , the convoy soon passed Tellicherry and Cornwallis sent Strachan with Phoenix and Perseverance to stop and inspect the French ships to ensure they were not carrying military supplies . As Smith halted the merchant ships and sent boats to inspect them , Strachan did the same to Résolue , hailing the French captain and placing an officer in a small boat to board the frigate . The French captain was outraged at this violation of his neutrality , and responded by opening fire : British sources suggest that his initial target was the small boat , although Phoenix was the ship most immediately damaged . Strachan was unsurprised at the French reaction , and returned fire immediately , the proximity of the ships preventing any manoeuvres . Within twenty minutes the combat was decided , the French captain hauling down his colours with his ship battered and more than 60 men wounded or dead . The French ship carried significantly weaker cannon than Phoenix , with 6 and 12 pounder guns to the 9 and 18 pounders aboard the British squadron . In addition , Résolue was heavily outnumbered : no other French warships were in the area while the British had three large frigates within sight . French losses eventually totalled 25 men killed and 60 wounded , Strachan suffering just six killed and 11 wounded in return . = = Aftermath = = With the enemy subdued , Strachan ordered a thorough search of the captured vessels , but could find no contraband and returned control to the French commander . The French officer however refused , insisting that he and his ship were treated as prisoners of war . Cornwallis ordered the merchant ships released to continue their journey and for the frigate to be towed back to Mahé , where it was anchored in the roads with its sails and topmasts struck . Provision was subsequently made at Mahé by Strachan for the wounded French sailors . Soon afterwards Saint @-@ Félix arrived at Mahé in his frigate Cybèle and reacted furiously at the discovery that one of his neutral ships had been attacked and captured by the British . When Cornwallis insisted that his ships had been acting within their orders , Saint @-@ Félix promised reprisals if any of his vessels were attacked again and withdrew with both Cybèle and Résolue later in the day , followed by Minerva and Phoenix . One account reported that Saint @-@ Félix actually ordered his crew to fire on Cornwallis but that they refused . The British shadowed the French for several days , openly stopping and searching French merchant ships but without provoking a response from Saint @-@ Félix . Résolue and Phoenix were subsequently detached by their commanders , Cornwallis and Saint @-@ Félix remaining in contact for several more days before finally separating . News of the encounter was conveyed back to France , but the country was at this time in one of the most turbulent eras of the ongoing Revolution and little notice was taken of events in India . Historian William James notes that under normal political circumstances the action would have had more significant ramifications , while Edward Pelham Brenton claims that the French deliberately ignored the report out of fear of antagonising Britain . In Britain , the Admiralty approved of Cornwallis ' actions , suggesting that the French were deliberately using the guise of trade to support Mysore against Britain . The action had no effect on the ongoing war in India , which was now centred on the inland city of Seringapatam . As British forces closed on the city in February 1792 , the Tipu Sultan initiated peace talks which brought the war to an end in exchange for concessions to the Company and its Indian allies .

= Loose ( Nelly Furtado album ) = Loose is the third studio album by Canadian singer and songwriter Nelly Furtado , released on 6 June 2006 by Geffen Records and the Mosley Music Group . Following the release of Furtado 's second album , Folklore ( 2003 ) through DreamWorks Records , it was announced that Universal Music Group would acquire DreamWorks Records , the later was folded into the Interscope Geffen A & M umbrella where Furtado would release any new music . Timbaland and his protégé Danja produced the bulk of the album , which incorporates influences of dance , R & B and hip hop . The album explores the theme of female sexuality and has been described as introspective or even sad in parts . The album received criticism because of the sexual image Furtado adopted for the recording , as some critics felt it was a ploy to sell more records . Further controversy rose over accusations of plagiarism on Timbaland 's part in the song " Do It " ( which contained the melody from Finnish musician Janne Suni 's song " Acidjazzed Evening " without proper authorization ) when recordings were leaked onto YouTube . The record was seen generally as critically and commercially successful . It reached high positions on charts across the world , and according to an August 2009 press release , it had sold more than 12 million copies worldwide , making it the best @-@ selling album of 2006 – 07 and the twenty @-@ second best @-@ selling album of the 2000s . The album was heavily promoted , released in several editions and supported by the Get Loose Tour , which is the subject of the concert DVD Loose : The Concert . " Loose " debuted at number one , making it Furtado 's first album to top the chart along with eight singles were released from the album , including the US number @-@ one singles " Promiscuous " and " Say It Right " , which received Grammy Award nominations for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , respectively . Other successful singles include the UK number @-@ one single " Maneater " and the European number one single " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " . = = Background = = Furtado 's second album , Folklore , was released in November 2003 . The lead single is " Powerless ( Say What You Want ) " and the second single is the ballad " Try " . The album was not as successful as her debut , partly due to the album 's less " poppy " sound . " Powerless ( Say What You Want ) " was later remixed , featuring Colombian rocker Juanes , who had previously worked with Furtado on his track " Fotografía " ( " Photograph " ) . The two would collaborate again on " Te Busqué " ( " I searched for you " ) , the single from Furtado 's album Loose . The album was underpromoted from her label DreamWorks Records ; it was announced on 11 November 2003 that Universal Music Group reached an agreement to acquire DreamWorks Records from DreamWorks SKG for " about $ 100 million " . The purchase came at a time when the music business was " going through major changes " as it struggled to " counter falling sales and the impact of unofficial online music sales " . DreamWorks Records was folded into the Interscope Geffen A & M umbrella label in January 2004 . Furtado 's recording contract was then absorbed into Geffen Records . = = Recording = = Furtado began work on Loose by holding with emcee Jellystone what she referred to as a " hip @-@ hop workshop " , in which they would " write rhymes , dissect them , and try different flows over beats . " The first producers she worked with were Track & Field — who co @-@ produced her first two albums , Whoa , Nelly ! ( 2000 ) and Folklore ( 2003 ) — and by May 2005 , she had collaborated with Swollen Members and K 'naan . She worked with Nellee Hooper in London on reggae @-@ oriented material and with Lester Mendez in Los Angeles on acoustic songs . One of the tracks Mendez helped to create is " Te Busqué " , which is co @-@ written by and features Juanes , who collaborated with Furtado on his 2002 song " Fotografía " . During her time in Los Angeles , she worked with Rick Nowels , who co @-@ wrote and produced " In God 's Hands " and " Somebody to Love " . In Miami , Florida , Furtado collaborated with Pharrell ( who introduced her to reggaeton and who gave her a " shout @-@ out " in his 2005 single " Can I Have It Like That " ) and Scott Storch ( with whom she recorded a " straight @-@ up rap song " ) before entering the studio with Timbaland . He and his protégé at the time , Danja , co @-@ produced eight of the tracks , with another produced solely by Danja . For some of the beats on the songs , Timbaland finished work on ones already present in the studio that were half @-@ developed or just " nucleuses " ; the rest were completely reworked . Furtado recorded around forty tracks for Loose , deciding which she would include based on the sonics of the album — she called Timbaland " a sonic extraterrestrial " who came up with a sequence of songs that flowed , and said that the one she had devised was supposedly unsatisfactory . She recorded an unreleased collaboration with Justin Timberlake , " Crowd Control " , which she described as " kind of sexy " and " a cute , clubby , upbeat , fun track " . Other songs considered for inclusion on the album include " Chill Boy " , " Friend of Mine " , " Go " , " Hands in the Air " , " Pretty Boy " , " Vice " and " Weak " . Furtado said in her diary on her official website that she recorded a remix of " Maneater " with rapper Lil Wayne ; it was only released as part of a compilation album , Timbaland 's Remix & Soundtrack Collection , she also used the instrumental of the song during many television performances of " Maneater " . A version of " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " featuring vocals by Coldplay lead singer Chris Martin , who co @-@ wrote the song , was not released after a request from Martin 's label , EMI . The song was released on the album , but only Furtado 's vocals are featured . Furtado explained that " Loose was 90 percent written with a beat first , and then I ’ d write my melodies and songs to the beat . " = = Post @-@ production = = The " off @-@ the @-@ cuff " conclusion to production was one of the reasons the album was titled Loose . It was named partly after the spontaneous decisions she made when creating the album . The album is also called Loose because it is " the opposite of calculated " and came naturally to Furtado and Timbaland ; she called him her " distant musical cousin because he was always pushing boundaries and always carving out his own path " , which she believed she was doing with Loose . " I think you have to keep surprising people as an artist , and I like that — I love doing that " , she said . Loose was also named partly for the R & B girl group TLC , who Furtado said she admires for " taking back their sexuality , showing they were complete women . " She said she wanted the album to be " assertive and cool " and " sexy but fun " , like TLC , MC Lyte , Queen Latifah and Janet Jackson , who inspired Furtado because , as she put it , she was " comfortable in her sexuality and womanhood " when her 1993 single " That 's the Way Love Goes " was released . During the recording of Loose , Furtado listened to several electro and rock musicians , including Bloc Party , System of a Down , M.I.A. , Feist , Queens of the Stone Age , Metric and Death from Above 1979 , some of whom influenced the " rock sound " present on the album and the " coughing , laughing , distorted basslines " that were kept in the songs deliberately . According to her , music by such bands is " very loud and has a garage theme " to it , some of which she felt she captured on the album . Furtado has said rock music is " rhythmic again " and hip hop @-@ influenced after it had become " so churning and boring . " Because the mixing engineers were aware of Timbaland and Furtado 's rock influences , the songs were mixed on a mixing board in the studio instead of " the fancy mixer at the end " . Furtado said she preferred the louder volume that process gave to the album because she wanted it to sound like her demo tapes , which she prefers to her finished albums . She said , " It didn 't have that final wash over it ; it didn 't have the final pressing at the end , save for a couple sounds " . = = Music and lyrics = = Furtado said that with the release of her albums before Loose , she had wanted to prove herself as a musician and earn respect from listeners through using many different instruments on an album , which most hip hop musicians did not do . After she believed she had accomplished that , she felt she had freedom to make the type of music she " really love [ d ] " . Furtado said her previous problem with hip hop was that she did not think it was good enough to base one of her albums on , but that she then asked herself why she was being " pretentious " . The album represents her separating from such notions and , in her words , " jumping in the deep end of the pool — ' Ahh , screw it , this is fun ! ' " . Furtado said she considers herself " all over the map " and promiscuous musically because she is not faithful to one style . For the first time , Furtado worked with a variety of record producers and followed a more collaborative approach in creating the album . Produced primarily by Timbaland and Danja , Loose showcases Furtado experimenting with a more R & B – hip hop sound and , as she put it , the " surreal , theatrical elements of ' 80s music " . She has categorized the album 's sound as punk @-@ hop , which she describes as Eurythmics @-@ influenced " modern , poppy , spooky music " and stated that " there 's a mysterious , after @-@ midnight vibe to [ it ] that 's extremely visceral " . Furtado has described the album as " more urban , more American , more hip @-@ hop , [ and ] more simplified " than her earlier work , which she said was more layered and textured because she " tend [ s ] to overthink things " . In contrast , during her studio time with Timbaland , she said she was " in the VIP boys club of just letting go " and being more impulsive . According to Furtado , instead of " pristine stuff " , the album features " really raw " elements such as distorted bass lines , laughter from studio outtakes and general " room for error " . Furtado has said Loose is not as much about the lyrics , which are not included in the liner notes , as it is about " indulging in pleasures — whether it 's dancing or lovemaking . " According to her , she wasn 't trying to be sexy with the album — " I think I just am sexy now " , she said . = = Songs = = The opening track , " Afraid " ( featuring rapper Attitude ) , is a description of Furtado 's fear of what people think of her , and she has said the chorus reminds her of " walking down the hall in high school ... because you live from the outside in . Now that I 'm an adult , I care about the inside of me ... Before I said I didn 't care about what people thought about me , but I really did . " " Maneater " is an uptempo electro rock song that combines 1980s electro synths and a more dance @-@ oriented beat . The up @-@ tempo song has prominent electropop and synthpop influences and is lyrically related to how people become " hot on themselves " when dancing in their underwear in front of a mirror . " Promiscuous " ( featuring Timbaland ) was inspired by a flirting exchange Furtado had with Attitude , who co @-@ wrote the song She has characterised the fifth track , " Showtime " , as " a proper R & B slow jam " . " No Hay Igual " is a hip hop and reggaeton song , that has a Spanglish tongue twister over " future @-@ tropic " beats . The song contains a " sharp mix " of percussion and " empowered chanting " . In " No Hay Igual " , Furtado sings in Spanish and raps in Portuguese over a reggaeton rhythm . The album also features more introspective songs , and The Sunday Times wrote that it " has a surprising sadness to it . " The seventh track , " Te Busqué " , which features Latin singer Juanes , is about Furtado 's experiences with depression , which she said she has had periodically since she was around seventeen years old . Furtado said she was unsure what " Say It Right " is about , but that it encapsulates her feeling when she wrote it and " taps into this other sphere " ; in an interview for The Sunday Times , it was mentioned that it is about her breakup with DJ Jasper Gahunia , the father of her daughter . " In God 's Hands " , another song on the album , was also inspired by the end of their relationship . = = Singles = = In April 2006 , a remix of " No Hay Igual " featuring Calle 13 was issued as a club single in the US . During the same period , " Promiscuous " ( featuring Timbaland ) was released for digital download in North America . Promiscuous became Furtado 's first single to top the US Billboard Hot 100 and was released in Australia , where it reached the top five . The lead single in Europe and Latin America , " Maneater " , was released in late May to early June 2006 . It became Furtado 's first single to top the UK Singles Chart and made the top ten in other countries ; it reached the top five in Germany and the top twenty in France and Latin America . The second single in Europe , " Promiscuous " , was released in late August to early September 2006 but it did not perform as well as " Maneater " . It peaked inside the top five in the UK and the top ten in other countries , including Germany , and it reached the top twenty in France . During the same period , " Maneater " began its run as the second single in North America ; it was not as successful as " Promiscuous " , reaching number twenty @-@ two in Canada and the top twenty in the US , though it became a top five single on the ARIA Singles Chart . Releases of the third North American single , " Say It Right " , and the third Europe single , " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " , took place in November and December , and the third Latin American single , " Promiscuous " , was released in January 2007 . " Say It Right " went to number one in the US and on the Nielsen BDS airplay chart in Canada ( where it was not given a commercial release ) , and it reached the top five in Australia . " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " reached number one on the pan @-@ European singles chart and the top five in the UK , and it was the album 's most successful single in Germany , where it topped the chart , and in France , where it became a top ten hit . After the release of " Say It Right " in Europe in March 2007 , the single reached the top five in Germany and the top ten in the UK , where it was a download @-@ only release . The video for " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " was released in North America during this period . " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " peaked in the top five in Canada and in the top twenty in Australia , though it only reached the lower half of the US Hot 100 . The album 's fifth and final UK single was " In God 's Hands " , and the fifth and final single in North America was " Do It " . In May 2007 , Furtado mentioned the possibility of a sixth or seventh single , mentioning the examples of Nickelback 's All the Right Reasons and The Pussycat Dolls ' PCD as albums that were being supported by seven singles at the time . Furtado said she liked the possibility because she thought Loose was good and " want [ ed ] people to hear as much of it as possible " before she took time off . Two other songs , " Te Busqué " and " No Hay Igual " , were released as singles in other regions of the world . " Te Busqué " was the lead single in Spain because of the limited success hip @-@ hop / R & B @-@ influenced songs in the style of " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " achieved in the country . It was not released in the United States , but it was given airplay on Latin music radio stations and reached the top forty on Billboard 's Latin Pop Airplay chart . The " No Hay Igual " remix featuring Calle 13 was released in Latin America , and the music video debuted in September . = = Release and promotion = = The album was first released in Japan on 7 June 2006 through Universal Music Group before being released two days later in Germany . In the United Kingdom Loose was released on 12 June 2006 via Geffen Records and was released eight days later on 20 June 2006 in Canada and the United States . In 2007 the album was re @-@ released in Germany . The re @-@ release included bonus content . During the promotion of Loose , Furtado performed at major music festivals and award shows . In Europe , she appeared at Rock am Ring and Rock @-@ im @-@ Park in Germany and the Pinkpop Festival in the Netherlands in June 2006 . She performed in Canada at the Calgary Stampede , the Ottawa Bluesfest in July , and at the Ovation Music Festival in September . Shortly after her August 2006 performance at the Summer Sonic in Japan , she sang at the Teen Choice Awards . In November , she contributed to the entertainment during the World Music Awards , the American Music Awards and the 94th Grey Cup halftime show . She performed at the 2007 NRJ Music Awards , held in January 2007 . Furtado embarked on a world concert tour , the Get Loose Tour , on 16 February 2007 in the UK , in support of the album ; the tour included thirty @-@ one dates in Europe and Canada , with additional shows in the US , Japan , Australia and Latin America . Furtado described the show as a " full sensory experience " with " a beginning , middle and end ... [ it ] takes you on a journey " , also stressing the importance of crowd involvement and " spontaneity and rawness , because those are my roots , you know ? I started by doing club shows , and that 's the energy I love , the raw club energy of just feeling like you 're rocking out . " Though Furtado said choreographed dance routines were to be included in the show , she described it as " music @-@ based ... Everything else is just to keep it sophisticated and sensual and fun . " Furtado said she hoped to have Chris Martin , Juanes , Justin Timberlake , Timbaland and Calle 13 to guest on the tour , and have a " revolving door " of opening acts with Latin musicians opening in the US . = = Commercial performance = = Loose debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling more than 34 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , at that time the year 's strongest debut for a Canadian artist . In late July , after Furtado embarked on a short tour of Canada and made a guest appearance on the television show Canadian Idol , the album returned to number one . It subsequently stayed near the top of the album chart until late January 2007 , when it reached number one again for two weeks . It was the third best @-@ selling album of 2006 in Canada , and the highest selling by a female solo artist , with 291 @,@ 700 copies sold . The Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) certified Loose five times platinum in May 2007 for shipments of more than 500 @,@ 000 copies . It stayed in the top twenty for fifty @-@ seven weeks . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , making it Furtado 's first album to top the chart with first @-@ week sales of 219 @,@ 000 ; it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and ranked sixty @-@ fourth on the Billboard 2006 year @-@ end chart . Loose exited the US top ten in August 2006 but re @-@ entered it in March 2007 , and according to Nielsen SoundScan in October 2007 , it had sold two million units . The album ranked thirty @-@ second on the Billboard 2007 year @-@ end chart . In the United Kingdom , Loose entered the albums chart at number five ; in its forty @-@ third week , it reached number four , and it was certified double platinum for shipments to retailers of more than 600 @,@ 000 copies . As of July 2007 , it had sold roughly 827 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The record was certified two times platinum in Australia for more than 140 @,@ 000 units shipped ; it reached number four there and was placed forty @-@ fourth on the Australian Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) list of 2006 bestsellers . The album entered the chart in Germany at number one , spent a record forty @-@ nine weeks in the German top ten , and was certified five times platinum . Loose reached number one on the European Top 100 Albums chart in early 2007 , spending ten non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one . By March 2007 , it had been certified gold or platinum in twenty @-@ five countries . According to a Geffen Records press release , Loose had sold more than seven million copies by November 2007 . = = Critical reception = = Loose received generally positive reviews from music critics ; it holds an average score of 71 out of 100 at aggregate website Metacritic . AllMusic and musicOMH cited the " revitalising " effect of Timbaland on Furtado 's music , and The Guardian called it " slick , smart and surprising . " Q found most of it to be " an inventive , hip @-@ hop @-@ inflected delight . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that " the music and the lyrics are mainly aimed at dance floors , and yet this album keeps reminding listeners that a dance floor is one of the most complicated places on earth . " In its review , AllMusic wrote " It 's on this final stretch of the album that the Furtado and Timbaland pairing seems like a genuine collaboration , staying true to the Nelly of her first two albums , but given an adventurous production that helps open her songs up ... Timbaland has revitalized Nelly Furtado both creatively and commercially with Loose " . She won her first BRIT Award — Best International Female — in 2007 . In a mixed review , Nick Catucci of The Village Voice felt that Furtado " sauces up a bit too luridly " and lacks " chemistry " with Timbaland , writing that Loose " isn 't a love child , but a bump @-@ and @-@ grind that never finds a groove " . Vibe stated , " she loses herself in Gwen Stefani – like posturing , as on “ Glow , ” and ethnic fusions like “ No Hay Igual ” or “ Te Busqué . " In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau gave the album a " B " and named it " dud of the month " , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought . " Christgau viewed that its dance @-@ oriented tracks " might accomplish God 's great plan on the dance @-@ floor . But as songs they 're not much " . = = Impact = = Considerable attention was generated by the more sexual image of Furtado presented in promotion and publicity for the album , and in particular the music videos for " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " , in which she dances around with her midriff exposed . According to Maclean 's magazine , some said that Furtado 's progression was a natural transformation of a pop singer ; others believed that she had " sold out " in an effort to garner record sales , particularly after her second album was a commercial failure in comparison to her first . Maclean 's wrote that her makeover " seems a bit forced " and contrasted her with singers such as Madonna and Emily Haines of Metric : " [ they ] seem to be completely in control , even somewhat intimidating in their sexuality : they 've made a calculated decision for commercial and feminist reasons . In contrast , Furtado 's new , overt sexuality comes off as unoriginal — overdone by thousands of pouty pop stars with a quarter of Furtado 's natural talent ... the revamping feels as if it 's been imposed rather than chosen by the unique , articulate singer we 've seen in the past . " Dose magazine wrote that Furtado 's new " highly sexualized " image was manufactured , and noted the involvement in the album 's development of Geffen 's Jimmy Iovine , who helped to develop the Pussycat Dolls , a girl group known for their sexually suggestive dance routines . The writer also criticised Furtado 's discussion of her buttocks and apparent rejection of feminism in a Blender magazine interview , writing : " Girls , do you hear that churning ? Those are the ideas of Gloria Steinem turning in their grave . " A writer for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation said that cynics could attribute Furtado 's commercial success with Loose to her " amped @-@ up sex appeal . " The writer added that , the failure of Janet Jackson 's album Damita Jo ( 2004 ) indicated such a move was not infallible . Furtado was " still demure compared to many of her competitors " — she avoided sporting lingerie or performing " Christina Aguilera @-@ style gyrations or calisthenics " in the " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " videos . " Despite its dramatic arrival ... Furtado 's new image doesn ’ t feel calculated " , he said . " [ She ] seems to be thinking less and feeling more , to the benefit of her music . " In early 2007 , a video hosted on YouTube led to reports that the song " Do It " , and the Timbaland @-@ produced ringtone " Block Party " that inspired it , used — without authorization — the melody from Finnish demoscene musician Janne " Tempest " Suni 's song " Acidjazzed Evening " , winner of the Assembly 2000 oldskool music competition . Timbaland used the record of C64 adaptation of the song written by Glenn Rune Gallefoss ( GRG ) . Timbaland admitted sampling the song , but said that he had no time to research its intellectual owner . Hannu Sormunen , a Finnish representative of Universal which represents Nelly Furtado in Finland , commented the controversy as follows in the 15 January 2007 issue of Iltalehti ; " In case that the artist decides to pursue the matter further , it 's on him to go to America and confront them with the local use of law . It will require a considerable amount of faith and , of course , money . " On 9 February 2007 , Timbaland commented on the issue in an MTV interview : " It makes me laugh . The part I don 't understand , the dude is trying to act like I went to his house and took it from his computer . I don 't know him from a can of paint . I 'm 15 years deep . That 's how you attack a king ? You attack moi ? Come on , man . You got to come correct . You the laughing stock . People are like , ' You can 't be serious . ' " On 12 June 2009 , Mikko Välimäki , who is one of the legal counsels of Kernel Records , the owner of the sound recording rights , reported that the case had been filed in Florida . In January 2008 , Turkish newspapers reported that Kalan Müzik , the record label that released Turkish folk singer Muhlis Akarsu 's album Ya Dost Ya Dost , pressed charges against Furtado for the Loose track " Wait for You " , which label officials said features the bağlama instrumental part of Akarsu 's song " Allah Allah Desem Gelsem . " = = Track listing = = = = = Reissues = = = Notes ^ a signifies a vocal producer = = Personnel = = = = = Production = = = Credits adapted from the Loose liner notes . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =

= 2013 – 14 York City F.C. season = The 2013 – 14 season was the 92nd season of competitive association football and 77th season in the Football League played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their 17th @-@ place finish in 2012 – 13 meant it was their second consecutive season in League Two . The season ran from 1 July 2013 to 30 June 2014 . Nigel Worthington , starting his first full season as York manager , made eight permanent summer signings . By the turn of the year York were only above the relegation zone on goal difference , before a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run saw the team finish in seventh @-@ place in the 24 @-@ team 2013 – 14 Football League Two . This meant York qualified for the play @-@ offs , and they were eliminated in the semi @-@ final by Fleetwood Town . York were knocked out of the 2013 – 14 FA Cup , Football League Cup and Football League Trophy in their opening round matches . 35 players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were 12 different goalscorers . Defender Ben Davies missed only five of the fifty @-@ two competitive matches played over the season . Wes Fletcher finished as leading scorer with 13 goals , of which 10 came in league competition and three came in the FA Cup . The winner of the Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Lanre Oyebanjo . = = Background and pre @-@ season = = The 2012 – 13 season was York City 's first season back in the Football League , having won the Conference Premier play @-@ offs in 2011 – 12 after eights years in the Football Conference . Manager Gary Mills was sacked in March 2013 following an 11 @-@ match run without a victory , and was replaced by former Northern Ireland manager Nigel Worthington . Despite being in the relegation zone with three matches remaining , Worthington led the team to safety from relegation after a 1 – 0 win away to Dagenham & Redbridge on the final day of the season . York finished the season in 17th @-@ place in the 2012 – 13 League Two table . Following the previous season 's conclusion Lee Bullock , Jon Challinor , Chris Doig , Ben Everson , Scott Kerr , David McDaid , Patrick McLaughlin , Michael Potts , Jamie Reed and Jason Walker were released by York , while Matty Blair departed for Fleetwood Town . David McGurk , Lanre Oyebanjo , Danny Parslow , Tom Platt and Chris Smith signed new contracts with the club . New players signed ahead of the start of the season were goalkeeper Chris Kettings on a season @-@ long loan from Blackpool , defender Ben Davies on loan from Preston North End , midfielders Craig Clay from Chesterfield and Lewis Montrose from Gillingham , winger Sander Puri from St Mirren and strikers Ryan Bowman from Hereford United , Richard Cresswell from Sheffield United , Wes Fletcher from Burnley and Ryan Jarvis from Torquay United . Defender Mike Atkinson and striker Chris Dickinson entered the first @-@ team squad from the youth team after agreeing professional contracts . York retained the previous season 's home and away kits . The home kit comprised red shirts with white sleeves , light blue shorts and white socks . The away kit included light blue shirts with white sleeves , white shorts and light blue socks . Benenden Health continued as shirt sponsors for the second successive season . = = Review = = = = = August = = = York began the season with a 1 – 0 home win over the previous season 's play @-@ off finalists , Northampton Town , with debutant Jarvis scoring the winning goal in the 90th @-@ minute . However , defeat came in York 's match against Championship side Burnley in the first round of the League Cup , going down 4 – 0 at home . The team endured their first league defeat of the season in the following game after being beaten 2 – 0 away by Dagenham & Redbridge , the home team scoring in each half . York then held Hartlepool United to a 0 – 0 home draw , before being beaten 3 – 2 away by Bristol Rovers , in which Jarvis scored twice before John @-@ Joe O 'Toole scored the winning goal for the home team in the 67th @-@ minute . Two signings were made shortly before the transfer deadline ; defender George Taft was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Leicester City , while Middlesbrough midfielder Ryan Brobbel joined on a one @-@ month loan . Midfielder John McReady , who had been told he had no future with the club , departed after signing for FC Halifax Town . Jarvis gave York the lead away at Exeter City before Alan Gow scored in each half to see the home team win 2 – 1 . = = = September = = = York suffered their first home league defeat of the season after AFC Wimbledon won 2 – 0 , with Michael Smith scoring in each half . Former Ipswich Town midfielder Josh Carson , who had a spell on loan with York the previous season , signed a contract until the end of 2013 – 14 and Sheffield United midfielder Elliott Whitehouse signed on a one @-@ month loan . Brobbel opened the scoring in the second minute of his home debut against Mansfield Town , although the away team went on to score twice to win 2 – 1 . York 's run of four defeats ended following a 1 – 1 draw away to Wycombe Wanderers , in which McGurk gave York the lead before the home team levelled through Dean Morgan . Taft was sent back to Leicester after he fell behind McGurk , Parslow and Smith in the pecking order for a central defensive berth . York achieved their first win since the opening day of the season after beating Portsmouth 4 – 2 at home , with Fletcher ( 2 ) , Montrose and Jarvis scoring . = = = October = = = Defender Luke O 'Neill was signed from Burnley on a 28 @-@ day emergency loan . He made his debut in York 's 3 – 0 win away at Torquay , which was the team 's first successive win of the season . York were knocked out of the Football League Trophy in the second round after being beaten 3 – 0 at home by League One team Rotherham United , before their winning streak in the league was ended with a 3 – 0 defeat away to Newport County . York drew 2 – 2 away to Chesterfield , having taken a two @-@ goal lead through O 'Neill and Jarvis , before the home team fought back through Armand Gnanduillet and Jay O 'Shea . The team then hosted Fleetwood Town , and the visitors won 2 – 0 with goals scored in each half by Gareth Evans and Jamille Matt . Scunthorpe United were beaten 4 – 1 at home to end York 's three @-@ match run without a win , with all the team 's goals coming in the first half from Carson , Fletcher and Brobbel ( 2 ) . = = = November = = = Bowman scored his first goals for York away to Cheltenham Town , as York twice fought back from behind to draw 2 – 2 . York drew 3 – 3 away to Bristol Rovers to earn a first round replay in the FA Cup , taking the lead through Jarvis before Eliot Richards equalised for the home team . Carson scored a 30 yard volley to put York back in the lead , and after Bristol Rovers goals from Matt Harrold and Chris Beardsley , Fletcher scored an 86th @-@ minute equaliser for York . Bowman scored with a header from an O 'Neill cross to open the scoring at home to Plymouth Argyle , which was the first goal the visitors had conceded in 500 minutes of action . However , Plymouth equalised 11 minutes later through Tope Obadeyi and the match finished a 1 – 1 draw . York were knocked out of the FA Cup after losing 3 – 2 at home to Bristol Rovers in a first round replay ; the visitors were 3 – 0 up by 50 @-@ minutes before Fletcher pulled two back for York with a penalty and a long @-@ range strike . Defender Keith Lowe , of Cheltenham , and goalkeeper Nick Pope , of Charlton Athletic , were signed on loan until January 2014 . They both played in York 's first league defeat in four weeks , 2 – 1 away , to Southend United . Kevan Hurst gave Southend the lead early into the match and Bowman equalised for York with a low strike during the second half , before Luke Prosser scored the winning goal for the home side in stoppage time . With Pope preferred in goal , Kettings returned to Blackpool on his own accord , although his loan agreement would stay in place until January 2014 . York then drew 0 – 0 away to Morecambe . After Pope was recalled from his loan by Charlton , York signed Wolverhampton Wanderers goalkeeper Aaron McCarey on loan until January 2014 . McCarey kept a clean sheet in York 's 0 – 0 home draw with Rochdale . = = = December = = = Cresswell retired from playing as a result of an eye complaint and a knee injury . York drew 1 – 1 away to Burton Albion , with an own goal scored by Shane Cansdell @-@ Sherriff giving York the lead in the 64th @-@ minute before the home team equalised eight minutes later through Billy Kee . Atkinson was released after failing to force himself into the first team and signed for Scarborough Athletic , with whom he had been on loan . York drew 0 – 0 at home with second @-@ placed Oxford United , in which Carson came closest to scoring with a volley that flashed across the face of the goal . This was followed by another draw after the match away to Accrington Stanley finished 1 – 1 , with the home team equalising 10 minutes after a Fletcher penalty had given York the lead in the 35th @-@ minute . Striker Shaq McDonald , who had been released by Peterborough United , was signed on a contract until the end of the season . York 's last match of 2013 was a 2 – 1 defeat away at Bury , a result that ended York 's run of consecutive draws at five . The home team were 2 – 0 up by the 19th @-@ minute , before Michael Coulson scored York 's goal in the 73rd @-@ minute . This result meant York would begin 2014 in 22nd @-@ position in the table , only out of the relegation zone on goal difference . = = = January = = = Jarvis scored the only goal in York 's first win since October 2013 , a 1 – 0 home victory over Morecambe on New Year 's Day . McCarey was recalled by Wolverhampton Wanderers due to an injury to one of their goalkeepers , while O 'Neill was recalled by Burnley to take part in their FA Cup match . York achieved back @-@ to @-@ back wins for the first time since October 2013 after Dagenham & Redbridge were beaten 3 – 1 at home , with Bowman opening the scoring in the second half before Fletcher scored twice . Adam Reed , who had a spell on loan with York in the previous season , was signed on a contract until the end of the season after parting company with Burton . Davies ' loan was extended , while Brobbel and Whitehouse returned to their parent clubs . Cheltenham club captain Russell Penn , a midfielder , was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Lowe was subsequently signed permanently from Cheltenham on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Having been allowed to leave the club on a free transfer , Ashley Chambers signed for Conference Premier club Cambridge United . York achieved three successive wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 after beating Northampton 2 – 0 away , with Bowman and Fletcher scoring in three @-@ second half minutes . Defender John McCombe was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract following his release from Mansfield , before Clay and Jamal Fyfield left York by mutual consent . Pope returned to York on loan from Charlton for the remainder of the season . York 's run of wins ended with a 0 – 0 draw at home to Bristol Rovers , before their first defeat of the year came after losing 2 – 0 away to Hartlepool . Preston winger Will Hayhurst , a Republic of Ireland under @-@ 21 international , was signed on a one @-@ month loan . York fell to a successive defeat for the first time since September 2013 after being beaten 2 – 0 at home by Chesterfield . Shortly after the match , Smith left the club by mutual consent to pursue first @-@ team football . = = = February = = = Fletcher scored a 90th @-@ minute winner for York away to Fleetwood in a 2 – 1 win , a result that ended Fleetwood 's five @-@ match unbeaten run . York then drew 0 – 0 at home to fellow mid @-@ table team Cheltenham , before beating Plymouth 4 – 0 away with goals from Fletcher , McCombe ( 2 ) and Carson as the team achieved successive away wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 . York went without scoring for a fourth consecutive home match after drawing 0 – 0 with Southend . Having worn the armband since an injury to McGurk , Penn was appointed captain for the rest of the season , a position that had earlier been held by Smith and Parslow . = = = March = = = York achieved their first home win in five matches after beating Exeter 2 – 1 , with first half goals scored by McCombe and Coulson . Hayhurst 's loan was extended to the end of the season , having impressed in his six appearances for the club . Coulson scored again with the only goal , a 41st @-@ minute header , in York 's 1 – 0 away win over AFC Wimbledon . Bowman scored the only goal with a 32nd @-@ minute penalty as York won 1 – 0 away against Mansfield , in which Fletcher missed the opportunity to extend the lead when his stoppage time penalty was saved by Alan Marriott . York moved one place outside the play @-@ offs with a 2 – 0 home win over Wycombe , courtesy of a second Bowman penalty in as many matches and a Carson goal from the edge of the penalty area . Coulson scored York 's only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over struggling Portsmouth with a low volley in the fifth @-@ minute ; this result meant York moved into the play @-@ offs in seventh @-@ place with eight fixtures remaining . Striker Calvin Andrew , who had been released by Mansfield in January 2014 , was signed on a contract for the remainder of the season . He made his debut as a substitute in York 's 1 – 0 home win over bottom of the table Torquay , in which Hayhurst scored the only goal in the 11th @-@ minute with an 18 yard shot that deflected off Aaron Downes . Middlesbrough winger Brobbel rejoined on loan until the end of the season , following an injury to Carson . York 's run of successive wins ended on six matches after a 0 – 0 home draw with Burton , and this result saw York drop out of the play @-@ offs in eighth @-@ place . With the team recording six wins and one draw in March 2014 , including six clean sheets , Worthington was named League Two Manager of the Month . = = = April = = = Pope made a number of saves as York held league leaders Rochdale to a 0 – 0 away draw , with a point being enough to lift the team back into seventh @-@ place . York were prevented from equalling a club record of eight consecutive clean sheets when Accrington scored a stoppage time equaliser in a 1 – 1 home draw , in which York had taken earlier taken the lead with a Coulson penalty . A 1 – 0 win away win over Oxford , which was decided by a second half Coulson penalty , resulted in York moving one place above their opponents and back into seventh @-@ place . York consolidated their place in a play @-@ off position after beating Bury 1 – 0 at home with a fifth @-@ minute goal scored by Lowe from a Hayhurst corner . The result meant York opened up a five @-@ point lead over eighth @-@ placed Oxford with two fixtures remaining . A place in the League Two play @-@ offs was secured following a 1 – 0 win over Newport at home , in which Coulson scored the only goal in the 77th @-@ minute with a 25 yard free kick . Pope earned a nomination for League Two Player of the Month for April 2014 , having conceded only one goal in five matches in that period . = = = May = = = The league season concluded with an away match against divisional runners @-@ up Scunthorpe ; having gone two goals down York fought back to draw 2 – 2 with goals scored by Brobbel and Andrew . This result meant York finished the season in seventh @-@ place in League Two , and would thus play fourth @-@ placed Fleetwood in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final on the back of a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run . York lost 1 – 0 to Fleetwood in the first leg at Bootham Crescent ; the goal came from former York player Matty Blair in the 50th @-@ minute , who scored from close range after Antoni Sarcevic 's shot was blocked on the line . A 0 – 0 draw away to Fleetwood in the second leg meant York were eliminated 1 – 0 on aggregate , ending the prospect of a second promotion in three seasons . At an awards night held at York Racecourse , Oyebanjo was voted Clubman of the Year for 2013 – 14 . = = Summary and aftermath = = York mostly occupied the bottom half of the table before the turn of the year , and dropped as low as 23rd in September 2013 . During February 2014 the team broke into the top half of the table and with one match left were in sixth @-@ place . York 's defensive record was the third best in League Two with 41 goals conceded , bettered only by Southend ( 39 ) and Chesterfield ( 40 ) . Davies made the highest number of appearances over the season , appearing in 47 of York 's 52 matches . Fletcher was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with 10 league goals and 13 in total . He was the only player to reach double figures , and was followed by Jarvis with nine goals . After the season ended York released Tom Allan , Andrew , Dickinson , McDonald , Puri and Reed , while McGurk retired from professional football . Bowman and Oyebanjo left to sign for Torquay and Crawley Town respectively while Coulson signed a new contract with the club . York 's summer signings included goalkeeper Jason Mooney from Tranmere Rovers , defenders Femi Ilesanmi from Dagenham , Marvin McCoy from Wycombe and Dave Winfield from Shrewsbury Town , midfielders Lindon Meikle from Mansfield , Anthony Straker from Southend and Luke Summerfield from Shrewsbury and striker Jake Hyde from Barnet . = = Match details = = League positions are sourced by Statto , while the remaining information is referenced individually . = = = Football League Two = = = = = = League table ( part ) = = = = = = FA Cup = = = = = = League Cup = = = = = = Football League Trophy = = = = = = Football League Two play @-@ offs = = = = = Transfers = = = = = In = = = Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York . = = = Out = = = Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired . = = = Loan in = = = = = = Loan out = = = = = Appearances and goals = = Source : Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season . Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York . Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes . Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward

= Antimony = Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb ( from Latin : stibium ) and atomic number 51 . A lustrous gray metalloid , it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) . Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were used for cosmetics ; metallic antimony was also known , but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery . In the West , it was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio and described in 1540 , although in primitive cultures its powder has been used to cure eye ailments , as also for eye shadow , since time immemorial , and is often referred to by its Arabic name , kohl . For some time , China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds , with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan . The industrial methods to produce antimony are roasting and reduction using carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron . The largest applications for metallic antimony are as alloying material for lead and tin and for lead antimony plates in lead – acid batteries . Alloying lead and tin with antimony improves the properties of the alloys which are used in solders , bullets and plain bearings . Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine @-@ containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products . An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics . = = Characteristics = = = = = Properties = = = Antimony is in the nitrogen group ( group 15 ) and has an electronegativity of 2 @.@ 05 . As expected from periodic trends , it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth , and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic . Antimony is stable in air at room temperature , but reacts with oxygen if heated , to form antimony trioxide , Sb2O3 . Antimony is a silvery , lustrous gray metalloid that has a Mohs scale hardness of 3 . Thus pure antimony is too soft to make hard objects ; coins made of antimony were issued in China 's Guizhou province in 1931 , but because of their rapid wear , their minting was discontinued . Antimony is resistant to attack by acids . Four allotropes of antimony are known : a stable metallic form and three metastable forms ( explosive , black and yellow ) . Elemental antimony is a brittle , silver @-@ white shiny metalloid . When slowly cooled , molten antimony crystallizes in a trigonal cell , isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic . A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride . When scratched with a sharp implement , an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony is formed ; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar , a strong detonation occurs . Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of vapor derived from metallic antimony . It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic , it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously . At 100 ° C , it gradually transforms into the stable form . The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable . It has only been generated by oxidation of stibine ( SbH3 ) at − 90 ° C. Above this temperature and in ambient light , this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope . Elemental antimony adopts a layered structure ( space group R3m No. 166 ) in which layers consist of fused ruffled six @-@ membered rings . The nearest and next @-@ nearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex , with the three atoms in the same double layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next . This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6 @.@ 697 g / cm3 , but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony . = = = Isotopes = = = Antimony has two stable isotopes : 121Sb with a natural abundance of 57 @.@ 36 % and 123Sb with a natural abundance of 42 @.@ 64 % . It also has 35 radioisotopes , of which the longest @-@ lived is 125Sb with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 75 years . In addition , 29 metastable states have been characterized . The most stable of these is 120m1Sb with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 76 days . Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123Sb tend to decay by β + decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β − decay , with some exceptions . = = = Occurrence = = = The abundance of antimony in the Earth 's crust is estimated at 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 5 parts per million , comparable to thallium at 0 @.@ 5 parts per million and silver at 0 @.@ 07 ppm . Even though this element is not abundant , it is found in over 100 mineral species . Antimony is sometimes found natively ( e.g. on Antimony Peak ) , but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) which is the predominant ore mineral . = = Compounds = = Antimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state : Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) . The + 5 oxidation state is more stable . = = = Oxides and hydroxides = = = Antimony trioxide ( Sb 4O 6 ) is formed when antimony is burnt in air . In the gas phase , this compound exists as Sb 4O 6 , but it polymerizes upon condensing . Antimony pentoxide ( Sb 4O 10 ) can only be formed by oxidation by concentrated nitric acid . Antimony also forms a mixed @-@ valence oxide , antimony tetroxide ( Sb 2O 4 ) , which features both Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) . Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic , these various oxides are amphoteric , do not form well @-@ defined oxoacids and react with acids to form antimony salts . Antimonous acid Sb ( OH ) 3 is unknown , but the conjugate base sodium antimonite ( [ Na 3SbO 3 ] 4 ) forms upon fusing sodium oxide and Sb 4O 6 . Transition metal antimonites are also known . Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate HSb ( OH ) 6 , forming salts containing the antimonate anion Sb ( OH ) − 6 . Dehydrating metal salts containing this anion yields mixed oxides . Many antimony ores are sulfides , including stibnite ( Sb 2S 3 ) , pyrargyrite ( Ag 3SbS 3 ) , zinkenite , jamesonite , and boulangerite . Antimony pentasulfide is non @-@ stoichiometric and features antimony in the + 3 oxidation state and S @-@ S bonds . Several thioantimonides are known , such as [ Sb 6S 10 ] 2 − and [ Sb 8S 13 ] 2 − . = = = Halides = = = Antimony forms two series of halides : SbX 3 and SbX 5 . The trihalides SbF 3 , SbCl 3 , SbBr 3 , and SbI 3 are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry . The trifluoride SbF 3 is prepared by the reaction of Sb 2O 3 with HF : Sb 2O 3 + 6 HF → 2 SbF 3 + 3 H 2O It is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions SbF − 4 and SbF2 − 5 . Molten SbF 3 is a weak electrical conductor . The trichloride SbCl 3 is prepared by dissolving Sb 2S 3 in hydrochloric acid : Sb 2S 3 + 6 HCl → 2 SbCl 3 + 3 H 2S The pentahalides SbF 5 and SbCl 5 have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase , but in the liquid phase , SbF 5 is polymeric , whereas SbCl 5 is monomeric . SbF 5 is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid ( " H2SbF7 " ) . Oxyhalides are more common for antimony than arsenic and phosphorus . Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as SbOCl and ( SbO ) 2SO 4 . = = = Antimonides , hydrides , and organoantimony compounds = = = Compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb3 − . Antimony forms antimonides with metals , such as indium antimonide ( InSb ) and silver antimonide ( Ag 3Sb ) . The alkali metal and zinc antimonides , such as Na3Sb and Zn3Sb2 , are more reactive . Treating these antimonides with acid produces the unstable gas stibine , SbH 3 : Sb3 − + 3 H + → SbH 3 Stibine can also be produced by treating Sb3 + salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride.Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature . Because stibine has a positive heat of formation , it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly . Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents . A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) centers , including mixed chloro @-@ organic derivatives , anions , and cations . Examples include Sb ( C6H5 ) 3 ( triphenylstibine ) , Sb2 ( C6H5 ) 4 ( with an Sb @-@ Sb bond ) , and cyclic [ Sb ( C6H5 ) ] n . Pentacoordinated organoantimony compounds are common , examples being Sb ( C6H5 ) 5 and several related halides . = = History = = Antimony ( III ) sulfide , Sb2S3 , was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic ( kohl ) as early as about 3100 BC , when the cosmetic palette was invented . An artifact , said to be part of a vase , made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh , Chaldea ( part of present @-@ day Iraq ) , and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt . Austen , at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892 commented that " we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal , which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase , and therefore this remarkable ' find ' ( artifact mentioned above ) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable . " Moorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase , mentioning that Selimkhanov , after his analysis of the Tello object ( published in 1975 ) , " attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony " ( i.e. native metal ) and that " the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments . " This weakens the evidence for a lost art " of rendering antimony malleable . " The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History . Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between " male " and " female " forms of antimony ; the male form is probably the sulfide , while the female form , which is superior , heavier , and less friable , has been suspected to be native metallic antimony . The Roman naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air . It is thought that this produced metallic antimony . The first description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the book De la pirotechnia of 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio ; this predates the more famous 1556 book by Agricola , De re metallica . In this context Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony . The book Currus Triumphalis Antimonii ( The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony ) , describing the preparation of metallic antimony , was published in Germany in 1604 . It was purported to have been written by a Benedictine monk , writing under the name Basilius Valentinus , in the 15th century ; if it were authentic , which it is not , it would predate Biringuccio . The metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas Libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide , salt and potassium tartrate . This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface . With the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides , oxides , and other compounds , as is the case with other metals . The first natural occurrence of pure antimony in the Earth 's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783 ; the type @-@ sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala , Västmanland , Sweden . = = = Etymology = = = The ancient words for antimony mostly have , as their chief meaning , kohl , the sulfide of antimony . The Egyptians called antimony mśdmt ; in hieroglyphs , the vowels are uncertain , but there is an Arabic tradition that the word is ميسديميت mesdemet . The Greek word , στίμμι stimmi , is probably a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian stm and is used by Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC ; later Greeks also used στἰβι stibi , as did Celsus and Pliny , writing in Latin , in the first century AD . Pliny also gives the names stimi [ sic ] , larbaris , alabaster , and the " very common " platyophthalmos , " wide @-@ eye " ( from the effect of the cosmetic ) . Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as stibium . The Arabic word for the substance , as opposed to the cosmetic , can appear as إثمد ithmid , athmoud , othmod , or uthmod . Littré suggests the first form , which is the earliest , derives from stimmida , an accusative for stimmi . The use of Sb as the standard chemical symbol for antimony is due to Jöns Jakob Berzelius , who used this abbreviation of the name stibium . The medieval Latin form , from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony , is antimonium . The origin of this is uncertain ; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation . The popular etymology , from ἀντίμοναχός anti @-@ monachos or French antimoine , still has adherents ; this would mean " monk @-@ killer " , and is explained by many early alchemists being monks , and antimony being poisonous . Another popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος antimonos , " against aloneness " , explained as " not found as metal " , or " not found unalloyed " . Lippmann conjectured a hypothetical Greek word ανθήμόνιον anthemonion , which would mean " floret " , and cites several examples of related Greek words ( but not that one ) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence . The early uses of antimonium include the translations , in 1050 – 1100 , by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises . Several authorities believe antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form ; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid ; other possibilities include athimar , the Arabic name of the metalloid , and a hypothetical as @-@ stimmi , derived from or parallel to the Greek . = = Production = = = = = Top producers and production volumes = = = The British Geological Survey ( BGS ) reported that in 2005 , China was the top producer of antimony with an approximately 84 % world share , followed at a distance by South Africa , Bolivia and Tajikistan . Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan province has the largest deposits in China with an estimated deposit of 2 @.@ 1 million metric tons . In 2010 , according to the US Geological Survey , China accounted for 88 @.@ 9 % of total antimony production with South Africa , Bolivia and Russia sharing the second place . However , Roskill Consulting estimates for primary production show that in 2010 China held a 76 @.@ 75 % share of world supply with 120 @,@ 462 tonnes ( 90 @,@ 000 tonnes of reported and 30 @,@ 464 tonnes of un @-@ reported production ) , followed by Russia ( 4 @.@ 14 % share , 6 @,@ 500 tonnes of production ) , Myanmar ( 3 @.@ 76 % share , 5 @,@ 897 tonnes ) , Canada ( 3 @.@ 61 % share , 5 @,@ 660 tonnes ) , Tajikistan ( 3 @.@ 42 % share , 5 @,@ 370 tonnes ) and Bolivia ( 3 @.@ 17 % share , 4 @,@ 980 tonnes ) . Roskill estimates that secondary production globally in 2010 was 39 @,@ 540 tonnes . Antimony was ranked first in a Risk List published by the British Geological Survey in the second half of 2011 . The list provides an indication of the relative risk to the supply of chemical elements or element groups required to maintain the current British economy and lifestyle . Also , antimony was identified as one of 12 critical raw materials for the EU in a report published in 2011 , primarily due to the lack of supply outside China . Reported production of antimony in China fell in 2010 and is unlikely to increase in the coming years , according to the Roskill report . No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years , and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted . The world 's largest antimony producers , according to Roskill , are listed below : = = = Reserves = = = According to statistics from the USGS , current global reserves of antimony will be depleted in 13 years . However , the USGS expects more resources will be found . = = = Production process = = = The extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality of the ore and composition of the ore . Most antimony is mined as the sulfide ; lower @-@ grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation , while higher @-@ grade ores are heated to 500 – 600 ° C , the temperature at which stibnite melts and is separated from the gangue minerals . Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by a reduction with scrap iron : Sb 2S 3 + 3 Fe → 2 Sb + 3 FeS The sulfide is converted to an oxide and advantage is often taken of the volatility of antimony ( III ) oxide , which is recovered from roasting . This material is often used directly for the main applications , impurities being arsenic and sulfide . Isolating antimony from its oxide is performed by a carbothermal reduction : 2 Sb 2O 3 + 3 C → 4 Sb + 3 CO 2 The lower @-@ grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher @-@ grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces . = = Applications = = About 60 % of antimony is consumed in flame retardants , and 20 % is used in alloys for batteries , plain bearings and solders . = = = Flame retardants = = = Antimony is mainly used as its trioxide in making flame @-@ proofing compounds . It is nearly always used in combination with halogenated flame retardants , with the only exception being in halogen @-@ containing polymers . The formation of halogenated antimony compounds is the cause for the flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide , due to reaction of these compounds with hydrogen atoms and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals , thus inhibiting fire . Markets for these flame @-@ retardant applications include children 's clothing , toys , aircraft and automobile seat covers . It is also used in the fiberglass composites industry as an additive to polyester resins for such items as light aircraft engine covers . The resin will burn while a flame is held to it but will extinguish itself as soon as the flame is removed . = = = Alloys = = = Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead , increasing its hardness and mechanical strength . For most applications involving lead , varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal . In lead – acid batteries , this addition improves the charging characteristics and reduces generation of unwanted hydrogen during charging . It is used in antifriction alloys ( such as Babbitt metal ) , in bullets and lead shot , cable sheathing , type metal ( for example , for linotype printing machines ) , solder ( some " lead @-@ free " solders contain 5 % Sb ) , in pewter , and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes . = = = Other applications = = = Three other applications make up nearly all the rest of the consumption . One of these uses is as a stabilizer and a catalyst for the production of polyethyleneterephthalate . Another application is to serve as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass , mostly for TV screens ; this is achieved by the interaction of antimony ions with oxygen , interfering the latter from forming bubbles . The third major application is the use as pigment . Antimony is being increasingly used in the semiconductor industry as a dopant for heavily doped n @-@ type silicon wafers in the production of diodes , infrared detectors , and Hall @-@ effect devices . In the 1950s , tiny beads of a lead @-@ antimony alloy were used to dope the emitters and collectors of n @-@ p @-@ n alloy junction transistors with antimony . Indium antimonide is used as a material for mid @-@ infrared detectors . Few biological or medical applications exist for antimony . Treatments principally containing antimony are known as antimonials and are used as emetics . Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs . Potassium antimonyl tartrate , or tartar emetic , was once used as an anti @-@ schistosomal drug from 1919 on . It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel . Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations like anthiomaline or lithium antimony thiomalate , which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants . Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues , at least in animals . Antimony @-@ based drugs , such as meglumine antimoniate , are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals . Unfortunately , as well as having low therapeutic indices , the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow , where some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside , and so cure of the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult . Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine . It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination . In the heads of some safety matches , antimony ( III ) sulfide is used . Antimony @-@ 124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources ; the gamma rays emitted by antimony @-@ 124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium . The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV . Antimony sulfides have been shown to help stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials . Antimony also is used in the making of bullets and bullet tracers . This element is also used in paint and glass art crafts and as opacifier in enamel . = = Precautions = = The effects of antimony and its compounds on human and environmental health differ widely . The massive antimony metal does not affect human and environmental health . Inhalation of antimony trioxide ( and similar poorly soluble Sb ( III ) dust particles such as antimony dust ) is considered harmful and suspected of causing cancer . However , these effects are only observed with female rats and after long @-@ term exposure to high dust concentrations . The effects are hypothesized to be attributed to inhalation of poorly soluble Sb particles leading to impaired lung clearance , lung overload , inflammation and ultimately tumour formation , not to exposure to antimony ions ( OECD , 2008 ) . Antimony chlorides are corrosive to skin . The effects of antimony are not comparable to arsenic ; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake , metabolism and excretion between arsenic and antimony . For oral absorption , ICRP ( 1994 ) recommended values of 10 % for tartar emetic and 1 % for all other antimony compounds . Dermal absorption for metals is estimated at most 1 % ( HERAG , 2007 ) . Inhalation absorption of antimony trioxide and other poorly soluble Sb ( III ) substances ( such as antimony dust ) is estimated at 6 @.@ 8 % ( OECD , 2008 ) , whereas a value < 1 % is derived for Sb ( V ) substances . Antimony ( V ) is not quantitatively reduced to antimony ( III ) in the cell , and both species exist simultaneously . Antimony is mainly excreted from the human body via urine . Antimony and its compounds do not cause acute human health effects , with the exception of antimony potassium tartrate ( " tartar emetic " ) , a prodrug that is intentionally used to treat leishmaniasis patients . Prolonged skin contact with antimony dust may cause dermatitis . However , it was agreed at the European Union level that the skin rashes observed are not substance @-@ specific , but most probably due to a physical blocking of sweat ducts ( ECHA / PR / 09 / 09 , Helsinki , 6 July 2009 ) . Antimony dust may also be explosive when dispersed in the air ; when in a bulk solid it is not combustible . Antimony is incompatible with strong acids , halogenated acids , and oxidizers ; when exposed to newly formed hydrogen it may form stibine ( SbH3 ) . The 8 hour time weighted average ( TWA ) is set at 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) as a legal permissible exposure limit ( PEL ) in the workplace . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 as an 8 hour TWA . Antimony compounds are used as catalysts for polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) production . Some studies report minor antimony leaching from PET bottles into liquids , but levels are below drinking water guidelines . Antimony concentrations in fruit juice concentrates were somewhat higher ( up to 44 @.@ 7 µg / L of antimony ) , but juices do not fall under the drinking water regulations . The drinking water guidelines are : World Health Organization : 20 µg / L Japan : 15 µg / L United States Environmental Protection Agency , Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment : 6 µg / L EU and German Federal Ministry of Environment : 5 µg / L The TDI proposed by WHO is 6 µg antimony per kilogram of body weight . The IDLH ( immediately dangerous to life and health ) value for antimony is 50 mg / m3 .

= Mortimer Wheeler = Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler CH , CIE , MC , TD , FSA , FRS , FBA ( 10 September 1890 – 22 July 1976 ) was a British archaeologist and officer in the British Army . Over the course of his career , he served as Director of both the National Museum of Wales and London Museum , Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , and the founder and Honorary Director of the Institute of Archaeology in London , further writing twenty @-@ four books on archaeological subjects . Born in Glasgow to a middle @-@ class family , Wheeler was raised largely in Yorkshire before relocating to London in his teenage years . After studying Classics at University College London ( UCL ) , he began working professionally in archaeology , specializing in the Romano @-@ British period . During World War I he volunteered for service in the Royal Artillery , being stationed on the Western Front , where he rose to the rank of major and was awarded the Military Cross . Returning to Britain , he obtained his doctorate from UCL before taking on a position at the National Museum of Wales , first as Keeper of Archaeology and then as Director , during which time he oversaw excavation at the Roman forts of Segontium , Y Gaer , and Isca Augusta with the aid of his first wife , Tessa Wheeler . Influenced by the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers , Wheeler argued that excavation and the recording of stratigraphic context required an increasingly scientific and methodical approach , developing the " Wheeler Method " . In 1926 , he was appointed Keeper of the London Museum ; there , he oversaw a reorganisation of the collection , successfully lobbied for increased funding , and began lecturing at UCL . In 1934 , he established the Institute of Archaeology as part of the federal University of London , adopting the position of Honorary Director . In this period , he oversaw excavations of the Roman sites at Lydney Park and Verulamium and the Iron Age hill fort of Maidan Castle . During World War II , he re @-@ joined the Armed Forces and rose to the rank of brigadier , serving in the North African Campaign and then the Allied invasion of Italy . In 1944 he was appointed Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , through which he oversaw excavations of sites at Harappa , Arikamedu , and Brahmagiri , and implemented reforms to the subcontinent 's archaeological establishment . Returning to Britain in 1948 , he divided his time between lecturing for the Institute of Archaeology and acting as archaeological adviser to Pakistan 's government . In later life , his popular books , cruise ship lectures , and appearances on radio and television , particularly the BBC series Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? , helped to bring archaeology to a mass audience . Appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , he raised large sums of money for archaeological projects , and was appointed British representative for several UNESCO projects . Wheeler is recognised as one of the most important British archaeologists of the twentieth century , responsible for successfully encouraging British public interest in the discipline and advancing methodologies of excavation and recording . Further , he is widely acclaimed as a major figure in the establishment of South Asian archaeology . However , many of his specific interpretations of archaeological sites have been discredited or reinterpreted , and he was often criticised for bullying colleagues and sexually harassing young women . = = Early life = = = = = Childhood : 1890 – 1907 = = = Mortimer Wheeler was born on 10 September 1890 in the city of Glasgow , Scotland . He was the first child of the journalist Robert Mortimer Wheeler and his second wife Emily Wheeler ( née Baynes ) . The son of a tea merchant based in Bristol , in youth Robert had considered becoming a Baptist minister , but instead became a staunch freethinker while studying at the University of Edinburgh . Initially working as a lecturer in English literature , Robert turned to journalism after his first wife died in childbirth . His second wife , Emily , shared her husband 's interest in English literature , and was the niece of Thomas Spencer Baynes , a Shakespearean scholar at St. Andrews University . Their marriage was emotionally strained , a situation exacerbated by their financial insecurity . Within two years of their son 's birth , the family moved to Edinburgh , where a daughter named Amy was born . The couple gave their two children nicknames , with Mortimer being " Boberic " and Amy being " Totsy " . When Wheeler was four , his father was appointed chief leader writer for the Bradford Observer . The family relocated to Saltaire , a village northwest of Bradford , a cosmopolitan city in Yorkshire , northeast England , which was then in the midst of the wool trade boom . Wheeler was inspired by the moors surrounding Saltaire and fascinated by the area 's archaeology . He later wrote about discovering a late prehistoric cup @-@ marked stone , searching for lithics on Ilkley Moor , and digging into a barrow on Baildon Moor . Although suffering from ill health , Emily Wheeler taught her two children with the help of a maid up to the age of seven or eight . Mortimer remained emotionally distant from his mother , instead being far closer to his father , whose company he favoured over that of other children . His father had a keen interest in natural history and a love of fishing and shooting , rural pursuits in which he encouraged Mortimer to take part . Robert acquired many books for his son , particularly on the subject of art history , with Wheeler loving to both read and paint . In 1899 , Wheeler joined Bradford Grammar School shortly before his ninth birthday , where he proceeded straight to the second form . In 1902 Robert and Emily had a second daughter , whom they named Betty ; Mortimer showed little interest in this younger sister . In 1905 , Robert agreed to take over as head of the London office of his newspaper , by then renamed the Yorkshire Daily Observer , and so the family relocated to the southeast of the city in December , settling into a house named Carlton Lodge on South Croydon Road , West Dulwich . In 1908 they moved to 14 Rollescourt Avenue in nearby Herne Hill . Rather than being sent for a conventional education , when he was 15 Wheeler was instructed to educate himself by spending time in London , where he frequented The National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum . = = = University and early career : 1907 – 14 = = = After passing the entrance exam on his second attempt , in 1907 Wheeler was awarded a scholarship to read classical studies at University College London ( UCL ) , commuting daily from his parental home to the university campus in Bloomsbury , central London . At UCL , he was taught by the prominent classicist A. E. Housman . During his undergraduate studies , he became editor of the Union Magazine , for which he produced a number of illustrated cartoons . Increasingly interested in art , he decided to switch from classical studies to a course at UCL 's art school , the Slade School of Fine Art ; he returned to his previous subject after coming to the opinion that – in his words – he never became more than " a conventionally accomplished picture maker " . This interlude had adversely affected his classical studies , and he received a second class BA on graduating . Wheeler began studying for a Master of Arts degree in classical studies , which he attained in 1912 . During this period , he also gained employment as the personal secretary of the UCL Provost Gregory Foster , although he later criticised Foster for transforming the university from " a college in the truly academic sense [ into ] a hypertrophied monstrosity as little like a college as a plesiosaurus is like a man " . It was also at this time of life that he met and began a relationship with Tessa Verney , a student then studying history at UCL , when they were both serving on the committee of the University College Literary Society . During his studies , Wheeler had developed his love of archaeology , having joined an excavation of Viroconium Cornoviorum , a Romano @-@ British settlement in Wroxeter , in 1913 . Considering a profession in the discipline , he won a studentship that had been established jointly by the University of London and the Society of Antiquaries in memory of Augustus Wollaston Franks . The prominent archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans doubled the amount of money that went with the studentship . Wheeler 's proposed project had been to analyse Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , and with the grant he funded a trip to the Rhineland in Germany , there studying the Roman pottery housed in local museums ; his research into this subject was never published . At this period , there were very few jobs available within British archaeology ; as the later archaeologist Stuart Piggott related , " the young Wheeler was looking for a professional job where the profession had yet to be created . " In 1913 Wheeler secured a position as junior investigator for the English Royal Commission on Historical Monuments , who were embarking on a project to assess the state of all structures in the nation that pre @-@ dated 1714 . As part of this , he was first sent to Stebbing in Essex to assess Late Medieval buildings , although once that was accomplished he focused on studying the Romano @-@ British remains of that county . In summer 1914 he married Tessa in a low @-@ key , secular wedding ceremony , before they moved into Wheeler 's parental home in Herne Hill . = = = First World War : 1914 – 18 = = = After the United Kingdom 's entry into World War I in 1914 , Wheeler volunteered for the armed forces . Although preferring solitary to group activities , Wheeler found that he greatly enjoyed soldiering . For the next seven months , he was posted as an instructor in the University of London Officer Training Corps . It was during this period , in January 1915 , that a son was born to the Wheelers , and named Michael . Michael was their only child , something that was a social anomaly at the time , although it is unknown if this was by choice or not . In May 1915 , Wheeler transferred to the Royal Field Artillery ( Territorial Force ) and shortly thereafter was appointed captain . In this position he was stationed at various bases across Britain , often bringing his wife and child with him ; his responsibility was as a battery commander , initially of field guns and later of howitzers . In October 1917 Wheeler was posted to the 76th Army Field Artillery Brigade , one of the Royal Field Artillery brigades under the direct control of the General Officer Commanding , Third Army . The brigade was then stationed in Belgium , where it had been engaged in the Battle of Passchendaele against German troops along the Western Front . There , he was immediately placed in command of an artillery battery , replacing a major who had been poisoned by mustard gas . Being promoted to the rank of acting major , he was part of the Left Group of artillery covering the advancing Allied infantry in the battle . Throughout , he maintained correspondences with his wife , his sister Amy , and his parents . After the Allied victory in the battle , the brigade was transferred to Italy . Wheeler and the brigade arrived in Italy on 20 November , and proceeded through the Italian Riviera to reach Caporetto , where it had been sent to bolster the Italian troops against a German and Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . As the Russian Republic removed itself from the war , the German Army refocused its efforts on the Western Front , and so in March 1918 Wheeler 's brigade was ordered to leave Italy , getting a train from Castelfranco to Vieux Rouen in France . Back on the Western Front , the brigade was assigned to the 2nd Division , again part of Julian Byng 's Third Army , reaching a stable area of the front in April . Here , Wheeler was engaged in artillery fire for several months , before the British went on the offensive in August . On 24 August , in between the ruined villages of Achiet and Sapignies , he led an expedition which captured two German field guns while under heavy fire from a castle mound ; he was later awarded the Military Cross for this action . Wheeler continued as part of the British forces pushing westward until the German surrender in November 1918 . He was not demobilised for several months , instead being stationed at Pulheim in Germany until March ; during this time he wrote up his earlier research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , making use of access to local museums , before returning to London in July 1919 . = = Career = = = = = National Museum of Wales : 1919 – 26 = = = On returning to London , Wheeler moved into a top @-@ floor flat near Gordon Square with his wife and child . He returned to working for the Royal Commission , examining and cataloguing the historic structures of Essex . In doing so , he produced his first publication , an academic paper on Colchester 's Roman Balkerne Gate which was published in the Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society in 1920 . He soon followed this with two papers in the Journal of Roman Studies ; the first offered a wider analysis of Roman Colchester , while the latter outlined his discovery of the vaulting for the city 's Temple of Claudius which was destroyed by Boudica 's revolt . In doing so , he developed a reputation as a Roman archaeologist in Britain . He then submitted his research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pots to the University of London , on the basis of which he was awarded his Doctorate of Letters ; thenceforth until his knighthood he styled himself as Dr Wheeler . He was unsatisfied with his job in the Commission , unhappy that he was receiving less pay and a lower status than he had had in the army , and so began to seek out alternative employment . He obtained a post as the Keeper of Archaeology at the National Museum of Wales , a job that also entailed becoming a lecturer in archaeology at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire . Taking up this position , he moved to Cardiff with his family in August 1920 , although he initially disliked the city . The museum was in disarray ; prior to the war , construction had begun on a new purpose @-@ built building to house the collections . This had ceased during the conflict and the edifice was left abandoned during Cardiff 's post @-@ war economic slump . Wheeler recognised that Wales was very divided regionally , with many Welsh people having little loyalty to Cardiff ; thus , he made a point of touring the country , lecturing to local societies about archaeology . According to the later archaeologist Lydia C. Carr , the Wheelers ' work for the cause of the museum was part of a wider " cultural @-@ nationalist movement " linked to growing Welsh nationalism during this period ; for instance , the Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru was founded in 1925 . Wheeler was impatient to start excavations , and in July 1921 started a six @-@ week project to excavate at the Roman fort of Segontium ; accompanied by his wife , he used up his holiday to oversee the project . A second season of excavation at the site followed in 1922 . Greatly influenced by the writings of the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , Wheeler emphasised the need for a strong , developed methodology when undertaking an archaeological excavation , believing in the need for strategic planning , or what he termed " controlled discovery " , with clear objectives in mind for a project . Further emphasising the importance of prompt publication of research results , he wrote full seasonal reports for Archaeologia Cambrensis before publishing a full report , Segontium and the Roman Occupation of Wales . Wheeler was keen on training new generations of archaeologists , and two of the most prominent students to excavate with him at Segontium were Victor Nash @-@ Williams and Ian Richmond . Over the field seasons of 1924 and 1925 , Wheeler ran excavations of the Roman fort of Y Gaer near Brecon , a project aided by his wife and two archaeological students , Nowell Myres and Christopher Hawkes . During this project , he was visited by the prominent Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie and his wife Hilda Petrie ; Wheeler greatly admired Petrie 's emphasis on strong archaeological methodologies . Wheeler published the results of his excavation in The Roman Fort Near Brecon . He then began excavations at Isca Augusta , a Roman site in Caerleon , where he focused on revealing the Roman amphitheatre . Intent on attracting press attention to both raise public awareness of archaeology and attract new sources of funding , he contacted the press and organised a sponsorship of the excavation by the middle @-@ market newspaper the Daily Mail . In doing so , he emphasised the folkloric and legendary associations that the site had with King Arthur . In 1925 , Oxford University Press published Wheeler 's first book for a general audience , Prehistoric and Roman Wales ; he later expressed the opinion that it was not a good book . In 1924 , the Director of the National Museum of Wales , William Evans Hoyle , resigned amid ill health . Wheeler applied to take on the role of his replacement , providing supportive testimonials from Charles Reed Peers , Robert Bosanquet , and H. J. Fleure . Although he had no prior museum experience , he was successful in his application and was appointed Director . He then employed a close friend , Cyril Fox , to take on the vacated position of Keeper of Archaeology . Wheeler 's proposed reforms included extending the institution 's reach and influence throughout Wales by building affiliations with regional museums , and focusing on fundraising to finance the completion of the new museum premises . He obtained a £ 21 @,@ 367 donation from the wealthy shipowner William Reardon Smith and appointed Smith to be the museum 's treasurer , and also travelled to Whitehall , London , where he successfully urged the British Treasury to provide further funding for the museum . As a result , construction on the museum 's new building was able to continue , and it was officially opened by King George V in 1927 . = = = London Museum : 1926 – 33 = = = Upon the retirement of the Keeper of the London Museum , Harmon Oates , Wheeler was invited to fill the vacancy . He had been considering a return to London for some time and eagerly agreed , taking on the post , which was based at Lancaster House in the St James 's area , in July 1926 . In Wales , many felt that Wheeler had simply taken the directorship of the National Museum to advance his own career prospects , and that he had abandoned them when a better offer came along . Wheeler himself disagreed , believing that he had left Fox at the Museum as his obvious successor , and that the reforms he had implemented would therefore continue . The position initially provided Wheeler with an annual salary of £ 600 , which resulted in a decline in living standards for his family , who moved into a flat near to Victoria Station . Tessa 's biographer L.C. Carr later commented that together , the Wheelers " professionalized the London Museum " . Wheeler expressed his opinion that the museum " had to be cleaned , expurgated , and catalogued ; in general , turned from a junk shop into a tolerably rational institution " . Focusing on reorganising the exhibits and developing a more efficient method of cataloguing the artefacts , he also authored A Short Guide to the Collections , before using the items in the museum to write three books : London and the Vikings , London and the Saxons , and London and the Romans . Upon his arrival , the Treasury allocated the museum an annual budget of £ 5 @,@ 000 , which Wheeler deemed insufficient for its needs . In 1930 , Wheeler persuaded them to increase that budget , as he highlighted increasing visitor numbers , publications , and acquisitions , as well as a rise in the number of educational projects . With this additional funding , he was able to employ more staff and increase his own annual salary to £ 900 . Soon after joining the museum , Wheeler was elected to the council of the Society of Antiquaries . Through the Society , he became involved in the debate as to who should finance archaeological supervision of building projects in Greater London ; his argument was that the City of London Corporation should provide the funding , although in 1926 it was agreed that the Society itself would employ a director of excavation based in Lancaster House to take on the position . Also involved in the largely moribund Royal Archaeological Institute , Wheeler organised its relocation to Lancaster House . In 1927 , Wheeler took on an unpaid lectureship at University College London , where he established a graduate diploma course on archaeology ; one of the first to enroll was Stuart Piggott . In 1928 , Wheeler curated an exhibit at UCL on " Recent Work in British Archaeology " , for which he attracted much press attention . Wheeler was keen to continue archaeological fieldwork outside London , undertaking excavations every year from 1926 to 1939 . After completing his excavation of the Carlaeon amphitheatre in 1928 , he began fieldwork at the Roman settlement and temple in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , having been invited to do so by the aristocratic landowner , Charles Bathurst . It was during these investigations that Wheeler personally discovered the Lydney Hoard of coinage . Wheeler and his wife jointly published their excavation report in 1932 as Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric , Roman and Post @-@ Roman Site in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , which Piggott noted had " set the pattern " for all Wheeler 's future excavation reports . From there , Wheeler was invited to direct a Society of Antiquaries excavation at the Roman settlement of Verulamium , which existed on land recently acquired by the Corporation of St Albans . He took on this role for four seasons from 1930 to 1933 , before leaving a fifth season of excavation under the control of the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon and the architect A. W. G. Lowther . Wheeler enjoyed the opportunity to excavate at a civilian as opposed to military site , and also liked its proximity to his home in London . He was particularly interested in searching for a pre @-@ Roman Iron Age oppidum at the site , noting that the existence of a nearby Catuvellauni settlement was attested to in both classical texts and numismatic evidence . With Wheeler focusing his attention on potential Iron Age evidence , Tessa concentrated on excavating the inside of the city walls ; Wheeler had affairs with at least three assistants during the project . After Tessa wrote two interim reports , the final excavation report was finally published in 1936 as Verulamium : A Belgic and Two Roman Cities , jointly written by Wheeler and his wife . The report resulted in the first major published criticism of Wheeler , produced by the young archaeologist Nowell Myres in a review for Antiquity ; although stating that there was much to praise about the work , he critiqued Wheeler 's selective excavation , dubious dating , and guesswork . Wheeler responded with a piece in which he defended his work and launched a personal attack on both Myres and Myres 's employer , Christ Church , Oxford . = = = Institute of Archaeology : 1934 – 39 = = = Wheeler had long desired to establish an academic institution devoted to archaeology that could be based in London . He hoped that it could become a centre in which to establish the professionalisation of archaeology as a discipline , with systematic training of students in methodological techniques of excavation and conservation and recognised professional standards ; in his words , he hoped " to convert archaeology into a discipline worthy of that name in all senses " . He further described his intention that the Institute should become " a laboratory : a laboratory of archaeological science " . Many archaeologists shared his hopes , and to this end Petrie had donated much of his collection of Near Eastern artefacts to Wheeler , in the hope that it would be included in such an institution . Wheeler was later able to persuade the University of London , a federation of institutions across the capital , to support the venture , and both he and Tessa began raising funds from wealthy backers . In 1934 , the Institute of Archaeology was officially opened , albeit at this point without premises or academic staff ; the first students to enroll were Rachel Clay and Barbara Parker , who went on to have careers in the discipline . While Wheeler – who was still Keeper of the London Museum – took on the role of Honorary Director of the Institute , he installed the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon as secretary of the Management Committee , describing her as " a level @-@ headed person , with useful experience " . After ending his work at Verulamium , Wheeler turned his attention to the late Iron Age hill @-@ fort of Maidan Castle near to Dorchester , Dorset , where he excavated for four seasons from 1934 to 1937 . Co @-@ directed by Wheeler , Tessa , and the Curator of Dorset County Museum , Charles Drew , the project was carried out under the joint auspices of the Society of Antiquaries and the Dorset Field Club . With around 100 assistants each season , the dig constituted the largest excavation that had been conducted in Britain up to that point , with Wheeler organising weekly meetings with the press to inform them about any discoveries . His excavation report was published in 1943 as Maidan Castle , Dorset . The report 's publication allowed further criticism to be voiced of Wheeler 's approach and interpretations ; in his review of the book , the archaeologist W. F. Grimes criticised the highly selective nature of the excavation , noting that Wheeler had not asked questions regarding the socio @-@ economic issues of the community at Maidan Castle , aspects of past societies that had come to be of increasing interest to British archaeology . Over coming decades , as further excavations were carried out at the site and archaeologists developed a greater knowledge of Iron Age Britain , much of Wheeler 's interpretation of the site and its development was shown to be wrong , in particular by the work of the archaeologist Niall Sharples . In 1936 , Wheeler embarked on a visit to the Near East , sailing from Marseilles to Port Said , where he visited the Old Kingdom tombs of Sakkara . From there he went via Sinai to Palestine , Lebanon , and Syria . During this trip , he visited various archaeological projects , but was dismayed by the quality of their excavations ; in particular , he noted that the American @-@ run excavation at Tel Megiddo was adopting standards that had been rejected in Britain twenty @-@ five years previously . He was away for six weeks , and upon his return to Europe discovered that his wife Tessa had died of a pulmonary embolism after a minor operation on her toe . According to Tessa 's biographer , for Wheeler this discovery was " the peak of mental misery , and marked the end of his ability to feel a certain kind of love " . That winter , his father also died . By the summer of 1937 , he had embarked on a new romance , with a young woman named Mavis de Vere Cole , who had first met Wheeler when visiting the Maidan Castle excavations with her then @-@ lover , the painter Augustus John . After she eventually agreed to his repeated requests for marriage , the two were wedded early in 1939 in a ceremony held at Caxton Hall , with a reception at Shelley House . They proceeded on a honeymoon to the Middle East . After a search that had taken several years , Wheeler was able to secure a premises for the Institute of Archaeology : St. John 's Lodge in Regent 's Park , central London . Left empty since its use as a hospital during the First World War , the building was owned by the Crown and was controlled by the First Commissioner of Works , William Ormsby @-@ Gore ; he was very sympathetic to archaeology , and leased the building to the Institute at a low rent . The St. John 's Lodge premises were officially opened on 29 April 1937 . During his speech at the ceremony , the University of London 's Vice @-@ Chancellor Charles Reed Peers made it clear that the building was only intended as a temporary home for the Institute , which it was hoped would be able to move to Bloomsbury , the city 's academic hub . In his speech , the university 's Chancellor , Alexander Cambridge , 1st Earl of Athlone , compared the new institution to both the Institute of Historical Research and the Courtauld Institute of Art . Wheeler had also become President of the Museums Association , and in a presidential address given in Belfast talked on the topic of preserving museum collections in war time , believing that Britain 's involvement in a second European conflict was imminent . In anticipation of this event , in August 1939 he arranged for the London Museum to place many of its most important collections into safe keeping . He was also awarded an honorary doctorate from Bristol University , and at the award ceremony met the Conservative Party politician Winston Churchill , who was then engaged in writing his multi @-@ volume A History of the English @-@ Speaking Peoples ; Churchill asked Wheeler to aid him in writing about late prehistoric and early medieval Britain , to which the latter agreed . After Maidan Castle , Wheeler turned his attention to France , where the archaeological investigation of Iron Age sites had lagged behind developments in Britain . There , he oversaw a series of surveys and excavations with the aid of Leslie Scott , beginning with a survey tour of Brittany in the winter of 1936 – 37 . After this , Wheeler decided to excavate the oppidum at Camp d 'Artus , near Huelgoat , Finistère . In addition to bringing many British archaeologists to work on the site , he hired six local Breton workmen to assist the project , coming to the belief that the oppidum had been erected by local Iron Age tribes to defend themselves from the Roman invasion led by Julius Caesar . Meanwhile , Scott had been placed in charge of an excavation at the smaller nearby hill fort of Kercaradec , near Quimper . In July 1939 , the project focused its attention on Normandy , with excavations beginning at the Iron Age hill forts of Camp de Canada and Duclair . They were brought to an abrupt halt in September 1939 as the Second World War broke out in Europe , and the team evacuated back to Britain . Wheeler 's excavation report , co @-@ written with Katherine Richardson , was eventually published as Hill @-@ forts of Northern France in 1957 . = = = Second World War : 1939 – 45 = = = Wheeler had been expecting and openly hoping for war with Nazi Germany for a year prior to the outbreak of hostilities ; he believed that the United Kingdom 's involvement in the conflict would remedy the shame that he thought had been brought upon the country by its signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938 . Volunteering for the armed services , he was assigned to assemble the 48th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery at Enfield , where he set about recruiting volunteers , including his son . As the 48th swelled in size , it was converted into the 42nd Mobile Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in the Royal Artillery , which consisted of four batteries and was led by Wheeler – now promoted to the rank of colonel – as Commanding Officer . Given the nickname of " Flash Alf " by those serving under him , he was recognised by colleagues as a ruthless disciplinarian and was blamed by many for the death of one of his soldiers from influenza during training . Having been appointed secretary of the Society of Antiquaries in 1939 and then director in 1940 , he travelled to London to deal with society affairs on various occasions . In 1941 Wheeler was awarded a Fellowship of the British Academy . Cole had meanwhile entered into an affair with a man named Clive Entwistle , who lambasted Wheeler as " that whiskered baboon " . When Wheeler discovered Entwistle in bed with his wife , he initiated divorce proceedings that were finalised in March 1942 . In the summer of 1941 , Wheeler and three of his batteries were assigned to fight against German and Italian forces in the North African Campaign . In September , they set sail from Glasgow aboard the RMS Empress of Russia ; because the Mediterranean was controlled largely by enemy naval forces , they were forced to travel via the Cape of Good Hope , before taking shore leave in Durban . There , Wheeler visited the local kraals to compare them with the settlements of Iron Age Britain . The ship docked in Aden , where Wheeler and his men again took shore leave . They soon reached the British @-@ controlled Suez , where they disembarked and were stationed on the shores of the Great Bitter Lake . There , Wheeler took a brief leave of absence to travel to Jerusalem , where he visited Petrie on his hospital deathbed . Back in Egypt , he gained permission to fly as a front gunner in a Wellington bomber on a bombing raid against Axis forces , to better understand what it was like for aircrew to be fired on by an anti @-@ aircraft battery . Serving with the Eighth Army , Wheeler was present in North Africa when the Axis armies pushed the Allies back to El Alamein . He was also part of the Allied counter @-@ push , taking part in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance on Axis @-@ held Tripoli . On the way he became concerned that the archaeological sites of North Africa were being threatened both by the fighting and the occupying forces . After the British secured control of Libya , Wheeler visited Tripoli and Leptis Magna , where he found that Roman remains had been damaged and vandalised by British troops ; he brought about reforms to prevent this , lecturing to the troops on the importance of preserving archaeology , making many monuments out @-@ of @-@ bounds , and ensuring that the Royal Air Force changed its plans to construct a radar station in the midst of a Roman settlement . Aware that the British were planning to invade and occupy the Italian island of Sicily , he insisted that measures be introduced to preserve the historic and archaeological monuments on the island . Promoted to the rank of brigadier , after the German surrender in North Africa , Wheeler was sent to Algiers where he was part of the staff committee planning the invasion of Italy . There , he learned that the India Office had requested that the army relieve him of his duties to permit him to be appointed Director General of Archaeology in India . Although he had never been to the country , he agreed that he would take the job on the condition that he be permitted to take part in the invasion of Italy first . As intended , Wheeler and his 12th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade then took part in the invasion of Sicily and then mainland Italy , where they were ordered to use their anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect the British 10th Corps . As the Allies advanced north through Italy , Wheeler spent time in Naples and then Capri , where he met various aristocrats who had anti @-@ fascist sympathies . Wheeler left Italy in November 1943 and returned to London . There , he resigned as the director of the London Museum and focused on organising the Institute of Archaeology , preparing it for its adoption of a new director , V. Gordon Childe , after the war . He also resigned as director of the Society of Antiquaries , but was appointed the group 's representative to the newly formed Council for British Archaeology . He developed a relationship with a woman named Kim Collingridge , and asked her to marry him . As she was a devout Roman Catholic , he officially converted to the religion , something which shocked many of his friends , who believed that he was being dishonest because he did not genuinely believe in the doctrines of the faith . He then set sail for Bombay aboard a transport ship , the City of Exeter , in February 1944 . = = = Archaeological Survey of India : 1944 – 48 = = = Wheeler arrived in Bombay in the spring of 1944 . There , he was welcomed by the city 's governor , John Colville , before heading by train to Delhi and then Simla , where the headquarters of the Archaeological Survey of India were located . Wheeler had been suggested for the job by Archibald Wavell , the Viceroy of India , who had been acting on the recommendations of the archaeologist Leonard Woolley , who had authored a report lamenting the state of the archaeological establishment in the British @-@ controlled subcontinent . Wheeler recognised this state of affairs , in a letter to a friend complaining about the lack of finances and equipment , commenting that " We 're back in 1850 " . He initially found much to dislike in India , and in his letters to friends in Britain expressed derogatory and racist sentiments toward Indians : he stated that " they feed wrongly and think wrongly and live wrongly ... I already find myself regarding them as ill @-@ made clockwork toys rather than as human beings , and I find myself bullying them most brutally . " He expelled those staff members whom he deemed too idle , and physically beat others in an attempt to motivate them . From the beginning of his tenure , he sought to distance himself from previous Director @-@ Generals and their administrations by criticising them in print and attempting to introduce new staff who had no loyalty to his predecessors . Assigned with a four @-@ year contract , Wheeler attempted to recruit two archaeologists from Britain , Glyn Daniel and Stuart Piggott , to aid him in reforming the Archaeological Survey , although they declined the offer . He then toured the subcontinent , seeking to meet all of the Survey 's staff members . He had drawn up a prospectus containing research questions that he wanted the Survey to focus on ; these included understanding the period between the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization and the Achaemenid Empire , discerning the socio @-@ cultural background to the Vedas , dating the Aryan invasion , and establishing a dating system for southern India prior to the sixth century CE . During his time in office he also achieved a 25 per cent budget increase for the Archaeological Survey , and convinced the government to agree to the construction of a National Museum of Archaeology , to be built in New Delhi . In October 1944 , he opened his six @-@ month archaeological field school in Taxila , where he instructed various students from across India in the methodologies of the discipline . Wheeler became very fond of his students , with one of them , B. B. Lal , later commenting that " behind the gruff exterior , Sir Mortimer had a very kind and sympathetic heart " . Throughout his period in India , his students were some of the only individuals to whom Wheeler warmed ; more widely , he was annoyed by what he saw as the idleness , incompetence and corruption of Indian society . Initially focusing on the northwest of the subcontinent , Wheeler was particularly fascinated by the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization . On his initial inspection of the Indus Valley sites of Mohenjo @-@ daro and Harappa , he organised a very brief excavation which revealed fortifications around both settlements . He later led a more detailed excavation at Harappa , where he exposed further fortifications and established a stratigraphy for the settlement . Turning his attention to southern India , Wheeler discovered remnants of a Roman amphora in a museum , and began excavations at Arikamedu , revealing a port from the first century CE which had traded in goods from the Roman Empire . The excavation had been plagued by severe rains and tropical heat , although it was during the excavation that World War II ended ; in celebration , Wheeler gave all his workers an extra rupee for the day . It has since been alleged that while Wheeler took credit for discovering the significance of this site , it had previously been established by A. Aiyappan , the Superintendent of the Government Museum in Madras , and the French archaeologist Jouveau Dubreuil , with Wheeler intentionally ignoring their contribution . He later undertook excavations of six megalithic tombs in Brahmagiri , Mysore , which enabled him to gain a chronology for the archaeology of much of southern India . Wheeler established a new archaeological journal , Ancient India , planning for it to be published twice a year . He had trouble securing printing paper and faced various delays ; the first issue was released in January 1946 , and he would release three further volumes during his stay . Wheeler married Kim Collingridge in Simla , before he and his wife took part in an Indian Cultural Mission to Iran . The Indian government had deemed Wheeler ideal to lead the group , which departed via train to Zahidan before visiting Persepolis , Tehran , Isfahan , Shiraz , Pasargadae , and Kashan . Wheeler enjoyed the trip , and was envious of Tehran 's archaeological museum and library , which was far in advance of anything then found in India . Crossing into Iraq , in Baghdad the team caught a flight back to Delhi . In 1946 , he was involved in a second cultural mission , this time to Afghanistan , where he expressed a particular interest in the kingdom of ancient Bactria and visited the archaeology of Balkh . Wheeler was present during the 1947 Partition of India into the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India and the accompanying ethnic violence between Hindu and Muslim communities . He was unhappy with how these events had affected the Archaeological Survey , complaining that some of his finest students and staff were now citizens of Pakistan and no longer able to work for him . He was based in New Delhi when the city was rocked by sectarian violence , and attempted to help many of his Muslim staff members escape from the Hindu @-@ majority city unharmed . He further helped smuggle Muslim families out of the city hospital , where they had taken refuge from a violent Hindu mob . As India neared independence from the British Empire , the political situation had changed significantly ; by October 1947 he was one of the last British individuals in a high @-@ up position within the country 's governing establishment , and recognised that many Indian nationalists wanted him to also leave . As their relationship had become increasingly strained , his wife had left and returned to Britain . Although hoping to leave his post in India several months early , he was concerned for his economic prospects , and desperately searched for a new job position . Through friends in the British archaeological community , he was offered a job as the Secretary of the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments for Wales , although he was upset that this would mean a drop in his professional status and income and decided to turn it down . Instead , he agreed to take up a chair in the Archaeology of the Roman Provinces at the Institute of Archaeology . In addition , the Pakistani Minister of Education invited him to become the Archaeological Adviser to the Pakistani government ; he agreed to also take up this position , on the condition that he would only spend several months in the country each year over the next three . = = Later life = = = = = Between Britain and Pakistan : 1948 – 52 = = = Returning to London , Wheeler moved into the Hallam Street flat where his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law were living . Wheeler and the latter disliked each other , and so in summer 1950 he moved out and began renting an apartment in Mount Street . A year later he moved into his wife 's house in Mallord Street , in an unsuccessful hope of reigniting their relationship . Taking up his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology , he began to lecture to students almost every day . There , he found that he developed a relationship of mutual respect with the director , Childe , despite their strong personal and professional differences . In April 1949 , after the retirement of Cyril Fox , Wheeler was nominated for the Presidency of the Society of Antiquaries , but lost to James Mann ; many archaeologists , including Childe and O. G. S. Crawford , resigned from the Society in protest , deeming Wheeler to have been a far more appropriate candidate for the position . Wheeler was nevertheless elected director of the Society . In 1950 he was awarded the Petrie Medal , and in 1952 was knighted . That same year he was invited to give the Norton lectures for the Archaeological Institute of America , and while in the United States was also awarded the Lucy Wharton Drexel medal at Pennsylvania . He nevertheless disliked the country , and in later life exhibited anti @-@ Americanism . Wheeler spent three months in Pakistan during early 1949 , where he was engaged in organising the fledgling Pakistani Archaeological Department with the aid of former members of the Archaeological Survey and new students whom he recruited . The Minister of Education , Fazlur Rahman , was sympathetic to Wheeler 's plans , and the government agreed to establish a National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi , which opened in April 1950 . Wheeler himself was appointed the first President of the Pakistani Museums Association , and found himself as a mediator in the arguments between India and Pakistan over the redistribution of archaeological and historic artefacts following the partition . He also wrote a work of archaeological propaganda for the newly formed state , Five Thousand Years of Pakistan ( 1950 ) . To instruct new Pakistani students in the methods of archaeology , in early 1950 Wheeler ran a training excavation at Mohenjo @-@ daro ; there , he was joined by the British student Leslie Alcock , who spoke both Punjabi and Urdu and who was appointed a site supervisor by Wheeler . This excavation proved to be the only one for which Wheeler would not write and publish a full excavation report . Instead , he made reference to its findings in his book The Indus Civilization , published as part of the series The Cambridge History of India . His relationship with the Pakistani government had become strained , and so he declined to return to work for them for a third year . Wheeler had been keen to return to excavation in Britain . Based on the one he had organised in India , Wheeler developed an archaeological training course , which he ran at Verulamium in the summer of 1949 to instruct British students in the methodologies of excavation . In summer 1950 , he was invited by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments to direct a trial excavation at Bindon Hill in Dorset . It was a leisurely project which he treated as a seaside holiday . He was invited by the Ancient Monuments Department of the Ministry of Works to excavate the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications in North Riding , Yorkshire , which he proceeded to do over the summers of 1951 and 1952 . Aided by many old friends and colleagues from within the British archaeological scene , he was joined by Alcock and Alcock 's wife , among others . Wheeler published his report on the site in 1954 . In 1949 Wheeler was appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy after Frederic G. Kenyon stepped down from the position . According to Piggott , the institution had " unhappily drifted into senility without the excuse of being venerable " , and Wheeler devoted much time attempting to revitalise the organisation and ensured that Charles Webster was appointed President . Together , Wheeler and Webster sought to increase the number of younger members of the Academy , increasing the number of Fellows who were permitted to join and proposing that those over 75 years of age not be permitted to serve on the organisation 's council ; this latter measure was highly controversial , and though defeated in 1951 , Wheeler and Webster were able to push it through in 1952 . In doing so , Piggott stated , Wheeler helped rid the society of its " self @-@ perpetuating gerontocracy " . To aid him in these projects , Wheeler employed a personal assistant , Molly Myers , who remained with him for the rest of his life . = = = Popular fame : 1952 – 69 = = = In 1956 , Wheeler retired from his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology . Childe was also retiring from his position of director that year , and Wheeler involved himself in the arguments surrounding who should replace him . Wheeler vocally opposed the nomination of W.F. Grimes , deeming his career undistinguished ; instead , he championed Glyn Daniel as a candidate , although ultimately Grimes was selected . That year , Wheeler 's marriage broke down , and he moved from his wife 's house to a former brothel at 27 Whitcomb Street in central London . From 1954 to 1959 , he served as the President of the Society of Antiquaries , and after resigning supported Ian Richmond as his replacement ; however , Joan Evans was selected . From 1964 to 1966 he served as Chairman of the Ancient Monuments Board , stepping down when he concluded that he was too old for the role . In December 1963 , Wheeler underwent a prostate operation that went wrong , and was hospitalised for over a month . In November 1967 , Wheeler became a Companion of Honour , and in 1968 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society . = = = = Media fame and public archaeology = = = = Wheeler became famous in Britain as " the embodiment of popular archaeology through the medium of television " . In 1952 , Wheeler was invited to be a panelist on the new BBC television series , Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? . Based on the American quiz programme What in the World ? , the show was hosted by Glyn Daniel and featured three experts in archaeology , anthropology , and natural history being asked to identify artefacts which had been selected from various museums . However , Wheeler is alleged to have prepared for the show by checking beforehand which objects had been temporarily removed from display . The show proved popular with British audiences , and would air for six more years . It brought Wheeler to public attention , resulting in a Television Personality of the Year award for him in 1954 . He also appeared in an episode of Buried Treasure , an archaeology show also hosted by Daniel , in which the pair travelled to Denmark to discuss Tollund Man . In 1957 , he appeared in a second episode of Buried Treasure , for which he travelled to Pakistan to discuss that nation 's archaeology , and in 1958 again appeared in an episode , this time on the site of Great Zimbabwe in Southern Rhodesia . In 1959 he presented his own three @-@ part series on The Grandeur That Was Rome , for which he travelled to Hadrian 's Wall , Pompeii , and Leptis Magna ; the show failed to secure high ratings , and was Wheeler 's last major foray into television . Meanwhile , he also made appearances on BBC radio , initially featuring on the John Irving series The Archaeologist , but later presenting his own eight @-@ part series on Roman Britain and also appearing on the series Asian Club , which was aimed primarily at newly arrived migrants from the Indian subcontinent . From 1954 onward , Wheeler began to devote an increasing amount of his time to encouraging greater public interest in archaeology , and it was in that year that he obtained an agent . Oxford University Press also published two of his books in 1954 . The first was a book on archaeological methodologies , Archaeology from the Earth , which was translated into various languages . The second was Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontier , discussing evidence for Roman activity at sites like Arikamedu and Segontium . In 1955 Wheeler released his episodic autobiography , Still Digging , which had sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies by the end of the year . In 1959 , Wheeler wrote Early India and Pakistan , which was published as part as Daniel 's " Ancient Peoples and Places " series for Thames and Hudson ; as with many earlier books , he was criticised for rushing to conclusions . He authored the section entitled " Ancient India " for Piggott 's edited volume The Dawn of Civilisation , which was published by Thames and Hudson in 1961 , before writing an introduction for Roger Wood 's photography book Roman Africa in Colour , which was also published by Thames and Hudson . He then agreed to edit a series for the publisher , known as " New Aspects of Antiquity " , through which they released a variety of archaeological works . The rival publisher Weidenfeld & Nicolson had also persuaded Wheeler to work for them , securing him to write many sections of their book , Splendours of the East . They also published his 1968 book Flames Over Persopolis , in which Wheeler discussed Persopolis and the Persian Empire in the year that it was conquered by Alexander the Great . In 1954 , the tour company R.K. Swan invited Wheeler to provide lectures on the archaeology of ancient Greece aboard their Hellenic cruise line , which he did in 1955 . In 1957 , he then gave a guided tour of the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent for the rival tour company Fairways and Swinford . After Swans appointed him to the position of chairman of their Hellenic Cruise division , he made two fortnight tours a year , in spring and summer . In late 1969 he conducted the Swans tour to the Indian subcontinent , visiting the south and east of the republic as well as Ceylon . During this period , Wheeler had kept in contact with many of his friends and colleagues in India and Pakistan , helping to secure them work and funding where possible . Wheeler had continued his archaeological investigations , and in 1954 led an expedition to the Somme and Pas de Calais where he sought to obtain more information on the French Iron Age to supplement that gathered in the late 1930s . Pakistan 's Ministry of Education invited Wheeler to return to their country in October 1956 . Here , he undertook test excavations at Charsada to determine a chronology of the site . In 1965 , he agreed to take on the position of President of the Camelot Research Committee , which had been established to promote the findings of excavations at Cadbury Castle in Somerset run by his friends Ralegh Radford and Alcock ; the project ended in 1970 . He also agreed to sit as Chairman of the Archaeological Committee overseeing excavations at York Minster , work which occupied him into the 1970s . Wheeler had also continued his work with museums , campaigning for greater state funding for them . While he had become a trustee of the institution in 1963 , he achieved publicity for vocally criticising the British Museum as " a mountainous corpse " , lambasting it as being poorly managed and overcrowded with artefacts . The BBC staged a public debate with the museum director Frank Francis . = = = = British Academy and UNESCO = = = = As Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , Wheeler focused on increasing the organisation 's revenues , thus enabling it to expand its remit . He developed personal relationships with various employees at the British Treasury , and offered the Academy 's services as an intermediary in dealing with the Egypt Exploration Society , the British School at Athens , the British School at Rome , the British School at Ankara , the British School in Iraq , and the British School at Jerusalem , all of which were then directly funded independently by the Treasury . Accepting this offer , the Treasury agreed to double its funding of the Academy to £ 5 @,@ 000 a year . Approaching various charitable foundations , from 1955 Wheeler also secured funding from both the Pilgrim Trust and the Nuffield Foundation , and in 1957 then secured additional funding from the Rockefeller Foundation . With this additional money , the Academy was able to organise a survey of the state of the humanities and social sciences in the United Kingdom , authoring a report that was published by Oxford University Press in 1961 as Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences . On the basis of this report , Wheeler was able to secure a dramatic rise in funding from the British Treasury ; they increased their annual grant to £ 25 @,@ 000 , and promised that this would increase to £ 50 @,@ 000 shortly after . According to his later biographer Jacquetta Hawkes , in doing so Wheeler raised the position of the Academy to that of " the main source of official patronage for the humanities " within the United Kingdom , while Piggott stated that he set the organisation upon its " modern course " . To improve Britain 's cultural influence abroad , Wheeler had been urging the establishment of a British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa , touring East Africa itself in August 1955 . In 1956 the Academy requested £ 6 @,@ 000 from the Treasury to fund this new institution , to which they eventually agreed in 1959 . The Institute was initially established in Dar es Salaam in 1961 , although later relocated to Nairobi . Meanwhile , Wheeler had also been campaigning for the establishment of a British Institute of Persian Studies , a project which was supported by the British Embassy in Tehran ; they hoped that it would rival the successful French Institute in the city . In 1960 , the Treasury agreed , with the new institution being housed on the premises of the University of Tehran . He further campaigned for the establishment of a British Institute in Japan , although these ideas were scrapped amid the British financial crisis of 1967 . Wheeler retained an active interest in the running of these British institutions abroad ; in 1967 he visited the British School in Jerusalem amid the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbours , and in January 1968 visited the Persian institute with the archaeologist Max Mallowan and Mallowan 's wife Agatha Christie , there inspecting the excavations at Siraf . In 1969 he proceeded to the Italian city of Rome to inspect the British School there . That year , he resigned as Honorary Secretary of the Academy . The position became a salaried , professional one , with the numismatist Derek Allen taking on the position . Recognising his stature within the archaeological establishment , the government appointed Wheeler as the British representative on a UNESCO project to undertake a programme of rescue archaeology in the Nile Valley ahead of the construction of the Aswan Dam , which was going to flood large areas of Egypt and Sudan . Personally securing UK funding for the project , he deemed it an issue of national and personal shame when he was unable to persuade the British government to supply additional funding for the relocation of the Abu Simbel temples . In October 1968 , he took part in a UNESCO visit to Pakistan to assess the state of Mohenjo @-@ daro , writing the project 's report on how the archaeological site could best be preserved . His involvement with UNESCO continued for the rest of his life , and in March 1973 he was invited to the organisation 's conference in Paris . = = = Final years : 1970 – 76 = = = During his final years , Wheeler remained involved in various activities , for instance sitting on the advisory panel of the Antiquity journal and the Management Committee of the Royal Archaeological Institute . In March 1971 , the archaeologist Barry Cunliffe and a number of his undergraduate students at the University of Southampton organised a conference on the subject of " The Iron Age and its Hillforts " to celebrate Wheeler 's eightieth birthday . Wheeler attended the event , whose conference proceedings were published as a festschrift for the octogenarian . In spring 1973 , Wheeler returned to BBC television for two episodes of the archaeology @-@ themed series Chronicle in which he discussed his life and career . The episodes were well received , and Wheeler became a close friend of the show 's producer , David Collison . In the 1970s , Wheeler became increasingly forgetful and came to rely largely on his assistant , Molly Myres , to organise his affairs . Amid increasing ill health , in September 1973 he moved full @-@ time into Myres 's house in Leatherhead , Surrey , although he continued to use his central London flat during day @-@ trips to the city . There , he authored a final book , My Archaeological Mission to India and Pakistan , although much of the text was culled from his previous publications ; it was published by Thames and Hudson in 1976 . After suffering a stroke , Wheeler died at Myers ' home on 22 July 1976 . In memoriam , the British Academy , Royal Academy , and Royal Society flew their flags at half @-@ mast . Wheeler 's funeral was held with military trappings at a local crematorium , while a larger memorial service was held in St James 's Church , Piccadilly in November . = = Personal life = = Wheeler was known as " Rik " among friends . He divided opinion among those who knew him , with some loving and others despising him , and during his lifetime he was often criticised on both scholarly and moral grounds . The archaeologist Max Mallowan asserted that he " was a delightful , light @-@ hearted and amusing companion , but those close to him knew that he could be a dangerous opponent if threatened with frustration " . His charm offensives were often condemned as being insincere . During excavations , he was known as an authoritarian leader , but favoured those whom he thought exhibited bravery by standing up to his authority . Hence , he has been termed " a benevolent dictator " . He was meticulous in his writings , and would repeatedly revise and rewrite both pieces for publication and personal letters . Throughout his life , he was a heavy smoker . Wheeler expressed the view that he was " the least political of mortals " . Despite not taking a strong interest in politics , Wheeler was described by his biographer as " a natural conservative " ; for instance , during his youth he was strongly critical of the Suffragettes and their cause of greater legal rights for women . Nevertheless , he was " usually happy to advance young women professionally " , something that may have been based largely on his sexual attraction toward them . He expressed little interest in his relatives ; in later life he saw no reason to have a social relationship with people purely on the basis of family ties . Wheeler was married three times . In May 1914 , Wheeler married Tessa Verney . Tessa became an accomplished archaeologist , and they collaborated until she died in 1936 . Their only child , a son Michael , was born in January 1915 ; he became a barrister . Following Tessa 's death , in 1939 , Wheeler married Mavis de Vere Cole , although their relationship was strained ; Cole 's diaries revealed that Wheeler physically hit her when she annoyed him . In 1945 Mortimer Wheeler married his third wife , Margaret " Kim " Collingridge , although they became estranged in 1956 ; they never divorced as a result of her devout Catholicism . Meanwhile , Wheeler was well known for his conspicuous promiscuity , favouring young women for one night stands , many of whom were his students . He was further known for having casual sex in public places . This behaviour led to much emotional suffering among his various wives and mistresses , of which he was aware . As a result of this behaviour , later archaeologist Gabriel Moshenska informed a reporter from the Daily Mail that Wheeler had developed a reputation as " a bit of a groper and a sex pest and an incredible bully as well " . = = Reception and legacy = = Wheeler has been termed " the most famous British archaeologist of the twentieth century " by archaeologists Gabriel Moshenska and Tim Schadla @-@ Hall . Highlighting his key role in encouraging interest in archaeology throughout British society , they stated that his " mastery of public archaeology was founded on his keen eye for value and a showman 's willingness to package and sell the past " . This was an issue about which Wheeler felt very strongly ; writing his obituary for the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society , the English archaeologist Stuart Piggott noted that Wheeler placed " great importance to the archaeologist 's obligation to the public , on whose support the prosecution of his subject ultimately depended . " Piggott believed that Wheeler 's greatest impact was as " the great innovator in field techniques " , comparing him in this respect to Pitt @-@ Rivers . Piggott stated that the " importance of Wheeler 's contribution to archaeological technique , enormous and far @-@ reaching , lies in the fact that in the early 1920s he not only appreciated and understood what Pitt @-@ Rivers had done , but saw that his work could be used as a basis for adaptation , development and improvement . " L. C. Carr stated that it was for his methodological developments , oft termed " the Wheeler Method " , that Wheeler was best known ; in this she contrasted him with those archaeologists who were best known for their associations with a specific archaeological site , such as Arthur Evans and Knossos or Leonard Woolley and Ur . Wheeler was well known for his publications on archaeological matters ; Carr stated that both Wheeler and his first wife emphasised " technical rigour and a full presentation of materials unearthed , as well as a literary discussion of their meaning calculated to appeal to a larger audience . " Focusing on Wheeler 's publications regarding South Asian archaeology , Sudeshna Guha noted that he " produced an assemblage of image @-@ objects that embodied the precision he demanded from excavation photography . " Mallowan noted that " Immediate and swift presentation of results was more important to him than profound scholarship , although his critical sense made him conscious that it was necessary to maintain high standards and he would approve of nothing that was slipshod . " Jacquetta Hawkes commented that he made errors in his interpretation of the archaeological evidence because he was " sometimes too sure of being right , too ready to accept his own authority " . She asserted that while Wheeler was not an original thinker , he had " a vision of human history that enabled him to see each discovery of its traces , however small , in its widest significance . " Piggott claimed that Wheeler 's appointment as Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and surmounted in the autocratic and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and excavator . No other archaeologist of the time , it seems fair to remark , could have come near to attaining his command of incisive strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the bewildered admiration and touching devotion of his Indian staff . " The Indian archaeologist Dilip K. Chakrabarti later stated that Wheeler 's accomplishments while in India were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @-@ political turmoil of independence and partition . Chakrabarti stated that Wheeler had contributed to South Asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region 's development from the Palaeolithic onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and methodologies to the subcontinent , and by encouraging Indian universities to begin archaeological research . Ultimately , Chakrabarti was of the opinion that Wheeler had " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modernity in the post @-@ Partition period . " Similarly , Peter Johansen praised Wheeler for systematising and professionalising Indian archaeology and for " instituting a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . " On Wheeler 's death , H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College , Pune , described him as " well known among Old World archaeologists in the United States " , particularly for his book Archaeology from the Earth and his studies of the Indus Valley Civilisation . In its 2013 obituary of the English archaeologist Mick Aston , British Archaeology magazine – the publication of the Council for British Archaeology – described Aston as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . However , writing in 2011 , Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall asserted that Wheeler 's reputation has not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he had come to be remembered as " a cartoonish and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " Naughty Morty " . Carr described the Institute of Archaeology as " one of the [ Wheeler ] couple 's most permanent memorials . " = = = Biographies and studies = = = In 1960 , Ronald William Clark published a biography titled Sir Mortimer Wheeler . FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan reviewed the volume for the journal Man , describing " this very readable little book " as being " adulatory " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " In 1982 , the archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes published a second biography , Mortimer Wheeler : Adventurer in Archaeology . Hawkes admitted she had developed " a very great liking " for Wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the University of Cambridge . She believed that he had " a daemonic energy " , with his accomplishments in India being " almost superhuman " . Ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @-@ heroic age " in which growing social egalitarianism had stifled and condemned aspects of his greatness . In the 2000 film Hey Ram , the lead character , Saket Ram ( played by Kamal Haasan ) and his friend , Amjad Khan ( played by Shah Rukh Khan ) are shown as employees of Wheeler , who was portrayed by Lewis K. Elbinger , before the 1947 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots . In a 2003 volume of the South Asian Studies journal , Sudeshna Gusha published a research article examining Wheeler 's use of photography in his excavations and publications in the Indian subcontinent . In 2011 , the academic journal Public Archaeology published a research paper by Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall that analysed Wheeler 's role in presenting archaeology to the British public . Two years later , the Papers from the Institute of Archaeology issued a short comic strip by Moshenska and Alex Salamunovich depicting Wheeler 's activities in studying the archaeology of Libya during World War II .

= Species of Allosaurus = There have been a number of potential species assigned to the carnosaurian dinosaur genus Allosaurus since its description in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh , but only a handful are still regarded as valid . Allosaurus was originally described from material from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States of America ; the type species A. fragilis became one of the best @-@ known species of dinosaur . The genus Allosaurus was part of the Marsh / Cope " Bone Wars " of the late 19th century , and its taxonomy became increasingly confused due to the competition , with several genera and species named by Cope and Marsh now regarded as synonyms of Allosaurus or A. fragilis . Since the description of Allosaurus , scientists have proposed additional species from such far @-@ flung locales as Portugal , Siberia , and Tanzania . = = Query about type specimen = = The issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of Allosaurus fragillis ( catalogue number YPM 1930 ) being extremely fragmentary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . Because of this , several scientists have noted that the type specimen , and thus the genus Allosaurus itself or at least the species A. fragillis , is technically a nomen dubium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . In an attempt to fix this situation , Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name A. fragillis officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 ( as a neotype ) . This request is currently pending review . = = Potentially valid species = = It is unclear how many species of Allosaurus there were . Eight species have been considered potentially valid since 1988 ( A. amplexus , A. atrox , A. europaeus , the type species A. fragilis , the as @-@ yet not formally described " A. jimmadseni " , A. lucasi , A. maximus , and A. tendagurensis ) , although only about half are usually considered valid at any given time . There are also at least ten dubious or undescribed species that have been assigned to Allosaurus over the years , along with the species belonging to genera now sunk into Allosaurus . In the most recent review of basal tetanuran theropods , only A. fragilis ( including A. amplexus and A. atrox ) , " A. jimmadseni " ( as an unnamed species ) , and A. tendagurensis were accepted as potentially valid species , with A. europaeus not yet proposed and A. maximus assigned to Saurophaganax . A. fragilis is the type species and was named by Marsh in 1877 . It is known from the remains of at least sixty individuals , all found in the Kimmeridgian – Tithonian Upper Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the United States , spread across the states of Colorado , Montana , New Mexico , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Utah , and Wyoming . Details of the humerus ( upper arm ) of A. fragilis have been used as diagnostic among Morrison theropods , but the discovery of " A. jimmadseni " indicates that this will no longer be the case at the species level . A. amplexus was named by Gregory S. Paul for giant Morrison allosaur remains , and included in his conception Saurophagus maximus ( later Saurophaganax ) . A. amplexus was originally coined by Cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus Epanterias , and is based on what is now AMNH 5767 , parts of three vertebrae , a coracoid , and a metatarsal . Following Paul 's work , this species has been accepted as a synonym of A. fragilis . Allosaurus material from Portugal was first reported in 1999 on the basis of MHNUL / AND.001 , a partial skeleton including a quadrate , vertebrae , ribs , gastralia , chevrons , part of the hips , and hindlimbs . This specimen was assigned to A. fragilis , but the subsequent discovery of a partial skull and neck ( ML 415 ) near Lourinhã , in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation , spurred the naming of the new species A. europaeus . It differs from other species of Allosaurus in cranial details . However , more material may show it to be A. fragilis , as originally described . Daniel Chure 's work on Morrison allosaurid remains has been responsible , directly or indirectly , for " A. jimmadseni " and A. maximus . " A. jimmadseni " is the proposed name for a new species of Morrison allosaur , based on a nearly complete skeleton and skull . A. sp . 2 , as it is also known , differs from A. fragilis in several anatomical details including a jugal or cheekbone with a straight lower margin , and is also found only in the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation , with A. fragilis only present in the higher Brushy Basin Member . A. maximus was coined by David K. Smith for Chure 's Saurophaganax maximus , a taxon created by Chure in 1995 for giant allosaurid remains from the Morrison of Oklahoma . These remains had been known as Saurophagus , but that name was already in use , leading Chure to propose a substitute . Smith , in his 1998 analysis of variation , concluded that S. maximus was not different enough from Allosaurus to be a separate genus , but did warrant its own species , A. maximus . This reassignment was rejected in the most recent review of basal tetanurans . = = Biological variation , A. atrox , and A. fragilis = = The perception that there were two common Allosaurus species in the Morrison Formation was popularized in Gregory S. Paul 's 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World . Paul proposed that A. fragilis had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a postulated second species A. atrox , and was not a different gender due to rarity . Allosaurus atrox was originally named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus , Creosaurus , and is based on YPM 1890 , an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull , portions of nine tail vertebrae , two hip vertebrae , an illium , and ankle and foot bones . Although the idea of two common Morrison allosaur species has had support in semi @-@ technical and popular works , it has generally been rejected in the technical literature . David K. Smith , examining Allosaurus fossils by quarry , found that the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry ( Utah ) specimens are generally smaller than those from Como Bluff ( Wyoming ) or Brigham Young University 's Dry Mesa Quarry ( Colorado ) , but the shapes of the bones themselves did not vary between the sites . A later study by Smith incorporating Garden Park ( Colorado ) and Dinosaur National Monument ( Utah ) specimens found no justification for multiple species based on skeletal variation ; skull variation was most common and was gradational , suggesting individual variation was responsible . Further work on size @-@ related variation again found no consistent differences , although the Dry Mesa material tended to clump together on the basis of the astragalus , an ankle bone . Kenneth Carpenter , using skull elements from the Cleveland Lloyd site , found wide variation between individuals , calling into question previous species @-@ level distinctions based such features as the shape of the horns , and the proposed differentiation of " A. jimmadseni " based on the shape of the jugal . = = Invalid and synonymous species = = A number of species assigned to Allosaurus are no longer recognized as valid , for one reason or another . Species " A. agilis " , seen in Zittel , 1887 , and Osborn , 1912 , is a typographical error for A. fragilis . Marsh 's A. ferox ( 1896 ; not to be confused with his 1884 Labrosaurus ferox , also part of Allosaurus taxonomy ) was coined for a partial skull in a footnote , and has been recognized as a specimen of A fragilis . A. lucaris , another Marsh name , was given to a partial skeleton in 1878 . He later decided it warranted its own genus , Labrosaurus , but this has not been accepted , and A. lucaris is also regarded as another specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus lucaris , is known mostly from vertebrae , sharing characters with Allosaurus . Paul and Carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species , YPM 1931 , was from a younger age than Allosaurus , and might represent a different genus . However , they found that the specimen was undiagnostic , and thus A. lucaris was a nomen dubium . " A. whitei " , an informally described species coined by Pickering in 1996 , is a recasting of the A. atrox versus A. fragilis debate using a better specimen to represent the A. atrox form , and has not been recognized . Several species coined in genera other than Allosaurus are also now thought to be synonymous with A. fragilis . Labrosaurus ferox was named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw , with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw , and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down . Later researchers suggested that the bone was pathologic , showing an injury to the living animal , and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction . It is recognized as most likely a specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus valens is a typo for Antrodemus valens accidentally used by Friedrich von Huene in 1932 ; Antrodemus valens itself may also pertain to Allosaurus fragilis , as Gilmore suggested in 1920 . Apatodon mirus , based on a scrap of vertebra Marsh first thought to be a mammalian jaw , may or may not be the same as Allosaurus . = = Misassigned species = = Several species initially classified within or referred to Allosaurus do not belong within the genus . A. medius was named by Marsh in 1888 for " various specimens " from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland , although most of the remains were removed by Richard Swann Lull to the new ornithopod species Dryosaurus grandis , except for a tooth . Gilmore considered the tooth nondiagnostic but transferred it to a new species , Dryptosaurus medius . The referral was not accepted in the most recent review , and Allosaurus medius was simply listed as a dubious species of theropod . Allosaurus sibiricus was described in 1914 by A. N. Riabinin on the basis of a bone , later identified as a partial fourth metatarsal , from the Early Cretaceous of Buryatia , Russia . It was transferred to Chilantaisaurus in 1990 . Allosaurus meriani was described in 1870 by Greppin as a species of Megalosaurus , based on a tooth from the Late Jurassic of Switzerland . It has occasionally been referred to Allosaurus , but recent reviews have listed it as dubious theropod species Megalosaurus meriani , or included it in Ceratosaurus sp . Allosaurus stechowi was described in 1920 by Janensch as Labrosaurus stechowi for isolated Ceratosaurus @-@ like teeth from the Tendaguru beds of Tanzania . With the synonymization of Labrosaurus and Allosaurus , Donald F. Glut listed it as a species of Allosaurus , but it is now either assigned to Ceratosaurus sp. or considered a dubious ceratosaurian . There are also several species left over from the synonymizations of Creosaurus and Labrosaurus with Allosaurus . Creosaurus potens was named by Lull in 1911 for a vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland . It is now regarded as a dubious theropod . Labrosaurus fragilis is a typographical error by Marsh ( 1896 ) for Labrosaurus ferox . L. sulcatus , named by Marsh in 1896 for a Morrison theropod tooth , which like L. stechowi is now regarded as either Ceratosaurus sp. or a dubious ceratosaurian . A. tendagurensis was named in 1925 by Werner Janensch for a partial shin ( HM 67 ) found in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age rocks of Tendaguru , in Mtwara , Tanzania . This species has not had strong support in recent years , with opinions on its identity ranging from a tentatively valid species of Allosaurus , to a basal tetanuran . The most recent analysis has placed it in Carcharodontosauridae . Although obscure , it was a large theropod , possibly around 10 meters long ( 33 ft ) and 2 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) in weight . = = Specimens misassigned to Allosaurus though not described as new species = = Kurzanov and colleagues in 2003 designated six teeth from Siberia as Allosaurus sp . ( meaning the authors found the specimens to be most like those of Allosaurus , but did not or could not assign a species ) . Also , reports of Allosaurus in Shanxi , China go back to at least 1982 . An astragalus ( ankle bone ) thought to belong to a species of Allosaurus was found at Cape Paterson , Victoria in Early Cretaceous beds in southeastern Australia . It was thought to provide evidence that Australia was a refugium for animals that had gone extinct elsewhere . This identification was challenged by Samuel Welles , who thought it more resembled that of an ornithomimid , but the original authors defended their identification . With fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at , Daniel Chure reexamined the bone and found that it was not Allosaurus , but could represent an allosauroid . Similarly , Yoichi Azuma and Phil Currie , in their description of Fukuiraptor , noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus . This specimen is sometimes referred to as " Allosaurus robustus " , an informal museum name . It may have belonged to something similar to , or the same as , Australovenator , or it may represent an abelisaur . A speculative " polar " or " dwarf allosaur " was used for the " Spirits of the Ice Forest " episode of Walking with Dinosaurs .

= Astraeus hygrometricus = Astraeus hygrometricus , commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar , the barometer earthstar , or the false earthstar , is a species of fungus in the Diplocystaceae family . Young specimens resemble a puffball when young and unopened . In maturity , the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star @-@ like manner . The false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees , especially in sandy soils . A. hygrometricus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and is common in temperate and tropical regions . Its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic ( water @-@ absorbing ) , and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity , and close them up again in drier conditions . The rays have an irregularly cracked surface , while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top . The gleba is white initially , but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature . The spores are reddish @-@ brown , roughly spherical with minute warts , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 11 micrometers in diameter . Despite a similar overall appearance , A. hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus Geastrum , although historically , they have been taxonomically confused . The species was first described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus . In 1885 , Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum ; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities . Several Asian populations formerly thought to be A. hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique Astraeus species , including A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . Research has revealed the presence of several bioactive chemical compounds in the fruit bodies . North American field guides typically rate A. hygrometricus as inedible . = = Taxonomy , naming , and phylogeny = = Because this species resembles the earthstar fungi of Geastrum , it was placed in that genus by early authors , starting with Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 ( as Geaster , an alternate spelling of Geastrum ) . According to the American botanist Andrew P. Morgan , however , the species differed from those of Geastrum in not having open chambers in the young gleba , having larger and branched capillitium threads , not having a true hymenium , and having larger spores . Accordingly , Morgan set Persoon 's Geaster hygrometricum as the type species of his new genus Astraeus in 1889 . Despite Morgan 's publication , some authorities in the following decades continued to classify the species in Geastrum . The New @-@ Zealand based mycologist Gordon Herriot Cunningham explicitly transferred the species back to the genus Geastrum in 1944 , explaining : The treatment of this species by certain taxonomists well illustrates the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of ontogenic classification ... The only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of Geastrum is the somewhat primitive hymenium . In the developing plant the glebal cavities are separated by tramal plates so tenuous as to be overlooked by the uncritical worker . Each cavity is filled with basidia somewhat irregularly arranged in clusters ( like those of Scleroderma ) and not in the definite palisade of the species which have been studied . This difference disappears as maturity is reached , when plants resemble closely the fructification of any other member of the genus . The taxonomist is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which " Astraeus " may be separated from Geastrum , which indicates that the name should be discarded . Cunningham 's treatment was not followed by later authorities , who largely considered Astraeus a distinct genus . According to the taxonomical authority MycoBank , synonyms of Astraeus hygrometricus include Lycoperdon stellatus Scop . ( 1772 ) ; Geastrum fibrillosum Schwein . ( 1822 ) ; Geastrum stellatum ( Scop . ) Wettst . ( 1885 ) ; and Astraeus stellatus E.Fisch. ( 1900 ) . Astraeus hygrometricus has been given a number of colloquial names that allude to its hygroscopic behavior , including the " hygrometer earthstar " , the " hygroscopic earthstar " , the " barometer earthstar " , and the " water @-@ measure earthstar " . The resemblance to Geastrum species ( also known as true earthstars ) accounts for the common name " false earthstar " . The specific name is derived from the Greek words ὑγρός ( hygros ) " wet " and μέτρον ( metron ) " measure " . The German Mycological Society selected the species as their " Mushroom of the Year " in 2005 . Studies in the 2000s showed that several species from Asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics . Molecular studies of the DNA sequences of the ITS region of the ribosomal DNA from a number of Astraeus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus . Based on these results , two Asian " hygrometricus " populations have been described as new species : A. asiaticus and A. odoratus ( synonymous with Petcharat 's A. thailandicus described in 2003 ) . Preliminary DNA analyses suggests that the European A. hygrometricus described by Persoon is a different species than the North American version described by Morgan , and that the European population may be divided into two distinct phylotypes , from France and from the Mediterranean . A 2010 study identified a Japanese species , previously identified as A. hygrometricus , as genetically distinct ; it has yet to be officially named . A form of the species found in Korea and Japan , A. hygrometricus var. koreanus , was named by V.J. Stanĕk in 1958 ; it was later ( 1976 ) published as a distinct species — A. koreanus — by Hanns Kreisel . As pointed out by Fangfuk and colleagues , clarification of the proper name for this taxon must await analysis of A. hygrometricus var. koreanus specimens from the type locality in North Korea . = = Description = = Young specimens of A. hygrometricus have roughly spherical fruit bodies that typically start their development partially embedded in the substrate . A smooth whitish mycelial layer covers the fruit body , and may be partially encrusted with debris . As the fruit body matures , the mycelial layer tears away , and the outer tissue layer , the exoperidium , breaks open in a star @-@ shaped ( stellate ) pattern to form 4 – 20 irregular " rays " . This simultaneously pushes the fruit body above ground to reveal a round spore case enclosed in a thin papery endoperidium . The rays open and close in response to levels of moisture in the environment , opening up in high humidity , and closing when the air is dry . This is possible because the exoperidium is made of several different layers of tissue ; the innermost , fibrous layer is hygroscopic , and curls or uncurls the entire ray as it loses or gains moisture from its surroundings . This adaptation enables the fruit body to disperse spores at times of optimum moisture , and reduce evaporation during dry periods . Further , dry fruit bodies with the rays curled up may be readily blown about by the wind , allowing them to scatter spores from the pore as they roll . The fruit body is 1 – 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter from tip to tip when expanded . The exoperidium is thick , and the rays are typically areolate ( divided into small areas by cracks and crevices ) on the upper surface , and are dark grey to black . The spore case is sessile ( lacking a stalk ) , light gray to tan color and 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) broad with a felt @-@ like or scurfy ( coated with loose scaly crust ) surface ; the top of the spore case is opened by an irregular slit , tear or pore . The interior of the spore case , the gleba , is white and solid when young , and divided into oval locules — a characteristic that helps to distinguish it from Geastrum . The gleba becomes brown and powdery as the specimen matures . Small dark hairlike threads ( rhizomorphs ) extend from the base of the fruit body into the substrate . The rhizomorphs are fragile , and often break off after maturity . The spores are spherical or nearly so , reddish @-@ brown , thick @-@ walled and verrucose ( covered with warts and spines ) . The spores ' dimensions are 7 – 11 µm ; the warts are about 1 µm long . The spores are non @-@ amyloid , and will not stain with iodine from Melzer 's reagent . The use of scanning electron microscopy has shown that the spines are 0 @.@ 90 – 1 @.@ 45 µm long , rounded at the tip , narrow , tapered , and sometime joined together at the top . The capillitia ( masses of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched , 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm in diameter , and hyaline ( translucent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four- to eight @-@ spored , with very short sterigmata . The basidia are arranged in long strings of clusters ; individual basidia measure 11 – 15 by 18 – 24 µm . The threads of the capillitia arise from the inner surface of the peridium , and are thick @-@ walled , long , interwoven , and branched , measuring 3 – 5 @.@ 5 µm thick . The exoperidium ( the outer layer of tissue , comprising the rays ) is made of four distinct layers of tissue : the mycelial layer contains branched hyphae that are 4 – 6 μm in diameter ; the hyphae of the fibrous layer are 6 – 8 μm diameter and branched ; the collenchyma @-@ type layer has branched hyphae of 3 – 4 μm diameter ; the soft layer contains hyphae that are 3 – 6 μm in diameter . = = = Edibility = = = North American sources describe A. hygrometricus as being of either unknown edibility , or too tough to be edible . However , they are regularly consumed in Asia , including Nepal and South Bengal , where " local people consume them as delicious food " . They are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of India . A study of a closely related southeast Asian Astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @-@ carbon compounds ( including 1 @-@ octanol , 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , and 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ one ) that imparted a " mushroom @-@ like , earthy , and pungent odor that was evident as an oily and moss @-@ like smell upon opening the caps " . The study 's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a " roasted , maillard , herbal , and oily flavor " . Volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included furfural , benzaldehyde , cyclohexenone , and furanyl compounds . The regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that North American and Asian versions of A. hygrometricus were not always the same ; in some cases Asian specimens have been identified as new species , such as A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . = = Similar species = = Although A. hygrometricus bears a superficial resemblance to member of the " true earthstars " Geastrum , it may be readily differentiated from most by the hygroscopic nature of its rays . Hygroscopic earthstars include G. arenarium , G. corollinum , G. floriforme , G. recolligens , and G. kotlabae . Unlike Geastrum , the young fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus do not have a columella ( sterile tissue in the gleba , at the base of the spore sac ) . Geastrum tends to have its spore sac opening surrounded by a peristome or a disc , in contrast with the single lacerate slit of A. hygrometricus . There are also several microscopic differences : in A. hygrometricus , the basidia are not arranged in parallel columns , the spores are larger , and the threads of the capillitia are branched and continuous with the hyphae of the peridium . Despite these differences , older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from Geastrum in the field . One species of Geastrum , G. mammosum , does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately hygroscopic , and could be confused with A. hygrometricus ; however , its spores are smaller than A. hygrometricus , typically about 4 µm in diameter . Astraeus pteridis is larger , 5 to 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) or more when expanded , and often has a more pronounced areolate pattern on the inner surface of the rays . It is found in North America and the Canary Islands . A. asiaticus and A. odoratus are two similar species known from throughout Asia and Southeast Asia , respectively . A. odoratus is distinguished from A. hygrometricus by a smooth outer mycelial layer with few adhering soil particles , 3 – 9 broad rays , and a fresh odor similar to moist soil . The spore ornamentation of A. odoratus is also distinct from A. hygrometricus , with longer and narrower spines that often joined together . A. asiaticus has an outer peridial surface covered with small granules , and a gleba that is purplish @-@ chestnut in color , compared to the smooth peridial surface and brownish gleba of A. hygrometricus . The upper limit of the spore size of A. asiaticus is larger than that of its more common relative , ranging from 8 @.@ 75 – 15 @.@ 2 μm . A. koreanus ( sometimes named as the variety A. hygrometricus var. koreanus ; see Taxonomy ) differs from the more common form in its smaller size , paler fruit body , and greater number of rays ; microscopically , it has smaller spores ( between 6 @.@ 8 and 9 μm in diameter ) , and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology . It is known from Korea and Japan . = = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = = Astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species . The mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth ; in exchange , the fungus receives carbohydrates from photosynthesis . In North America , associations with oak and pine are usual , while in India , it has been noted to grow commonly with chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii ) and sal ( Shorea robusta ) . The false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields , often scattered or in groups , especially in nutrient @-@ poor , sandy or loamy soils . It has also been reported to grow on rocks , preferring acid substrates like slate and granite , while avoiding substrates rich in lime . In Nepal , fruit bodies have been collected at elevations of 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Fruit bodies typically appear in autumn , although the dry fruit bodies are persistent and may last up to several years . Gelatinipulvinella astraeicola is a leotiaceous fungus with minute , gelatinous , pulvinate ( cushion @-@ shaped ) apothecia , known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead Astraeus species , including A. hygrometricus . The species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for arctic , alpine and cold temperate regions ; it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world . It has been collected in Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America . = = Bioactive compounds = = Mushroom polysaccharides from a number of species have attracted research interest for their immunomodulatory and antitumor properties . Extracts from A. hygrometricus containing the polysaccharide named AE2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests , and stimulated the growth of splenocytes , thymocytes , and bone marrow cells from mice . The extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system ; specifically , it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells , stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide , and enhanced production of cytokines . The activation of macrophages by AE2 might be mediated by a mitogen @-@ activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction . AE2 is made of the simple sugars mannose , glucose , and fucose in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio . In addition to the previously known steroid compounds ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ diene @-@ 3 @-@ ol acetate and ergosta @-@ 4,6,8- ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , three unique triterpenes — derivatives of 3 @-@ hydroxy @-@ lanostane — have been isolated from fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus . The compounds , named astrahygrol , 3 @-@ epi @-@ astrahygrol , and astrahygrone ( 3 @-@ oxo @-@ 25S @-@ lanost @-@ 8 @-@ eno @-@ 26 @,@ 22 @-@ lactone ) , have δ @-@ lactone ( a six @-@ membered ring ) in the side chain — a chemical feature previously unknown in the Basidiomycetes . A previously unknown steryl ester ( 3β , 5α @-@ dihydroxy- ( 22E , 24R ) -ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 6α @-@ yl palmitate ) has been isolated from mycelia grown in liquid culture . The compound has a polyhydroxylated ergostane @-@ type nucleus . Ethanol extracts of the fruit body are high in antioxidant activity , and have been shown in laboratory tests to have anti @-@ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug diclofenac . Studies with mouse models have also demonstrated hepatoprotective ( liver @-@ protecting ) ability , possibly by restoring diminished levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase caused by experimental exposure to the liver @-@ damaging chemical carbon tetrachloride . = = Traditional beliefs = = This earthstar has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a hemostatic agent ; the spore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chilblains . Two Indian forest tribes , the Baiga and the Bharia of Madhya Pradesh , have been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinally . The spore mass is blended with mustard seed oil , and used as a salve against burns . The Blackfoot of North America called the fungus " fallen stars " , considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events .

= Paul Thomas Anderson = Paul Thomas Anderson ( born June 26 , 1970 ) also known as P.T. Anderson , is an American film director , screenwriter and producer . Interested in film @-@ making at a young age , Anderson was encouraged by his father Ernie Anderson ( a disc jockey , and television and radio announcer / voiceover artist ) to become a filmmaker . In 1993 , he wrote and directed a short film titled Cigarettes & Coffee on a budget of $ 20 @,@ 000 . After he attended the Sundance Institute , Anderson had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature film , a neo @-@ noir crime thriller titled Hard Eight , in 1996 . Anderson received critical and commercial success for his film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , set during the Golden Age of Porn in the 1970s and 1980s . His third feature , Magnolia ( 1999 ) , received wide acclaim despite struggling at the box office . In 2002 , the romantic comedy @-@ drama Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson 's fourth feature , was released to generally favorable reviews . After a five @-@ year absence , the epic drama There Will Be Blood was released to critical acclaim in 2007 . In 2012 , Anderson 's sixth film , the drama The Master , was released to critical acclaim . His seventh film , the crime comedy @-@ drama Inherent Vice , based on the novel of the same name by Thomas Pynchon , was released in 2014 , to general acclaim . Anderson has been nominated for six Academy Awards over the course of his career , while his films have earned a further fourteen Academy Award nominations for cast and crew . = = Early life = = Anderson was born June 26 , 1970 , in Studio City , California , to Edwina ( née Gough ) and Ernie Anderson . Ernie was an actor who was the voice of ABC and a Cleveland television late @-@ night horror movie host known as " Ghoulardi " ( after whom Anderson later named his production company ) . Anderson grew up in the San Fernando Valley . He is third youngest of nine children , and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father , who encouraged him to become a writer or director . Anderson attended a number of schools , including Buckley in Sherman Oaks , John Thomas Dye School , Campbell Hall School , Cushing Academy and Montclair Prep . Anderson was involved in filmmaking at a young age and never really had an alternative plan to directing films . He made his first movie when he was eight years old and started making movies on a Betamax video camera which his dad bought in 1982 when he was twelve years old . He later started using 8 mm film but realized that video was easier . He began writing in adolescence , and at 17 years old he began experimenting with a Bolex sixteen millimeter camera . After years of experimenting with " standard fare " , he wrote and filmed his first real production as a senior in high school at Montclair Prep using money he earned cleaning cages at a pet store . The film was a thirty @-@ minute mockumentary shot on video called The Dirk Diggler Story ( 1988 ) , about a pornography star ; the story was inspired by John Holmes , who also served as a major inspiration for Boogie Nights . = = Career = = = = = Early career = = = Anderson spent two semesters as an English major at Emerson College , and only two days at New York University before he began his career as a production assistant on television films , music videos and game shows in Los Angeles and New York City . Feeling that the material shown to him at film school turned the experience into " homework or a chore " , Anderson decided to make a twenty @-@ minute film that would be his " college " . For $ 20 @,@ 000 , made up of gambling winnings , his girlfriend 's credit card , and money his father set aside for him for college , Anderson made Cigarettes & Coffee ( 1993 ) , a short film connecting multiple story lines with a twenty @-@ dollar bill . The film was screened at the 1993 Sundance Festival Shorts Program . He decided to expand the film into a feature @-@ length film and was subsequently invited to the 1994 Sundance Feature Film Program . At the Sundance Feature Film Program , Michael Caton @-@ Jones served as Anderson 's mentor ; he saw Anderson as someone with " talent and a fully formed creative voice but not much hands @-@ on experience " and gave him some hard and practical lessons . = = = 1990s = = = = = = = Hard Eight = = = = While at the Sundance Feature Film Program , Anderson already had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature . In 1996 , Anderson made his first full @-@ length feature , Sydney , which was retitled Hard Eight ( 1996 ) . Upon completion of the film , Rysher re @-@ edited it . Anderson , who still had the workprint of his original cut , submitted the film , which was accepted and screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival . Anderson was able to get his version released but only after he retitled the film and raised the $ 200 @,@ 000 necessary to finish it - he , Philip Baker Hall , Gwyneth Paltrow and John C. Reilly contributed the funding . The version that was released was Anderson 's and the acclaim from the film launched his career . = = = = Boogie Nights = = = = Anderson began working on the script for his next feature film during his troubles with Hard Eight , completing the script in 1995 . The result was Anderson 's breakout for the drama film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , which is based on his short The Dirk Diggler Story . The script was noticed by New Line Cinema 's president , Michael De Luca , who felt " totally gaga " reading it . It was released on October 10 , 1997 and was a critical and commercial success . The film revived the career of Burt Reynolds , and provided breakout roles for Mark Wahlberg and Julianne Moore . At the 70th Academy Awards ceremony , the film received three Academy Award nominations , including for Best Supporting Actor ( Burt Reynolds ) , Best Supporting Actress ( Julianne Moore ) and Best Original Screenplay . = = = = Magnolia = = = = After the success of Boogie Nights , New Line told Anderson that he could do whatever he wanted for his next film and granted him creative control . Though Anderson initially wanted to make a film that was " intimate and small @-@ scale " , the script " kept blossoming " . The resulting film was the ensemble piece Magnolia ( 1999 ) , which tells the story of the peculiar interaction of several individuals in the San Fernando Valley . Anderson used the music of Aimee Mann as a basis and inspiration for the film , commissioning her to write eight new songs . At the 72nd Academy Awards , Magnolia received three nominations , for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Tom Cruise ) , Best Original Song for " Save Me " by Aimee Mann and Best Original Screenplay . Anderson stated after the film 's release that " what I really feel is that Magnolia is , for better or worse , the best movie I 'll ever make . " = = = 2000s = = = = = = = Punch @-@ Drunk Love = = = = After the release of Magnolia , Anderson stated that he would like to work with comedic actor Adam Sandler in the future and that he was determined to make his next film 90 minutes long . His next feature was the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Punch @-@ Drunk Love ( 2002 ) , starring Sandler , with Emily Watson portraying his love interest . The story centers on a beleaguered small @-@ business owner ( Sandler ) with anger issues and seven emasculating sisters . A subplot in the film was partly based on David Phillips ( also called The Pudding Guy ) . Sandler received critical praise for his role in his first major departure from the mainstream comedies that had made him a star . At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival , Anderson won the Best Director Award and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or . = = = = There Will Be Blood = = = = There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) was loosely based on the Upton Sinclair novel Oil ! . The budget of the film was $ 25 million , and it earned $ 76 @.@ 1 million worldwide . Daniel Day @-@ Lewis starred and won an Oscar for Best Leading Actor for his role . The film received eight nominations overall at the 80th Academy Awards . Paul Dano received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actor . Anderson was nominated for Best Director from the Directors Guild of America . The film also received eight Academy Award nominations , tying with No Country for Old Men for the most nominations . Anderson received nominations for Best Picture , Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay , losing all three to the Coen Brothers for No Country for Old Men . There Will Be Blood was regarded by some critics as one of the greatest films of the decade , some parties further declaring it one of the most accomplished American films of the modern era ; David Denby of The New Yorker wrote " the young writer @-@ director Paul Thomas Anderson has now done work that bears comparison to the greatest achievements of Griffith and Ford " , while Richard Schickel proclaimed it " one of the most wholly original American movies ever made " . = = = 2010s = = = = = = = The Master = = = = In December 2009 , Anderson was working on a new script tentatively titled The Master , about a " charismatic intellectual " who starts a new religion in the 1950s . An associate of Anderson stated that the idea for the film had been in Anderson 's head for about twelve years . Though the film makes no reference to the movement , it has " long been widely assumed to be based on Scientology . " The Master was released on September 14 , 2012 by The Weinstein Company in the United States and Canada to critical acclaim . The film received three nominations at the 85th Academy Awards : Joaquin Phoenix for Best Leading Actor , Philip Seymour Hoffman for Best Supporting Actor and Amy Adams for Best Supporting Actress . = = = = Inherent Vice = = = = Production of Anderson 's adaptation of Thomas Pynchon 's 2009 novel Inherent Vice began in May 2013 and ended in August of the same year . The film marked the first time that Pynchon allowed his work to be adapted for the screen and saw Anderson work with Phoenix for a second time . The supporting cast includes Owen Wilson , Reese Witherspoon , Jena Malone , Martin Short , Benicio Del Toro , Katherine Waterston , Josh Brolin , Peter McRobbie , Michael K. Williams and Eric Roberts . The film received two nominations at the 87th Academy Awards : Anderson for Best Adapted Screenplay and Mark Bridges for Best Costume Design . = = = = Junun = = = = In 2015 , Anderson directed a 54 @-@ minute documentary , Junun , about the making of an album of the same name by Jonny Greenwood , Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur and a group of Indian musicians . Most of the performances were recorded at the 15th @-@ century Mehrangarh Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan . Junun premiered at the 2015 New York Film Festival . = = = = Future projects = = = = Anderson is currently working on a drama about the New York fashion industry in the 1950s , which is expected to star Daniel Day @-@ Lewis in his first acting role since Lincoln in 2012 . = = = Other work = = = Anderson was a standby director during the 2005 filming of Robert Altman 's A Prairie Home Companion for insurance purposes , as Altman was 80 years old at the time . In addition to films , Anderson has directed several music videos , including several for musician Fiona Apple . In 2008 , Anderson co @-@ wrote and directed a 70 @-@ minute play at the Largo Theatre , comprising a series of vignettes starring Maya Rudolph and Fred Armisen , with a live musical score by Jon Brion . = = Influences and style = = = = = Influences = = = Anderson only attended film school for two days , preferring to learn the craft by watching films by the filmmakers he liked , as well as watching films accompanied by director 's audio commentary . Anderson has cited Martin Scorsese , Robert Altman , Jonathan Demme , Stanley Kubrick , Orson Welles and Max Ophüls , as his main influences as a filmmaker . = = = Themes and style = = = Anderson is known for films set in the San Fernando Valley with realistically flawed and desperate characters . Among the themes dealt with in Anderson 's films are dysfunctional familial relationships , alienation , surrogate families , regret , loneliness , destiny , the power of forgiveness , and ghosts of the past . Anderson makes frequent use of repetition to build emphasis and thematic consistency . In Boogie Nights , Magnolia , Punch Drunk Love and The Master , the phrase " I didn 't do anything " is used at least once , developing themes of responsibility and denial . Anderson 's films are known for their bold visual style which includes stylistic trademarks such as constantly moving camera , steadicam @-@ based long takes , memorable use of music , and multilayered audiovisual imagery . Anderson also tends to reference the Book of Exodus , either explicitly or subtly , such as in recurring references to Exodus 8 : 2 in Magnolia , which chronicles the plague of frogs , culminating with the literal raining of frogs in the film 's climax , or the title and themes in There Will Be Blood , a phrase that can be found in Exodus 7 : 19 , which details the plague of blood . Within his first three films , Hard Eight , Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson explored themes of dysfunctional families , alienation and loneliness . Boogie Nights and Magnolia were noted for their large ensemble casts , which Anderson returned to in Inherent Vice . In Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson explored similar themes but expressed a different visual style , shedding the influences and references of his earlier films , being more surreal and having a heightened sense of reality . It was also short , compared to his previous two films , at 90 minutes . There Will Be Blood stood apart from his first four films but shared similar themes and style such as flawed characters , moving camera , memorable music , and a lengthy running time . The film was more overtly engaged with politics than his previous films had been , examining capitalism and themes such as savagery , optimism , and obsession . The Master dealt with " ideas about American personality , success , rootlessness , master @-@ disciple dynamics , and father @-@ son mutually assured destruction . " All of his films deal with American themes with business versus art in Boogie Nights , ambition in There Will Be Blood , self @-@ reinvention in The Master . = = = Frequent collaborators = = = Anderson frequently collaborates with many actors and crew , carrying them over from film to film . Anderson has referred to his regular actors as " my little rep company " that has included John C. Reilly , Philip Baker Hall , Julianne Moore , William H. Macy , Melora Walters , and most prominently , the late Philip Seymour Hoffman . Luis Guzmán is also considered an Anderson regular . Hoffman acted in Anderson 's first four films as well as The Master . Except for Paul F. Tompkins , Kevin Breznahan , and Jim Meskimen , who all had equally minor roles in Magnolia , There Will Be Blood had an entirely new cast . Robert Elswit has been cinematographer for all of Anderson 's films except The Master which was shot by Mihai Mălaimare Jr . Jon Brion served as composer for Hard Eight , Magnolia , and Punch @-@ Drunk Love , and Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead for There Will Be Blood , The Master , and Inherent Vice . Anderson also regularly works with producing partners JoAnne Sellar , Scott Rudin , Michael De Luca , and Daniel Lupi as well as casting director Cassandra Kulukundis . = = Personal life = = Anderson dated ( and frequently collaborated with ) singer Fiona Apple for several years during the late 1990s and early 2000s . He has been in a relationship with actress and comedian Maya Rudolph since 2001 . They live together in the San Fernando Valley with their four children : daughters Pearl Bailey ( born October 2005 ) , Lucille ( born November 2009 ) , and Minnie Ida ( born August 2013 ) and son Jack ( born July 2011 ) . = = Filmography = = = = Awards and recognition = = Anderson has been called " one of the most exciting talents to come along in years " and " among the supreme talents of today . " After the release of Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson was praised as a wunderkind . In his 2002 interview with Jan Aghed , the director Ingmar Bergman referenced Magnolia as an example of the strength of American cinema . In 2004 , Anderson was ranked twenty @-@ first on The Guardian 's list of the forty best living filmmakers . In 2007 , Total Film named him the twentieth greatest director of all time and the American Film Institute regarded him as " one of American film 's modern masters . " In 2012 , The Guardian ranked him number one on its list of " The 23 Best Film Directors in the World , " writing " his dedication to his craft has intensified , with his disdain for PR and celebrity marking him out as the most devout filmmaker of his generation . " In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly named him the eighth @-@ greatest working director , calling him " one of the most dynamic directors to emerge in the last 20 years . " In a podcast interview with critic Elvis Mitchell , director Sam Mendes referred to Anderson as " a true auteur – and there are very few of those who I would classify as geniuses " , and Ben Affleck in his acceptance speech for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director said " Paul Thomas Anderson , who I think is like Orson Welles . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that " The Master , the sixth film from the 42 @-@ year @-@ old writer @-@ director , affirms his position as the foremost filmmaking talent of his generation . Anderson is a rock star , the artist who knows no limits . " As of 2016 , Anderson is the only person to win all three director prizes from the three major international film festivals ( Cannes , Berlin , Venice ) .

= The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman = The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman is a poem by the 15th @-@ century Scottish poet Robert Henryson and part of his collection of moral fables known as the Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian . It is written in Middle Scots . As with the other tales in the collection , appended to it is a moralitas which elaborates on the moral that the fable is supposed to contain . However , the appropriateness of the moralitas for the tale itself has been questioned . The tale combines two motifs . Firstly , a husbandman tilling the fields with his new oxen makes a rash oath aloud to give them to the wolf ; when the wolf overhears this , he attempts to make sure that the man fulfills his promise . The fox mediates a solution by speaking to them individually ; eventually he fools the wolf into following him to claim his supposed reward for dropping the case , and tricks him into a draw @-@ well . The moralitas connects the wolf to the wicked man , the fox to the devil , and the husbandman to the godly man . A probable source for the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina Clericalis , containing the same motifs , and William Caxton 's Aesop 's Fables — though the tale is a beast fable , not Aesopic . = = Source = = A probable source of the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina clericalis , which has the same three motifs : the rash promise of the husbandman ; the wolf mistaking the moon for cheese ; and the wolf that descends into the well via a bucket , thereby trapping himself and freeing the fox . However , the discussion of legality and the questioning of language that take place alongside these motifs are entirely Henryson 's invention . Whereas the moral of Alfonsi 's tale explains that the wolf lost both the oxen and the cheese because he " relinquished what was present for what was to come " ( Latin : pro futuro quod presens erat dimisit ) , Henryson 's moralitas more fully involves the husbandman . Another source may be Aesop 's Fables as published by William Caxton — scholar John MacQueen considers this more likely than Disciplina clericalis — although the tale itself is not Aesopic but rather of the beast fable ( also beast @-@ epic ) genre . The plots of such works are more complicated than their Aesopic counterpart , tend more towards ribaldry , and feature the fox making a victim of the wolf . = = Synopsis = = = = = Tale = = = A husbandman tilling the fields with his new , untrained oxen is made furious by their wrecking of the land . In his anger he makes the rash oath that the wolf " mot have you all at anis ! [ may , at once ] " . However , the wolf is lying nearby with the fox , and , overhearing it , promises to make him stay true to his word . Eventually the oxen calm down , but on the way back home the wolf jumps into their path . The wolf asks where the husbandman is driving them , since they are not his , to which he confirms that they are and asks why he is being stopped since he never offended the wolf before . The wolf reminds the husbandman of his earlier declaration , to which he replies that a man may say things that do not mean anything . They argue , and the husbandman reproaches the wolf for not having a witness ; in response , he produces the fox . The creature takes it upon himself to mediate the dispute , and takes each aside in turn . To the husbandman he says that he would lend his expertise to help him were it not for the " grit coist and expence " of doing so ; the husbandman offers him half a dozen of the fattest hens he has , to which the fox acedes and goes off . To the wolf he says that the husbandman has offered an unparalleled block of cheese in exchange for him dropping the case . The wolf , after some complaint , agrees to this and the two proceed through the woods after the prize — all the while the fox considers how to trick the wolf . Eventually , as the wolf complains of the fruitlessness of their quest , they arrive at a draw @-@ well with buckets on each end of a rope . Seeing the reflection of the moon in the water at the bottom of the well , the wolf believes there to be cheese down there and lowers the fox down to pick it up . When he complains that it is too heavy for him to lift alone , the wolf jumps into the other bucket and descends to help . However , this pulls up the other bucket , into which the fox has jumped , and so the two swap places ; the wolf at the bottom of the well and the fox safely escaped . The narrator professes that he does not know who helped the wolf out of the well , but that the tale is at an end . = = = Moralitas = = = The wolf is likened to a wicked man who oppresses others . The fox is likened to the devil . The farmer is likened to the godly man , with whom the fiend finds fault . The woods where the wolf was cheated are corrupting goods that man longs to get . The cheese represents covetousness ; the well that contains it is fraud and fantasy , which draws men downwards into hell . = = Analysis = = As with other tales in the collection , the moralitas of The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman can be considered at odds with the tale itself . Lianne Farber highlights a number of these discrepancies , and says that the allegory " does not hold true in any traditional sense " . Amongst the inconsistencies is that the fox , not the wolf , is the figure that argues with and finds fault in the husbandman ; the " woods of the world " are not traversed by the husbandman , in spite of the moralitas suggesting it is applicable to all men ; Farber argues that even assuming the moral to be true is problematic , since it apparently suggests that the godly man must bribe the figure of the judge , and that this does not affect his godly status . Furthermore , the absence of the legal discussion and the binding quality of words from the moralitas suggests to Farber that the " intricate legal framework … has no impact whatsoever in resolving the issues with which it is supposed to deal " . In contrast , Philippa M. Bright considers that the moralitas of this tale , as well as several others , create " an additional sense which co @-@ exists with the literal narrative and extends and complements it thematically " ; treating literal details symbolically and establishing the sense through direct comparisons . According to Dorothy Yamamoto , the significant themes in the tale are " solidity and vacancy , substance and illusion " . The cheese that apparently resides in the well is only an illusion , not a solid object , and similarly the fox creates a surface reconciliation between the wolf and the husbandman , but which betrays his real intentions . Through their frequent misuse , words that should convey real value are emptied of meaning . As an example , Yamamoto highlights the fox 's taill on which the wolf and husbandman make their pledge — which body part she says is used by the fox in other tales to blind his foes , and is thereby a highly inappropriate object to use . = = = Modern edition = = = Henryson , Robert ( 2009 ) . The Testament of Cresseid & seven fables . Trans. by Seamus Heaney . London : Faber and Faber . ISBN 9780571249282 .

= Joe Nathan = Joseph Michael " Joe " Nathan ( born November 22 , 1974 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Nathan started out his baseball career as a shortstop in high school and while at Stony Brook University , but converted to a pitcher after being drafted by the San Francisco Giants . He worked his way through the minor leagues , alternating between spots in the rotation and the bullpen . After a few years of splitting time between the majors and the minors , Nathan had a breakout season as a setup man for the Giants in 2003 . That offseason , Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins and became their closer . From 2004 to 2009 , Nathan was considered one of the top closers in MLB with four All @-@ Star appearances and a league @-@ leading 246 saves . In 2010 , Nathan underwent Tommy John surgery to repair a torn ulnar collateral ligament in his throwing elbow and missed the entire season . On April 3 , 2011 , Nathan recorded his first save since his injury against the Toronto Blue Jays and later that year in July , Nathan regained the role as closer . On August 10 , 2011 , he became the Twins all @-@ time leader in saves with his 255th in a game against the Boston Red Sox . After the 2011 season , Nathan left the Twins via free agency to sign with the Texas Rangers , becoming an All @-@ Star again in 2012 and 2013 . On April 8 , 2013 , he earned his 300th save . After the 2013 season , Nathan left the Rangers via free agency to sign with the Detroit Tigers . Nathan is currently 8th on the all @-@ time saves list . = = Early career = = Nathan graduated from Pine Bush High School in Pine Bush , New York in 1992 , where he played basketball and baseball and ran track . Only Division III colleges showed minimal interest in him , and he ended up at Stony Brook University largely because his high school assistant coach Jeff Masionet and Stony Brook baseball coach Matt Senk knew each other as former teammates in the State University of New York at Cortland baseball program . = = College career = = He first played shortstop for the then Division III Stony Brook Patriots ( now Division I and called the Seawolves ) , at Stony Brook University in Long Island , New York . Nathan became a two @-@ time Academic All @-@ American and graduating as a member of the Golden Key International Honour Society . During his tenure there , professional baseball scouts began to notice his good arm and pitcher 's body , and on the day of a rainout , unfortunately , " literally someone from every organization " came to watch him pitch . He was drafted in the sixth round ( 159th overall ) of the amateur draft by the San Francisco Giants in 1995 , and signed the next day , June 2 . His college jersey number has since been retired , and he was awarded the University Medal , the highest recognition given by SUNY / Stony Brook . He also played for the Fairfield Stallions in the New England Collegiate Baseball League in 1994 . In August 2008 , he gave the SUNY / Stony Brook athletics department $ 500 @,@ 000 for a new baseball facility . In recognition of this " lead gift " from the Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , the college named it " Joe Nathan Field . " = = Professional career = = = = = Minor Leagues = = = He began his minor league career in Class A for the Bellingham Giants . After an unsuccessful year at the plate the Giants tried to convert Nathan into a pitcher , but he refused and left to return to Stony Brook for a year , graduating with a degree in business management . He gave more thought to his future in baseball , however , and after graduation decided to return to the Giants organization and developed into a standout pitching prospect . After a season with the Salem @-@ Keizer Volcanoes , he pitched for both the A and AA levels for ( the San Jose Giants and Shreveport Captains ) in 1998 as a starter . During his tenure with San Jose he started 22 games with an ERA of 3 @.@ 32 and 118 strikeouts , leading the Class A Giants to the California League championship . Promoted to AA Shreveport in 1999 , he pitched in only two games before being promoted to the parent club in 1999 . = = = San Francisco Giants ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = = Nathan was promoted to the San Francisco Giants on April 20 , 1999 , taking the roster spot of superstar slugger Barry Bonds , who went on the disabled list after left elbow surgery . He made his major league debut the next day , pitching seven shutout innings and winning his first major league decision against the Florida Marlins , 4 – 0 . He then divided the rest of the season between the AAA Fresno Grizzlies and the Giants , going 6 – 4 with the Griz and 7 – 4 and 4 @.@ 18 with the Giants , earning his first career save on May 16 against the Houston Astros . After a short stint in the minors in 2000 , Nathan spent most of the season in the majors , finishing 5 – 2 and even hitting two home runs . But he struggled with his control , walking 63 in 931 ⁄ 3 innings and ending the season with a 5 @.@ 21 ERA . He was on the disabled list twice : from May 17 to June 6 for right shoulder tendinitis and from July 14 to August 18 for an inflamed right shoulder , necessitating arthroscopic surgery on the afflicted shoulder at the end of the season . Nathan divided 2001 between the AAA Fresno Grizzlies and AA Shreveport both starting and relieving , finishing with a disappointing combined 3 – 11 record and an ERA over 7 . Nathan improved slightly in 2002 to 6 – 12 with an ERA of over 5 at Fresno , but finally overcame his postsurgical struggles to return to the Giants in September with 32 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in relief . Nathan spent all of 2003 with the Giants in the bullpen after marrying Lisa Lemoncelli , his girlfriend of five years , in November 2002 . This was a breakout year for Nathan , starting the season with 23 scoreless innings en route to a 12 – 4 record in his first full year as a reliever . His 78 appearances put him high on the list of most @-@ used pitchers for the season as one of the best setup men in the NL , allowing no runs in 15 appearances from July 18 to August 20 . His 12 wins in relief led the majors . The Giants won the National League West by 151 ⁄ 2 games and drew the Florida Marlins , the National League 's wild card winner , in the NLDS . Nathan was hit hard in that series , blowing his only save opportunity . His team fared no better , winning Game 1 behind Jason Schmidt 's complete game shutout before dropping the next three . = = = Minnesota Twins ( 2004 – 2011 ) = = = = = = = 2004 = = = = Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins on November 16 , 2003 , in one of the more lopsided trades in San Francisco Giants history . The Giants sent Nathan to the Twins along with pitchers Boof Bonser and Francisco Liriano for catcher A. J. Pierzynski and cash . The Twins decided to make Nathan their closer starting in 2004 , risky move considering that Nathan had notched only one save in six opportunities as a Giant , but he won the job over J. C. Romero and Jesse Crain in spring training . He was signed to a three @-@ year deal on March 4 , 2004 and agreed to an incentive @-@ laden contract with a base salary of $ 440 @,@ 000 . He started off the season strong , allowing no runs in 20 appearances and earning 14 saves from April 15 to June 4 . He was named AL Co @-@ Player of the Week starting on May 10 with four saves in four innings and four appearances , facing the minimum number of batters each time . His credentials for the first half of the season , 23 saves in 24 opportunities with a 1 @.@ 19 ERA in 26 appearances , earned him his first All @-@ Star appearance in the 2004 MLB All @-@ Star Game . He was the only Twin on the squad and pitched a perfect seventh inning , getting Bobby Abreu to strike out , Mike Lowell to fly out and Miguel Cabrera to strike out . His numbers were impressive through the rest of the season , allowing no runs between June 9 and August 18 , and between August 25 and September 16 @.@ and finishing 2004 with 44 saves in 47 opportunities and an ERA of 1 @.@ 62 . The Twins won the AL Central division and faced the New York Yankees in the ALDS . Nathan picked up his first postseason save in Game 1 , but blew his second opportunity in Game 2 as the Twins went on to lose the ensuing three games . His outstanding season earned him MVP and Cy Young votes , finishing fourth for Cy Young and 12th for MVP . His first child , a son named Cole , was born on November 9 , 2004 . = = = = 2005 = = = = During spring training in 2005 , Nathan signed a two @-@ year deal that includes a club option for 2008 . He picked up from where he left off in 2004 , allowing no earned runs in 15 appearances from April 5 to May 10 . He also had streaks of 13 and 12 consecutive save opportunities converted between April and July . As a result , Nathan was named the American League Player of the Week for the week of June 27 . Nathan earned another All @-@ Star appearance in 2005 for his pitching in the first half of the season . Although his record was 1 – 3 with a 3 @.@ 57 ERA in 37 appearances , he had struck out 43 batters in 351 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , and lead the AL with 23 saves in 25 opportunities . Nathan pitched in the 2005 MLB All @-@ Star Game alongside fellow pitcher Johan Santana . Pitching the eighth inning of the game , he got Morgan Ensberg to pop out for the first out , then gave out a double to Moisés Alou . Felipe López singled , and Nathan was able to get Miguel Cabrera and Luis Castillo out , but not before Alou scored . Nathan had a brilliant second half as he went 6 – 1 with 18 saves in 20 chances , and posted an ERA of 1 @.@ 76 . He finished the season with a 7 – 4 record , a 2 @.@ 70 ERA , 43 saves in 48 opportunities , and 94 strikeouts . Nathan also became the third pitcher in club history to post consecutive 40 save seasons . The Twins however missed the playoffs . = = = = 2006 = = = = Before the 2006 season began , Nathan participated in the 2006 World Baseball Classic as one of the 30 players selected for the Team USA roster . He played the first game , a 2 – 0 win against Mexico , striking out the side while allowing one hit . He also pitched the 4 – 3 victory against Japan , again throwing a shutout inning . Nathan went on to pitch the last game for the United States in the ninth inning against Mexico , again not allowing a run and striking out two . As the regular 2006 season began for the Twins , Nathan started off strong , allowing no runs from the start of the season to April 25 . He also converted 10 straight save opportunities from April 11 to June 17 . On June 24 , Nathan recorded his one hundredth career save against the Chicago Cubs , and 99th save with Minnesota . Four days later he got save number 101 , his hundredth save with Minnesota against the Los Angeles Dodgers , becoming the fifth pitcher in Twins history to achieve that mark . Despite putting up great numbers during the 2006 season , Nathan was not selected to the All @-@ Star Game . He continued to pitch well throughout the season , passing Eddie Guardado for second on the Twins ' all @-@ time save list when he earned his 117th save against the Detroit Tigers on September 9 . Nathan was also given the Major League Baseball Delivery Man of the Month award for July , going nine for nine in save opportunities and posting a 0 @.@ 75 ERA for the month . He finished the season with some of his best numbers to date : a 7 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 58 ERA , 95 strikeouts , 36 saves , an 18th @-@ place finish in MVP voting , and a fifth @-@ place finish in Cy Young voting . His 61 games finished were also good for the AL lead and opponents batted just .158 against him , a career high . With 36 saves in 38 opportunities , Nathan also became the first pitcher for the organization to earn 35 saves in three straight seasons . The Twins won the division on the last day of the regular season , but were swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALDS as Nathan made one scoreless appearance . = = = = 2007 = = = = Nathan continued as the Twins ' closer for the 2007 season . He had a stretch between July and August where he gave up just two earned runs and converted all 12 save chances . Once again despite Nathan 's numbers , he was not picked for the All @-@ Star team . Nathan finished the year by converting 37 of 41 save opportunities with a record of 4 – 2 and an ERA of 1 @.@ 88 . The Twins however had a disappointing season and missed the playoffs . On September 25 , 2007 , Nathan was named as one of 10 finalists for the " DHL Delivery Man of the Year Award " , the third year in a row that he has been a finalist . On October 29 , the Twins exercised Nathan 's club option for 2008 . = = = = 2008 = = = = Though Nathan was slated to make $ 6 million in 2008 , on March 24 , 2008 , the Minnesota Twins re @-@ signed Nathan to a four @-@ year , $ 47 million contract through 2011 . The deal also includes a $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option for 2012 with a $ 2 million buyout . Nathan started the season with 13 consecutive saves but blew his first save of the season on May 27 by giving up a three @-@ run inside @-@ the @-@ park home run on a misplayed fly ball by teammate Delmon Young ; however , Nathan got two outs to end the 9th inning and the Twins went on to win the game . By converting 27 of 29 save opportunities prior to the All @-@ Star break , Nathan was selected as a reserve player for the American League in the 2008 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . Nathan finished the year with 39 saves and a career best 1 @.@ 33 ERA . He also had a career high six blown saves and surrendered his first career walk @-@ off home run to Victor Martinez on September 16 . Nathan ranked seventh in the majors in saves and had the lowest ERA of the top 30 save leaders in 2008 . = = = = 2009 = = = = Nathan had a strong season , as he was selected as an All @-@ Star for the 2009 MLB All Star Game , and he finished the year with 2 @.@ 10 ERA with 47 saves in 52 opportunities , which was a franchise record . He shared honors for the AL Rolaids Relief Man award with Mariano Rivera . However , Nathan did not fare as well in the postseason ; in Game 2 of the American League Division Series against the New York Yankees , with the Twins leading 3 – 1 in the bottom of the ninth inning , Nathan blew the save when he surrendered a game @-@ tying two @-@ run home run to Alex Rodriguez . It was the first home run Nathan had allowed with men on base all year . The Yankees later won the game in the 11th inning and swept the series . On October 11 , 2009 , after the Twins lost the final game at the Metrodome ( a 4 – 1 playoff loss to the Yankees that eliminated them ) , Nathan took a pile of dirt from the mound as a keepsake from the Metrodome . = = = = 2010 = = = = On March 9 , 2010 , it was reported that Nathan had a tear in his ulnar collateral ligament . On March 21 , after attempting to pitch without having surgery , Nathan decided to undergo Tommy John surgery , missing the entire 2010 season . = = = = 2011 = = = = Nathan earned his first save at Target Field on April 8 , 2011 . He emptied the container of dirt he took from the Metrodome on the mound at Target Field before pitching . On April 18 , Nathan was replaced at closer by Matt Capps after going 3 for 5 in save opportunities . On May 28 , 2011 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with a right flexor muscle strain . Chuck James was called up to take his place . On August 10 , 2011 , against the Boston Red Sox , Nathan became the Twins all @-@ time saves leader with 255 , passing Rick Aguilera . After the Twins declined his $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option and exercised a $ 2 million buyout , Nathan became a free agent at the end of the 2011 season . Nathan is currently the Minnesota Twins leader in career saves . = = = Texas Rangers ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = = On November 21 , 2011 , Nathan agreed to terms on a two @-@ year deal with the Texas Rangers worth $ 14 @.@ 5 million guaranteed with an option for a third year at $ 9 million or a $ 500 @,@ 000 buyout . Nathan had a strong first season with the Rangers , as he was selected to the represent the Rangers at the 2012 MLB All Star Game , the fifth all star selection of his career . He finished his 2012 campaign with 37 saves and an ERA of 2 @.@ 80 . During a game against the Tampa Bay Rays on April 8 , 2013 , Nathan earned his 300th career save after striking out Ben Zobrist looking on a controversial strike call made by home plate umpire Marty Foster . TV cameras captured Nathan saying " Wow ! " after the call . Nathan was selected to his sixth All Star Game in 2013 , and earned the save for the American League . Nathan improved on his 2012 campaign , finishing his 2013 season with 43 saves and an ERA of 1 @.@ 39 . Nathan finished his Rangers career with an overall record of 9 – 7 , 80 saves , a 2 @.@ 08 ERA and 0 @.@ 98 WHIP . = = = Detroit Tigers ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = = On December 4 , 2013 , the Tigers signed Nathan to a two @-@ year , $ 20 million contract , with a club option for 2016 . This reunited him with former teammate and fellow ex @-@ Twins great , Torii Hunter along with Rangers teammate Ian Kinsler . On May 5 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his 347th career save , tying him with Randy Myers for ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . Two days later , Nathan recorded career save number 348 , putting him alone at ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . On June 9 , Nathan recorded career save 358 , tying him with Troy Percival for 8th on the all @-@ time saves list . On August 23 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his 368th career save , passing up Jeff Reardon for 7th place on the all @-@ time saves list . In a September 16 game against the Minnesota Twins , Nathan blew his seventh save of the season , surpassing his previous career high of six blown saves when he pitched for the Twins in 2008 . Nathan finished his first season with the Tigers making 62 appearances and recording 35 saves in 42 chances , while posting an ERA of 4 @.@ 81 . He made one postseason appearance in 2014 , retiring all three batters he faced in a non @-@ save situation in Game 2 of the ALDS against the Baltimore Orioles . The Tigers were swept in the series , 3 – 0 . On April 8 , 2015 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to a strained right elbow . During a rehab start with the Toledo Mud Hens on April 22 , Nathan re @-@ injured his elbow after throwing only 10 pitches . The same night , Nathan underwent MRIs , which tested positive revealing tears in his ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow and his pronator teres muscle , and would undergo Tommy John surgery , ending Nathan 's 2015 season . Sources projected that this surgery could end Nathan 's career , but he was not planning to retire yet . During the 2015 offseason , the Tigers declined the $ 10 million club option for Nathan for the 2016 season , and exercised a $ 1 million buyout . = = = Chicago Cubs ( 2016 – present ) = = = On May 17 , 2016 , Nathan signed with the Chicago Cubs . He was immediately placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list upon signing to continue recovery from his previous Tommy John surgery . Nathan made his Cubs debut on July 24 , 2016 against the Milwaukee Brewers . He pitched one inning and struck out the side , allowing one hit and one walk . = = Records and notable statistics = = = = Personal life = = Nathan is married to Lisa ( nee Lemoncelli ) . They have two children . Nathan 's foundation , Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , also called " Save It " , helps raise money and awareness for many different charities . The Nathan 's reside in Knoxville , Tennessee in the offseason . = = Pitching style = = Nathan throws a mix of four pitches . His main pitch , a four @-@ seam fastball was once thrown in the mid @-@ to @-@ upper 90s , but now settles between 91 and 94 mph . His main breaking ball is a hard slider in the upper 80s , occasionally even touching 90 . He uses the slider less frequently against left @-@ handed hitters , preferring to use a curveball in the low 80s . He also uses a two @-@ seam fastball against lefties . His slider is his best swing @-@ and @-@ miss pitch , with a whiff rate of 42 % since 2007 .

= Art Ross = Arthur Howey " Art " Ross ( January 13 , 1885 – August 5 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and executive from 1905 until 1954 . Regarded as one of the best defenders of his era by his peers , he was one of the first to skate with the puck up the ice rather than pass it to a forward . He was on Stanley Cup championship teams twice in a playing career that lasted thirteen seasons ; in January 1907 with the Kenora Thistles and 1908 with the Montreal Wanderers . Like other players of the time , Ross played for several different teams and leagues , and is most notable for his time with the Wanderers while they were members of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and its successor , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In 1911 he led one of the first organized player strikes over increased pay . When the Wanderers ' home arena burned down in January 1918 , the team ceased operations and Ross retired as a player . After several years as an on @-@ ice official , he was named head coach of the Hamilton Tigers for one season . When the Boston Bruins were formed in 1924 , Ross was hired as the first coach and general manager of the team . He would go on to coach the team on three separate occasions until 1945 and stayed as general manager until his retirement in 1954 . Ross helped the Bruins finish first place in the league ten times and to win the Stanley Cup three times ; Ross personally coached the team to two of those victories . After being hired by the Bruins , Ross , along with his wife and two sons , moved to a suburb of Boston , and became an American citizen in 1938 . He died near Boston in 1964 . Outside of his association with the Bruins , Ross also helped to improve the game . He created a style of hockey puck still used today , and advocated an improved style of goal nets , a change that lasted forty years . In 1947 Ross donated the Art Ross Trophy , awarded to the leading scorer of the NHL regular season . Ross was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 . = = Early life = = Ross was born January 13 , 1885 , in Naughton , Ontario . His father , Thomas Barnston Ross , was the head of a Hudson 's Bay Company trading post in the area . The ninth of ten children , Ross grew up speaking both English and Ojibwe , a native Canadian language . Ross moved to Montreal in 1902 to play in organized hockey leagues , living in the affluent Westmount district . He played high school and junior hockey with Lester and Frank Patrick , both of whom were later inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Ross and Lester had a financially successful ticket resale business at the Montreal Arena , buying tickets for thirty @-@ five cents and selling them for up to a dollar . = = Playing career = = = = = 1905 – 09 = = = The best hockey players on their high school team , Ross and the Patrick brothers were invited to play occasional games for local league teams in Montreal . Ross first played in an organized league in 1905 , joining Montreal Westmount of the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) , the top amateur league in Canada . He scored ten goals in eight games during the season . His opponents regarded him as one of the best rushing defencemen . Most defenders at the time either shot the puck down the ice or passed to a forward ; in contrast , Ross skated up the ice , taking the puck into the offensive zone . Later that year , wishing to pursue a career in banking , he moved to Brandon , Manitoba , where he joined the Brandon Elks of the Manitoba Hockey League , the senior league in the province . In 1906 , his first season , he scored six goals in seven games while he recorded six goals in ten games in 1907 . Around this time , the Kenora Thistles , the Manitoba League champions , wanted to strengthen their team for the Stanley Cup challenge against the Montreal Wanderers in Montreal during January 1907 . They paid Ross $ 1 @,@ 000 to play both matches , a common practice at the time , and the Thistles won the Cup . While failing to score , Ross started many plays and proved an important part of the team . Although he played for the opposing team , he received a good reception from the Montreal crowd . Ross did not play for the Thistles when the two teams played for the Cup again in March , which the Wanderers won to take back the Cup . The following year Ross moved back to Montreal . He joined the Wanderers , the team he had helped to defeat , who played in the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) , the successor league to the CAHL as the premier league in the country . He scored eight goals in ten games over the two @-@ month season that lasted from January to March . He helped the team to finish first in the ECAHA and retain the Cup in 1908 with challenges from Ottawa , Winnipeg and Toronto . The Wanderers were Cup champions throughout these challenges , so Ross became the second player to win the Cup with different teams in consecutive years , after Jack Marshall in 1901 and 1902 . In January 1908 , he participated in the first all @-@ star game in sports history , a benefit for the family of former Wanderer defender Hod Stuart , who died the previous summer . Aside from his time with the Wanderers , Ross repeated his practice of playing for other teams who paid for his services in important matches . For the 1909 season Ross demanded a salary of $ 1 @,@ 600 . Although he settled for $ 1 @,@ 200 , the average salary of hockey players at the time was $ 600 . Ross received a cash bonus of $ 400 to play in a Stanley Cup challenge against a team from Edmonton in December 1908 , in which the Wanderers won the two @-@ game , total @-@ goal series 13 – 10 . He finished the season with two goals in nine games . = = = 1909 – 18 = = = A new league , the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) , was formed in late November 1909 . One of the teams , the All @-@ Montreal Hockey Club , hired Ross as a playing @-@ manager , but the league only lasted to mid @-@ January 1910 before disbanding . Ross , who scored four goals in four games in the CHA , then signed with the Haileybury Comets of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) , a league formed in December 1909 , which proved to be the stronger replacement to the ECAHA as the highest level of hockey in Canada . He received $ 2 @,@ 700 to play in the 1910 season , which lasted from January to March , playing twelve games for the team and finishing with six goals . Before the following season , the NHA imposed a salary cap of $ 5 @,@ 000 per team . The players , including Ross , were unhappy as this would result in a pay decrease , and began looking to form their own league without a cap . Ross wrote to the Montreal Herald , stating " all the players want is a fair deal ... The players are not trying to bulldoze the NHA , but we want to know where we get off at . " The plans were abandoned when they realized all the suitable arenas would be unavailable as they were owned or leased by the NHA . Ross scored four goals in eleven games with the Wanderers , who finished fourth in the five team league . During a match against the Quebec Bulldogs on February 25 , 1911 , Ross knocked out Eddie Oatman in a fight , provoking a massive brawl between the two teams , which the police had to break up . The fight helped to increase the reputation Ross had as a tough player unwilling to back down from any opponent . The following season Ross had eleven goals in nineteen games as the Wanderers improved to second in the league . Prior to the 1913 – 14 NHA season , Ross refused to sign a contract for the Wanderers , requesting a salary increase . As one of the top players on the team , the Wanderers agreed to his demands of $ 1 @,@ 500 for the forthcoming season , in which he finished with four goals and nine points in eighteen games . The next season Ross , again concerned with his salary , began negotiating with other players in the NHA to leave their teams and form a new league that would offer higher wages . These actions resulted in his suspension in November 1914 by Emmett Quinn , president of the NHA . Ross responded by declaring himself a free agent and claiming his contract with the Wanderers was no longer valid . Consequently , although having no technical power to do so , Quinn suspended Ross from all organized hockey . The proposed new league failed to materialize and Ross applied for reinstatement to the NHA , which was granted at a meeting of the team owners on December 18 , 1914 . The owners realized if they suspended Ross , they would also have to suspend all those he signed , hurting the league . However , Ross 's actions led to his release by the Wanderers . At first he trained with the Montreal Canadiens , then joined the Ottawa Senators . At the conclusion of the 1914 – 15 season , the Senators and Wanderers finished with identical records of fourteen wins and six losses . A two @-@ game , total goal series was played to determine the NHA league champion who would contest the Stanley Cup with the Pacific Coast Hockey Association winner , the Vancouver Millionaires . Ross , who finished with three goals in sixteen games in the season , scored one goal in the first match against the Wanderers , a Senators 4 – 0 victory , and though Ottawa lost the second game 1 – 0 , they won the series , 4 – 1 . To help the Senators stop the Wanderers , who were known for their speed , Ross created a new system of defence . Termed " kitty bar the door " , it required three defenders to align themselves across the ice 30 feet in front of the goaltender to stop offensive rushes . This style of defence would later be used in a modified version known as the neutral zone trap , later used widely to stop opposition offensive chances . The following year Ross , who had eight goals and eight assists in twenty @-@ one games , was the second highest paid player on the team ; his salary of $ 1 @,@ 400 was $ 100 less than Frank Nighbor made . Even so , Ross left the team in 1916 , returning to Montreal in order to look after his sporting @-@ goods store , and rejoining the Wanderers . He scored six goals and had two assists in sixteen games for the team . The Wanderers , along with the Montreal Canadiens , Toronto Arenas , Quebec Bulldogs and Ottawa Senators dissolved the NHA and founded the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in November 1917 . Ross became coach of the Wanderers , but a fire on January 2 , 1918 , destroyed their home , the Montreal Arena , and forced them to fold after four games . However , the NHL insisted the team continue to play , and recorded two additional scheduled matches as defaulted losses for the Wanderers , even though the matches were not played . With the Wanderers disbanded , Ross retired as a player . His NHL career yielded one goal in three games played . = = Managerial career = = = = = 1918 – 36 = = = Ross began his career as a hockey coach in the midst of his playing days , when at age 24 he led the McGill University Redmen to a 4 – 2 – 1 record during the 1910 – 11 season . Following his playing career , Ross became a NHL referee . He was hired to coach the Hamilton Tigers for the 1922 – 23 season , and adopted new methods in training camp that emphasized physical fitness , including work off the ice . However , the Tigers finished with a record of six wins and eighteen losses , last in the NHL for the third successive year , and Ross did not return the next season . His next coaching appointment arose from meeting Boston grocery store magnate Charles Adams during the 1924 Stanley Cup Finals . Before the 1924 season , the NHL awarded Adams an expansion team . Adams ' first move was to hire Ross as vice president , general manager , coach and scout . Adams instructed Ross to come up with a nickname portraying an untamed animal displaying speed , agility and cunning . With this in mind , Ross named the team the Boston Bruins , after the Old English word for a bear . The team 's nickname went perfectly with the original colours of brown and yellow , which were the same colours of Adams ' grocery chain , First National Stores . Ross utilized his many hockey connections throughout Canada and the United States to sign players . Even so , the team started poorly . Early in the first season the University of Toronto hockey team was in Boston for matches against local universities . The team 's manager , Conn Smythe , who later owned and managed the Toronto Maple Leafs , said that his team could easily defeat the Bruins — Ross 's team had won only two of their first fifteen NHL games . This began a feud between Smythe and Ross which lasted for over 40 years , until Ross ' death ; while mostly confined to newspaper reports , they refused to speak to each other at NHL Board of Governor meetings . The Bruins finished their first season with six wins in thirty games , one of the worst records in the history of the league . Several records were set over the course of the season ; the three home wins are tied for the second fewest ever , and an eleven @-@ game losing streak from December 8 , 1924 , until February 17 , 1925 , set a record for longest losing streak , surpassed in 2004 and now second longest in history . With 17 wins in 36 games the following season , the team greatly improved , and finished one point out of a playoff spot . In 1926 the Western Hockey League , the other top professional hockey league , was in decline . The Patrick brothers , who controlled the league , offered to sell the remaining five teams for $ 300 @,@ 000 . Ross realized the potential talent available and convinced Adams to pay the money . As a result , the Bruins acquired the rights to several future Hall of Fame players , the most notable being defender Eddie Shore . Ross signed goaltender Cecil " Tiny " Thompson in 1928 , who was with a team in Minnesota , despite never watching him play ; Ralph " Cooney " Weiland was also brought over from Minnesota . Ross acquired Cy Denneny from Ottawa and made him a player @-@ assistant @-@ coach while he assumed the role of coach and team manager . On November 20 , 1928 , the Bruins moved to a new arena when the Boston Garden opened . The team played the Canadiens who won the match 1 – 0 in front of 16 @,@ 000 fans . The players signed by Ross helped the Bruins to improve quickly , and they won the Stanley Cup in 1929 . Denneny retired after the Cup win , Ross guiding the team to several league records in the 1929 – 30 season . The team won 38 of 44 games for an .875 winning percentage , the highest in league history ; the five losses tied a record for fewest ever , and the four road losses tied a record for second fewest . The Bruins also only finished one game in a tie , a record for fewest ties in a season since the NHL began recording the record in 1926 . One of the longest winning streaks was also set during the season . From December 3 , 1929 , until January 9 , 1930 , the team won fourteen games in a row , a record that lasted until 1982 and now tied for third longest , as of October 2010 . A home winning streak began the same day and lasted for twenty games , until March 18 , 1930 , which was tied for the longest of its kind in 1976 . In 1930 – 31 , the Bruins again lost only one home game , which equalled their previous record . On March 26 , 1931 , Ross substituted a sixth skater for goaltender Tiny Thompson in the final minute of play in a playoff game against the Montreal Canadiens . Although the Bruins lost the game 1 – 0 , Ross became the first coach to replace his goaltender with an extra attacker , a tactic which became widespread practice in hockey . Stepping aside as coach in 1934 to focus on managing the team , Ross hired Frank Patrick as coach with a salary of $ 10 @,@ 500 , which was high for such a role . However rumours spread during the season that Patrick was drinking heavily and not being as strict with the players as Ross wanted . After the Bruins lost their playoff series with the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1936 playoffs , the result of an 8 – 1 score in the second game , a newspaper claimed that Patrick had been drinking the day of the game and had trouble controlling the team . Several days later , Ross relieved Patrick of his duties and once again assumed the role of coach . = = = 1936 – 54 = = = Ross took over an improved team . He had recently signed three players , Milt Schmidt , Bobby Bauer and Woody Dumart , who all grew up together in Kitchener , Ontario , and had them play on the same line , soon nicknamed the Kraut Line in reference to the German heritage of all three . Along with them , Ross had acquired a new goaltender in 1938 , Frank Brimsek ; after Brimsek earned six shutouts in his first eight games , the Bruins traded away Tiny Thompson to allow Brimsek to play . With these players the Bruins finished first in the league in 1937 – 38 ; Ross was named as the second best coach in the league , selected for the end of season All @-@ Star Second Team . The next season the Bruins won 36 of 48 games , and won the Stanley Cup in the playoffs ; Ross was named to the First All @-@ Star Team as the best coach in the league for the season and the team only tied two games , which is tied for the second fewest in a season . He hired the recently retired Cooney Weiland to coach the Bruins for the 1939 – 40 NHL season . The Bruins would win the Cup again in 1941 , and tied their record of only four away losses all season . Ross once again took over as coach of the team before the 1941 – 42 season began , as Weiland became coach of the Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League , and led the team to 25 wins in 48 games , which was enough to earn third place in the league . By this time the Second World War had caused several Bruins players , including the entire Kraut Line and goaltender Brimsek , to enlist in their respective armed forces . The Bruins finished second in the NHL during the 1942 – 43 season with 24 wins in 50 games and Ross was again named in the Second NHL All @-@ Star Team as second best coach in the league . The Bruins missed the playoffs in 1943 – 44 , the first time in ten years they failed to qualify , but returned to the playoffs the next season , something they did for five straight years . In 1949 , Ross had signed Georges Boucher as coach , but Boucher did not work well with Ross and team president Weston Adams . Looking to hire a new coach in the summer of 1950 , Ross phoned Lynn Patrick , the son of Lester , who had just resigned from the New York Rangers after coaching the team to the Stanley Cup Final . Lynn had moved his family back to Victoria , British Columbia , where he grew up as a child , with the intention of coaching the Victoria Cougars , a team in the minor professional Pacific Coast Hockey League . Though reluctant to move back to the eastern United States , Lynn was hired by Ross after he was offered a salary of $ 12 @,@ 000 . He would coach the team for the next four seasons and become the second general manager of the Bruins when Ross retired at the end of October 1954 . = = = Legacy = = = Aside from his career in hockey , Ross was interested in improving the game . Prior to the start of the 1927 – 28 season , the NHL adopted a new style of goal net created by Ross . With the back molded into a B @-@ shape , it was better designed to catch pucks and the net was used until 1984 , when a modified version was adopted . He also improved the design of the puck . Ross ' design had bevel edges , which prevented it bouncing too much , and used synthetic rubber , rather than the natural rubber previously in vogue . Along with New York Rangers coach Frank Boucher , Ross helped to create the red line , which was introduced to help speed up the game by removing the ability for defenders to pass the puck from the defensive to offensive zone ; until 2006 it was against the rules of hockey to make a two line pass . More scoring chances resulted as teams could not simply send the puck down the ice with impunity . In order to help tell the red line and blue lines apart on television , Ross suggested that the red line be striped . Regarded throughout his playing career as one of the best defenders in hockey , Ross was named to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 , selected for his playing career rather than his work as an executive . A ceremony for his induction was held prior to a Bruins game on December 2 , 1949 , where he was given his Hall of Fame scroll and a silver tray with the emblems of the six NHL teams on it . In 1975 he was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame . Along with his two sons he donated the Art Ross Trophy to the NHL in 1947 , to be awarded to the leading scorer in the league 's regular season . In 1984 he was posthumously awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for service to hockey in the United States . A descriptive biography entitled Art Ross : The Hockey Legend who Built the Bruins by Eric Zweig was published by Dundurn Press in Sept 2015 . = = Personal life = = Ross also excelled in baseball , football , lacrosse and motorcycle racing . Before he became a hockey executive , he had a career as a bank clerk and ran a sporting @-@ goods store in Montreal . Ross had moved to Brandon , Manitoba , in 1905 at the advice of his parents so he could get a job with a bank , with a salary of $ 600 per year . He gave that career up when he began playing hockey professionally . He was married to Muriel , a native of Montreal , and had two sons , Art and John . During the Second World War , both sons served in the Royal Canadian Air Force . After the war Ross made his son Art the business manager for the Bruins . Ross was named coach and manager of the Boston Bruins in 1924 and moved his family to Brookline , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , after being hired . In 1928 , he served as the traveling secretary of the Boston Braves baseball team , which was owned by Bruins owner Charles Adams . He became a naturalized American citizen on April 22 , 1938 . On August 5 , 1964 , Ross died at a nursing home in Medford , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , at the age of 79 . A sister , both his sons , and three grandchildren survived him . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = * Playing stats from Total Hockey = = = Coaching record = = = * Coaching stats from Total Hockey = = Awards = = = = = NHL = = = * Awards from Legends of Hockey

= Saint Leonard Catholic Church ( Madison , Nebraska ) = Saint Leonard Catholic Church is a Roman Catholic church in the city of Madison , in the state of Nebraska in the Midwestern United States . Built in 1913 , it has been described as " an outstanding example of the Romanesque Revival style of architecture . " St. Leonard 's parish , named after Saint Leonard of Port Maurice , was organized in 1879 . A wood frame church was built in 1881 on the outskirts of Madison , and moved into the city in 1898 . In 1902 , the basement of the current church was built , and the congregation moved into it , converting the old church to a school . When funds allowed , the basement was extended , and the current brick church completed in 1913 . In 1989 , the church , its 1912 rectory , and the rectory 's garage were listed in the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of noted Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . A pupil of Thomas Rogers Kimball , Nachtigall designed a number of Catholic churches and other buildings in the state , several of which are also listed in the National Register . = = History = = The first white settlers to occupy the site of Madison were a party led by Henry Mitchell Barnes , who settled near the junction of Union and Taylor Creeks in 1867 . Growth of the new settlement was rapid ; in particular , there was an influx of German families from Wisconsin . The town of Madison was officially platted by Barnes in 1870 or 1871 . In 1875 , it became the county seat of Madison County , and in 1876 it was incorporated . The Union Pacific Railroad reached Madison in 1879 ; by 1880 , the town had a population of about 300 . The first Christian services held in Madison were Presbyterian , taking place in Barnes 's and other homes . A Presbyterian congregation was organized in 1870 , and a church built in 1872 . A Methodist circuit encompassing Madison and Antelope counties was organized in 1871 ; a parsonage was built in Madison ca . 1875 , and a church begun in 1877 . A Lutheran congregation may have formed in Madison in about 1875 , although early records are incomplete ; the congregation was initially served by the pastor of a Lutheran church in Green Garden Precinct , located about seven miles ( 11 km ) southwest of Madison . It was formally organized in 1885 , and a church built in Madison in 1887 . The first Catholic settlers in Madison County homesteaded near present @-@ day Battle Creek , northwest of Madison , in the late 1860s . In 1874 , they organized a parish ; in 1874 – 75 , they built St. Patrick 's Church , the county 's first Catholic church . In 1877 , they wrote to Bishop James O 'Connor of the Diocese of Omaha , asking that a priest be assigned to visit the church at intervals until a permanent priest could be assigned to the parish ; in apparent response to this , Franciscan missionaries based in Columbus were given the responsibility of providing for Madison County . = = = 1879 – 1900 = = = In 1879 , a group of Catholic residents of the Madison area met to plan the building of a church . At the meeting , a total of $ 426 @.@ 75 was subscribed ; additional contributions of $ 322 @.@ 86 were obtained from citizens of Madison . In January 1880 , the church 's trustees spent $ 100 for five acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) on a hill at the southeastern edge of town . In the spring , a party of parishioners drove their ox teams to Wisner , about 30 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Madison , for the first load of lumber for the new church . The 30 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 9 m × 12 m ) frame structure , with a capacity of 100 , was completed in November 1881 ; the total cost was $ 957 @.@ 61 , leaving $ 208 @.@ 00 owed to the carpenter . The new church was dedicated to St. Leonard of Port Maurice , an 18th @-@ century Franciscan priest , preacher , ascetic , and writer venerated as the patron saint of parish missions . In 1882 , a parcel of land southeast of the church was purchased for a cemetery ; a one @-@ year @-@ old child buried in September of that year became its first occupant . The cemetery was fenced in 1883 . In 1884 , the church was enlarged : a sacristy and a room for the priest were added to the east end , and a steeple to the west end . As Madison 's population grew , the church became too small for the expanding congregation . In addition , its location outside of the city was inconvenient for many parishioners . In 1898 , a tract of land inside Madison was bought . Rather than building a new church at the time , the parish elected to move the old one to the new site . The church was moved in two parts ; when it was reconstructed , another section was added between them , increasing the building 's seating capacity to 180 . The church on the new site was dedicated in November 1898 . = = = 1900 – 1913 = = = In the early 20th century , the parish decided that the old church should be remodelled into a school and a convent for the teachers , and that a new church should be built . Brother Leonard Darscheid , a Franciscan architect , drew up plans for a church ; but financial constraints precluded its construction . Instead , a temporary basement church was built just west of the old church building . It is not known whether the design of the basement used Darscheid 's plans . Construction of the basement church began in July 1902 , services were held there beginning in September 1902 , and it was dedicated in February 1903 . The school opened in September 1903 , with two classrooms staffed by two members of the Sisters of the Presentation of Dubuque , Iowa . 66 students were enrolled , including a number of non @-@ Catholics , owing to overcrowding in the public schools . To make more space available , a basement was dug in 1904 . In 1910 , a third classroom was added . In 1910 , the Franciscans turned the management of the parish over to the Diocese of Omaha . In October of that year , Edward S. Muenich became the first diocesan pastor of St. Leonard 's . Muenich embarked upon an extensive building campaign , for which he retained Omaha architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Born in Germany in 1874 , Nachtigall had immigrated to the United States with his family in 1883 . Initially working as a laborer in Omaha , he had served as a draftsman for that city 's 1898 Trans @-@ Mississippi and International Exposition . He had then worked as a draftsman for Omaha architect Thomas Rogers Kimball from 1900 to 1908 ; during this time , Kimball had designed the city 's St. Cecilia 's Cathedral . In 1909 , Nachtigall had opened his own architectural office . In 1911 , a two @-@ story eight @-@ room brick rectory designed by Nachtigall was begun ; it was completed and furnished in 1912 , at a cost of $ 10 @,@ 374 . In the fall of 1912 , the church basement was extended by over 50 percent . = = = 1913 – 1946 = = = In 1913 , a Romanesque Revival church designed by Nachtigall was built on the existing basement . The cornerstone was laid and construction begun in May ; the church was completed by the end of November , and formally dedicated on December 4 . The cost of construction was about $ 75 @,@ 000 . While the church was under construction , Catholic services were held in Madison 's armory . The new church had a seating capacity of 700 . In its 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) tower was a clock with four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials , and a peal of three bells , contributed by the citizens of Madison ; beside summoning the parishioners to Mass , these rang the quarter @-@ hours , marking time for the residents of the city and the surrounding rural areas . While the urban United States experienced an economic boom during the 1920s , the agricultural sector of the country experienced a depression . Disruption of European agriculture by World War I had produced high prices for farm commodities , and it had been thought that Europe 's recovery would be slow and that the high prices would persist . This gave rise to a bubble in farmland prices , which burst when the rapid postwar recovery of European agriculture drove commodity prices down again . At the same time , increasing mechanization reduced the need for farm labor , pushing agricultural wages downward and rural unemployment upward . Madison and St. Leonard 's parish suffered from this agricultural depression and from the Great Depression of the 1930s . During this time , the parish 's population remained more or less stable : in 1918 , it consisted of 440 individuals ; in 1929 , 452 . In 1926 , the parish was forced to close its school , since the Presentation Sisters were no longer able to staff it . The school re @-@ opened in 1931 , with 60 pupils taught by Missionary Benedictine Sisters based in Norfolk . The onset of World War II once again brought prosperity to rural Nebraska , and it persisted into the 1950s . St. Leonard 's paid off its remaining debt , held a mortgage @-@ burning ceremony in 1946 , and began raising funds for a new school . = = = 1946 – present = = = The cornerstone for a new school was laid in November 1953 . A property adjoining the new school site was bought , and the house standing upon it converted to a convent for the nuns staffing the school . The new building was completed and opened for classes in August 1954 ; the old school , which had begun life as the first St. Leonard 's Church , was demolished that fall , and its site became a parking lot . The Benedictine Sisters withdrew from the school in 1978 , prompting the closing of the seventh and eighth grades . The school continued to offer grades 1 – 6 , taught by three lay instructors . Beginning in the early 1990s , Madison experienced a large influx of Hispanics . In 1990 , Madison County 's population was 2 % Hispanic ; by 2010 , the number had increased to 13 % . In the city of Madison , whose single largest employer was a meatpacking plant with over 1000 employees , operated by IBP and then by Tyson Foods , the increase was far greater : the Hispanic fraction of the population rose from less than 1 % in 1980 to 48 @.@ 8 % in 2010 , as the Spanish @-@ speaking population increased and the white non @-@ Hispanic population fell . By 2011 , an estimated two @-@ thirds of St. Leonard 's parishioners were Hispanic . Beginning in 1991 , the archdiocese assigned Spanish @-@ speaking priests to the parish , and both English- and Spanish @-@ language services were offered . The centennial of the church building was celebrated in December 2013 , at a bilingual Mass conducted by Elden Curtiss , archbishop emeritus of the Archdiocese of Omaha . = = Architecture = = In 1989 , three of the parish 's buildings — the church , the rectory , and the rectory 's garage — were added to the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of distinguished Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Beside St. Leonard 's , Nachtigall designed a number of other notable buildings in Nebraska , many of them Catholic ; these include St. Mary of the Assumption Church in Dwight ( 1914 ) , St. Anthony 's Church in Cedar Rapids ( 1919 ) , St. Bonaventure 's Church in Raeville ( 1919 ) , Immaculate Conception Church in Omaha ( 1926 ) , and Father Flanagan 's House at Boys Town ( 1927 ) . = = = Church = = = The church is oriented east @-@ west , with the main entrance facing westward . It is just over 153 feet ( 47 m ) long from east to west ; 52 feet ( 16 m ) wide from north to south . The walls are made of mosaic gray pressed brick trimmed with Bedford stone , rising from a rock @-@ faced limestone foundation , and are about 40 feet ( 12 m ) high . The peak of the roof is about 70 feet ( 21 m ) above ground level . At the west end of the church , a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) belltower rises above the main entrance . The tower is topped with a copper dome , capped with a cross . It contains three bells , weighing 900 , 1 @,@ 600 , and 2 @,@ 500 pounds ( 410 , 730 , and 1 @,@ 130 kg ) . The tower 's clock has four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials . Below the tower , a flight of seventeen steps ascends to the church 's main entrance , via a set of double doors through a semicircular archway . The church 's north and south walls are supported by a series of buttresses . Seven windows run along each wall . A line of brick corbels runs along the walls below the eaves . Near the east end of the church , a short transept extends a short distance outward . At the church 's east end , beyond the transept , is a semicircular apse with a conical roof , topped with a six @-@ paned conical skylight . = = = = Interior = = = = The interior plan of the church consists of a nave , a short transept , and a semicircular apse . At the west end of the nave is a narthex . At the center of this is a vestibule leading to the church 's main entrance ; at the church 's northwest corner is a reconciliation room , formerly a baptistry ; at the southwest corner is a short passage from which a staircase descends to the basement and another rises to the choir loft . In the loft is the church 's organ , a tracker model manufactured by the Hinners Organ Company in 1879 ; the organ was not originally built for St. Leonard 's . The nave measures 98 feet ( 30 m ) between the entrance and the communion rail . An aisle passes down its center ; narrower aisles follow the north and south walls . Two rows of seven circular columns run along the nave . The columns are made of wood , plastered to conceal the material , and decorated with Corinthian capitals . The rib @-@ vaulted ceiling rises 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) above the floor . Fourteen stained @-@ glass windows , depicting scenes from the life of Christ , occupy the nave 's walls . The 13 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 1 m × 1 @.@ 5 m ) windows were produced by the Muenich Art Studio of Chicago . Between the windows are sculpted stations of the cross . In three spandrels above columns on each side are fresco paintings . Two marble steps rise from the nave to the chancel . At the top of the steps is a hand @-@ carved white wood communion rail , decorated with miniature onyx columns and topped with marble . At the northwest and southwest corners of the chancel are two side altars : to the north , a Marian altar ; to the south , an altar of St. Joseph . The original image on the Marian altar depicts Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception ; more recently , an image of Our Lady of Guadalupe has been added . The St. Joseph altar includes a bone relic of St. Leonard of Port Maurice . On the Gospel side of the chancel is a large hand @-@ carved wood pulpit , decorated with carved figures of the four Evangelists . The chancel is dominated by the high altar , which stands over 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) tall , and which cost its donors $ 2 @,@ 080 in 1913 . Like the communion rail , the side altars , and the pulpit , it is made of hand @-@ carved wood decorated with small onyx columns . At the base is a relief sculpture of the Last Supper ; above that is a marble altar table . The tabernacle is just above that ; to either side is a sculpted angel , kneeling to the tabernacle and holding the sanctuary lamps . Above the tabernacle is a sculpted Crucifixion of Jesus , with the Virgin Mary and the apostle John on either side of the cross . In separate niches on either side of the crucifixion scene are statues of St. Boniface and St. Patrick , representing the German and Irish ethnicity of the parish in the early 20th century . Above their niches are figures of angels blowing trumpets ; at the top of the altar is a statue of St. Leonard . On the half @-@ domed ceiling of the apse is a large oil @-@ painted mural depicting a scene in Heaven . In the center , God the Father and Jesus are enthroned on a cloud ; a stained @-@ glass skylight at the top of the dome depicting the Holy Spirit completes the Trinity . Flanking the Father and Son are the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist . Below the cloud is Satan in torment . At the left and right of the scene is an assemblage of 18 Catholic saints and 10 angels . Beside the fourteen large windows in the nave , there are 25 stained @-@ glass windows in the church , depicting saints and symbols of the Catholic Church . These include St. Cecilia , patron saint of the Archdiocese of Omaha , and a pair of windows depicting St. Boniface and St. Patrick . In the 1989 form nominating it for the National Register of Historic Places , it was noted that the church had undergone only minor alterations , including an interior redecoration in 1964 , the replacement of roof slates with asphalt shingles in 1977 , and the addition of a concrete ramp for access by the handicapped in 1986 . = = = Rectory = = = The rectory , located just south of the church , was designed in Neoclassical style , with Romanesque Revival elements . It is a rectangular house measuring 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide by 57 feet ( 17 m ) long , with eight rooms in two stories . Like the church , it is made of mosaic gray brick . An open porch occupies the whole of the west frontage , facing the street , and wraps around to cover half of the south side . The portico is supported by circular columns with Doric capitals . At the base of the porch is brick latticework . There is a small enclosed porch with a doorway on the east side . There are three rowlock arches above all of the windows on the first floor . One of the west @-@ facing windows on the second floor has two rowlock arches above it ; the other second @-@ floor windows are rectangular . There are two circular window openings in the attic , one facing west and the other south . The rectory has a sloping roof with overhanging eaves and wood cornices . On the south wall is a tympanum , filled in with siding . = = = = Garage = = = = The original rectory garage is located southeast of the rectory . It is a rectangular structure facing westward , measuring 16 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) north to south , and 26 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) east to west . The interior is a single room . The front ( west side ) of the garage is made of the same mosaic gray brick that was used for the construction of the church and the rectory . The north and south walls are both made of two different materials : the western two @-@ thirds of them is red brick , possibly from the brickyard that once operated in Madison ; the easternmost third is plastered with a layer of cement , painted red to match the bricks . The rear ( east ) wall is also plastered with red cement . It is speculated that the garage was either lengthened to fit a longer car , or that the eastern third had to be rebuilt ; the building 's hip roof shows no signs of having been lengthened . The garage has two doors and two windows . Both the doors and windows have two rowlock brick arches over them . The car entrance is on the west side ; a passage door is on the north side . A clear @-@ glass window with 16 panes is on the east side . On the west side , north of the car entrance , is a window with beveled lead @-@ glass panes , which appear clear from the outside but red from inside the building . It has been speculated that this window was part of the parish 's first church .

= Portuguese ironclad Vasco da Gama = Vasco da Gama was a central battery ironclad which entered service with the Portuguese Navy in 1876 , serving until 1935 . She was built by the Thames Iron Works in London , launched in 1876 , and completed in 1878 . She served as the flagship of the Portuguese fleet for the majority of her long and peaceful career . She was rebuilt and heavily modernized between 1901 and 1903 . Long @-@ since obsolete by the 1930s , Vasco da Gama was finally sold for scrapping in 1935 . = = Design = = Vasco da Gama was 200 feet ( 61 m ) long between perpendiculars , and she had a beam of 40 ft ( 12 m ) , though at the main battery guns , the ship was 46 ft 6 in ( 14 @.@ 17 m ) wide . She had a maximum draft of 19 ft ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 384 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 346 long tons ; 2 @,@ 628 short tons ) as originally built . She was fitted with a barquentine rig and a steam engine rated at 3 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 3 kn ( 19 @.@ 1 km / h ; 11 @.@ 9 mph ) . She had a crew of 232 officers and men . As built , Vasco da Gama was armed with a main battery of two 10 @.@ 2 in ( 260 mm ) guns , placed in individual barbettes side by side amidships . She was also equipped with a single 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) gun mounted on her stern , and four 9 @-@ pounder guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . She was protected with a complete iron armored belt that was 4 inches ( 100 mm ) thick on either end and 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick amidships . The main battery guns were protected by 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) thick barbettes . = = Service history = = Vasco da Gama was laid down at the Thames Iron Works shipyard in London , Britain in 1875 , and was launched on 1 December 1876 . The ship was completed in 1878 . She served as part of the coastal defense force that protected Lisbon , the Portuguese capital , and the mouth of the river Tagus . On 26 June 1897 , Vasco da Gama participated in the Fleet Review at Spithead celebrating Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . At the time , the ship was commanded by Captain Barreto de Vascomellos . In 1901 , Vasco da Gama was taken into drydock at Orlando shipyard in Livorno , Italy , for a major reconstruction . She was cut in half and lengthened by a 32 ft 6 in ( 9 @.@ 91 m ) long section . She was fitted with new engines and more powerful water @-@ tube boilers rated at 6 @,@ 000 ihp ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) ; this increased her speed to 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her sailing rig also was removed . Her main battery guns were replaced with new 8 in ( 200 mm ) L / 40 guns in sponsons , the short 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch gun was replaced by a new long @-@ barreled 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch L / 45 gun , and six 3 @-@ pounders augmented her close @-@ range defense . Her iron belt armor was removed and stronger steel armor was installed in its place . The ship 's crew increased to 260 officers and men . All of the changes caused her displacement to rise to 2 @,@ 972 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 925 long tons ; 3 @,@ 276 short tons ) . Work on Vasco da Gama was completed by 1903 . On 27 August 1907 , a gas explosion aboard the ship injured several crewmen . During political unrest in April 1913 , part of the crew of Vasco da Gama had to be removed from the ship , as they had been involved in a planned ultra @-@ Radical coup d 'état against the First Portuguese Republic . On 14 May 1915 , the crew again participated in unrest ; they mutinied and killed the ship 's captain and bombarded Lisbon , killing around one hundred people . Vasco da Gama remained the flagship of the Portuguese Navy at least as late as 1914 , as the Portuguese naval budget was insufficient to fund a suitable replacement vessel . Thoroughly obsolete , she remained in the Portuguese fleet until 1935 , when she was sold for scrapping .

= Nicole Franklin = Nicole Franklin is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Tessa James . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 18 April 2008 . Nicole was introduced by executive producer Cameron Welsh . Nicole was mentioned various times before appearing on @-@ screen , James was cast in the role and described by Welsh as an " exciting talent " . He predicted that the viewers would respond " really well " to her . Nicole was initially portrayed as a shallow " party girl " with " wild ways " . Also described as a " high maintenance " female , she has been shown to dress constantly in a stylish manner . Nicole is also become notable for her many relationships . Her first prominent romance was with Geoff Campbell . Described as " complete opposites " , Geoff is credited as a catalyst in Nicole mellowing her brash attitude . Their storyline allowed the actors to take part in one of the serial 's " biggest ever location shoots " , when the couple became stranded on a remote desert island . In one storyline Nicole was involved in a same sex kiss with fellow character Freya Duric , which was branded controversial by various media sources . The plot saw Nicole question her persona , believing Geoff had transformed her into a boring person . Another relationship Nicole pursued was with Aden Jefferies , her longtime closest friend . Aden had a strong fanbase from his previous relationship with Belle Taylor . This resulted in the audience being divided over their relationship . Nicole has also been featured in various other romantic storylines , such as a brief fling with Liam Murphy , James said that he was compatible with Nicole because he had " the edge she was after " . She also dated Trey Palmer and they became involved in sex tape storyline , many newspapers reported on the plot because it " echoed " co @-@ star Lewis ' real life sex tape scandal . Producer Welsh once stated he believed Nicole was destined to become " full circle " and Nicole began behaving erratic and wild once more , due to her failed romances and the death of her friend Belle . She also had an affair with an older male character , Sid Walker . James liked the fact Nicole had so many romances because she got to kiss many of her co @-@ stars . James announced her departure from Home and Away in March 2011 . One of her final storylines was a pregnancy plot . Nicole felt she was too young and unable to offer a child stability , so she agreed to let Marilyn Chambers adopt the baby upon its birth . James and the writing team took the storyline " very seriously " and conducted research to portray the issue sensitively . Nicole has received critical analysis from various sources , with perception being mixed to positive . TV Week were neutral to aspects of her pregnancy plot but opined James was one of the serials best actress ' . The Daily Record said that being single was good for the character . She has also been likened to celebrities because of her glamorous image . = = Creation and casting = = Nicole is Roman Harris ' ( Conrad Coleby ) daughter and she was often mentioned on @-@ screen before producers decided to introduce her into the serial . In January 2008 it was announced that ex @-@ Neighbours star Tessa James had been cast as Nicole . Executive producer Cameron Welsh said ' She is an exciting talent and I think audiences are going to love her character and respond really well to her . " James then moved to Sydney especially for the role . Speaking of working on the serial James stated : " Working on a series like this [ Home and Away ] is the best training you can get , I look at it like an apprenticeship and never forget how lucky I am . " Fellow cast member Celeste Dodwell who plays Melody Jones originally auditioned for the part of Nicole . After Coleby who plays Roman quit the serial , James ' time with the show was in doubt . In March 2011 , James confirmed that she had left Home and Away . She has already filmed her final scenes and Nicole will leave on @-@ screen later in the year . Of her departure , James said " I was at Home and Away for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ years , so it 's good to be finished and get to be who I am , and do what I 've wanted to do for so long . " = = Character development = = = = = Characterisation = = = Nicole has been portrayed as a party girl , feisty and has had many boyfriends in a short space of time . James has described Nicole stating : " I love playing Nicole because she 's feisty and fun , and doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . And she dresses stylishly – she 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " The serial 's official website describe her as : " Nicole might come off as a bitchy princess to some people , she 's not malicious . She 's simply as shallow as a puddle , and while she might cause others emotional pain , it 's totally unintentional . " They also state : " Nicole is a girl who lives to have fun , and she is fun if you accept her for who she is . And , of course , she thinks you 're worth her attention . Nicole is a girl who knows exactly who she is and where she stands : at the centre of the universe . " Soap opera reporting website Holy Soap described Nicole as " a label @-@ loving pampered princess , armed with a sharp wardrobe and an even sharper tongue " . They also added she was a " sultry " type character . Whilst interviewed by The Daily Telegraph , James stated : " I think she 's the best character , I get to have so much fun being a princess and a prima donna . She doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . She 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " She also stated she enjoys Nicole 's " promiscuous side " because she seems to have another boyfriend every week . James also enjoys the role because of this and the fact she gets so many " pash " scenes with other cast members . Series producer Cameron Welsh branded Nicole as an " interesting character " , adding his opinion on her development stating : " She came in with really strong opinions and a kind of morality that was different to the rest of the group " . Welsh also believes that Nicole is destined to come " full circle " . Of her 2010 storylines he comments that Nicole poor judgements make her realise and re @-@ evaluate her life . = = = Relationship with Geoff Campbell = = = Nicole embarks on a relationship with Geoff Campbell , not before they are embroiled in a " sordid love triangle " along with Melody . In one storyline Nicole and Geoff became stranded on a " deserted island " and nearly die . The episodes were filmed on Box Beach located at Shoal Bay , New South Wales as part of a two @-@ day location shoot . Nicole nearly drowns in scenes which aired for the serial 's " cliff @-@ hanger " in 2008 . James and Lewis took scuba diving lessons in preparation for the storyline . Filming the storyline was compromised by logistical challenges . The crew had to move camera equipment between boats and the crew walked around the perimeters of the beach in order to avoid leaving footprints . This was to keep the authenticity of a deserted location . The storyline was also given a " big budget " , featured helicopters and a number of promotional adverts were aired on Seven . The storyline began on @-@ screen when Nicole started dating Elliot Gillen ( Paul Pantano ) . He had a vendetta against Roman and kidnapped Nicole and Geoff and left them stranded out at sea . They washed up on a deserted island and were forced to survive without food and clothing . Describing the effect it had on Nicole and Geoff , James stated : " They have no food , shelter or clothing . [ ... ] They find moments to make each other laugh , though , and realise how much they mean to one another . " Geoff had strong religious views and did not believe in premarital sex . However , the environment they were in caused him to let his guard down and they slept together . Lewis told TV Week that all the pair could think of whilst trapped was being rescued and their feelings for one an other . He added that " the fact they were both pretty much naked didn 't help " . He concluded the fact they were both kids , trying to keep warm - that then " stuff happens " . Geoff was left " guilt @-@ ridden " because he gave into temptation . He did not regret it , but acknowledged that he wanted to save his virginity until marriage . Therefore , Geoff saw no other option but to propose to Nicole . Lewis stated , " He 's not 100 % sure about that either , but he feels that if they 're going to have sex , a wedding is the only solution . " Describing Nicole 's reaction he said that she was " dumbfounded " by his offer , as she had believed he was acting strange because he wanted to dump her . Nicole refused when she realised his reasons for proposing . According to James , the moment managed to ruin their passion , she also commented that : " Nicole has liked Geoff for ages and was so happy to have got together with him - but now he 's spoiled it . " James also admitted she was trilled to learn Nicole would turn down his proposal . James later opined that Nicole was " the one " for Geoff , but did not believe that Geoff was " the one " for Nicole . Nicole and Geoff 's relationship became strained . Nicole decided to plan a return trip to the island , believing it would solve their problems and bring them closer together . James said that Geoff loved the surprise , but found Nicole " very sexy and tempting " . She added that everything about Nicole forced Geoff to question his religious beliefs and he felt he " needed to back away " . Their trip soon turned disastrous when a man named Derrick Quaid ( John Atkinson ) stole their food and intimidated the couple . He admitted he were a murderer and tried to attack Geoff with a knife . James said he " put himself in harms way " to save Nicole . In 2009 , James told Inside Soap that Nicole and Geoff had a strong friendship underneath their romance . She also described their compatibility stating : " They 're complete opposites , which works well for them . It 's a bit of a fiery relationship , and they 've been through a lot together . " Whilst Lewis added : " They 're also very similar in some of their strongest traits . Geoff and Nicole are both stubborn and opinionated , and in some ways they 're naive . In a weird way they show a side to each other nobody else gets to see . " James opined Nicole 's wild behaviour was often to much for Geoff to cope with . In public , Lewis initially had negative feedback from older viewers because they felt Geoff was better suited to Melody . He revealed they felt like she was a bad influence for Geoff because she often played games . However towards the end of their relationship he felt perception had changed due to viewers having a better understanding of Nicole 's persona . = = = Other relationships = = = In 2009 , the serial embarked on two lesbian storylines , one of which involved Nicole . It featured Freya Duric ( Sophie Hensser ) kissing Nicole , which sparked complaints . However , for Nicole it wasn 't about sexuality , rather finding herself the center of attention . James described their dynamic , stating : " Freya 's exactly what Nicole was like when she first arrived in the bay , that is why they click . Nicole relates to the wild side of Freya , but has no idea how far Freya is going to take it . " Through her relationship with Geoff she had mellowed , however her vanity was still present . James said Nicole was " angry " because she was on Freya 's " not hot list " . Freya kissed her to prove she thinks she is hot , James opined that Nicole did not enjoy the kiss , but was just " happy to be center of attention " and happy that people were talking about her again . The incident eventually brought her to the realisation that she had become boring . Nicole denied it was to do with her involvement with Geoff , however James said Geoff was the reason she became bored . Later that year the serial included a storyline which was branded " bizarre " after it mirrored a real life scandal that had occurred weeks earlier . Lewis who plays love interest Geoff had been caught up in a sex tape scandal which leaked onto the internet , the serial decided to include Nicole making a sex tape with Trey Palmer ( Luke Bracey ) and having it leaked . Trey filmed without Nicole 's consent , when she found out the truth she ended their relationship . Trey thought she and Geoff were getting back together so aired the tape at a local film festival to gain revenge . James described Nicole 's state of mind adding , " She 's quite vulnerable at the moment , with her dad , Roman , in prison . She 's relying on Trey , so this is the last thing she needs . " Nicole 's best friend during her initial storylines was Aden Jefferies ( Todd Lasance ) . After Brendan Austin ( Kain O 'Keeffe ) caused Roman to go blind , he took his anger out on Nicole and Aden . Subsequently they became " each other 's support network " and Lasance said it was not long afterward that they " slipped between the sheets " . One of the conditions of Aden 's tenancy was to never sleep with Nicole , this made the pair feel guilty that they had deceived Roman . Lasance felt the storyline was controversial as he had a strong fan base for his relationship with Belle Taylor ( Jessica Tovey ) - which meant he knew it would " cause a stir " and divide the audience . In January 2010 , Nicole and Aden " get up close and personal " and they decided to spend Aden 's remaining time in the Bay together . They shared a kiss and James told TV Week that there are " a lot of complications " for them . She said that no one knew what was going to happen with Liam Murphy ( Axle Whitehead ) and that Nicole felt guilty for betraying Belle because she was her friend . James explained that Nicole 's pairing with Aden was " a bit more serious and in @-@ depth than her usual relationships . " James opined that Aden was the " nicer guy " for Nicole , but Liam may have had " the edge she 's after . " Nicole and Aden then embarked on a relationship . James thought that Nicole and Aden 's relationship was great and said " They started out having a kind of brother @-@ sister relationship , and that developed into something more . " Nicole declared her love for Aden , however he did not reciprocate . Lasance described the moment whilst interviewed by TV Week stating : " They 've always had an awesome connection and Nicole gets into a bit of a comfortable state and blurts out that she loves Aden . " Aden appreciated her love for him , however cannot say it back until he felt the same way . It is this that made their relationship " awkward " , Nicole tried to withdraw her declaration and hide her hurt feelings . = = = Downward spiral = = = In mid @-@ 2009 , producers decided to take Nicole 's storyline into a " u @-@ turn " , when she reverted to her " wild ways " . At the time Nicole had endured repetitive personal trauma including failed relationships , Roman being sent to prison and her best friend Belle was dying of cancer . James explained : " It 's all too much for her and she can 't handle it , so she reverts to her wild ways . " Geoff notices Nicole 's erratic behaviour and attempts to help her . She tried to " lure him into bed " after he comforted her , however he turned her down . James said she no longer had romantic feelings for Geoff , but was actually in a " vulnerable state " . She then started relying on alcohol more , and partied with fellow " wild child " Indigo Walker ( Samara Weaving ) at a " rowdy " venue . James explained that Nicole saw alcohol as an answer to her problems . The fact that " she 's trying to deal with too many things " saw Nicole transform into a messed up and depressed person . Nicole became more irresponsible with the more she drank and was in the company of many men . Geoff arrived and saved her from danger , Lewis said there was a part of Geoff that still loved Nicole . However they did not start anything again , James said she understood why because of their complicated backstory . However Geoff continued to support Nicole as he realised that " a lot of people she was closest to have deserted her " . Nicole 's unpredictable behaviour continued thereafter . All that Geoff could offer was to be there for her because ultimately " Nicole is the only one that can save her from herself . " = = = Pregnancy = = = Nicole had a brief relationship with Penn Graham ( Christian Clark ) and after he was murdered , she discovered that she was pregnant with his child . James told Sunrise that viewers could expect a " realistic portrayal of teen pregnancy " and she explained that it was important to respect the issue . She added " We took it very seriously with the writers , and you do a lot of research and things like that . You can only do your best , I guess ! " Nicole later told Marilyn Chambers ( Emily Symons ) about the baby and she offered to adopt it . James later revealed that when she joined Home and Away she told the writers that they can do anything with her character , except make her pregnant . Of the moment she was told that Nicole was going to have a baby , James said " I went in to see our producer later and he said , ' Okay , I 'm going to apologise in advance - we 're making Nicole pregnant ! ' " She initially did not want to portray a " typical soap teenage pregnancy " as she thought Nicole should be different . However the situation was explained to her and she became excited at the challenging storyline ahead . Nicole later decided to let Marilyn and Sid Walker ( Robert Mammone ) adopt the baby upon its birth . Marilyn was desperate to mother a child and her obsession with that and her controlling behaviour became too much for Nicole . Of the situation , Symons said " Marilyn is in Nicole 's face every minute . She 's doing it out of love , but she doesn 't realise she 's becoming obsessed with the baby . " Nicole was still questioning whether she is making the right decision about her unborn baby 's future and she argued with Marilyn . Nicole began dating a student from university , Angus McCathie ( Tim Pocock ) , they got along well on their first dates . Marilyn was left worried about their agreement and she felt " distanced . " Symons explained , " Marilyn is scared of being replaced . She 's scared of losing the baby , which could happen because there isn 't a legal agreement . " Roo Stewart ( Georgie Parker ) helped Nicole by convincing Marilyn to re @-@ evaluate the situation . Symons added that there is " still a long way to go " with the arrangement , but thereafter she was supportive and offered constructive help to Nicole . During the final few weeks of her pregnancy Nicole began to receive increasing support from Angelo Rosetta ( Luke Jacobz ) . James said it was clear to see that " the lines of friendship could be blurring into something more " for the pair . Whilst Jacobz opined " They 've been spending time together and have realised how comfortable they are together . " Angelo was forced to help Nicole give birth to a baby boy , George , and she handed him over to Marilyn immediately as agreed . She then tried to stay away , however it became obvious he needed her when he struggled without her . Marilyn then became obsessed with Nicole having the power to take her new son back . It was then revealed that Nicole would struggle to switch off her mothering instinct after giving George away . Nicole came to visit the baby and Marilyn caught her breastfeeding George , while she was alone with him . Symons called the scenes " volatile . " Nicole was unaware that Marilyn has reservations about her spending time with the baby . Of the breastfeeding scene , Symons stated : " Marilyn is shocked and offended , and this cuts to the very core of her worries - that she doesn 't have the same natural mothering instincts as George 's birth mother . Without a doubt , Marilyn thinks Nicole is overstepping the mark . She feels that a boundary has been overstepped and it could put a big strain on their relationship . " After the incident , Nicole is asked by Marylin , to stay away from the baby . James defended Nicole stating : " I think it 's hard to not bond , but this is Marilyn 's baby , and Nicole is so young and wants very much to give Marilyn and Sid this gift . " = = Storylines = = Nicole 's biological parents were the teenage Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) and Natalie Franklin ( Adrienne Pickering ) , but she was raised by her maternal grandparents and considered her mother , Natalie , as an older sister . She did not meet her father until her early teenage years . Nicole arrives in Summer Bay in a flashy car . She initially makes herself unpopular with her bitchy care @-@ free nature . She tries to sleep with Aden but he rebuffs her . She makes a bet with Aden that she can sleep with Geoff Campbell ( Lincoln Lewis ) within two weeks , but Geoff and Belle publicly humiliate her when they find out . Nicole starts dating Roman 's old SAS friend Mark 's brother Elliot Gillen , despite Roman 's disapproval . After breaking up with Elliot , he takes her diving where he tries to kill her , Geoff and later Roman . Geoff tries to save Nicole , but Elliot leaves the pair stranded at sea . They wash up on a remote island and Geoff and Nicole grow close to each other . Geoff , who has strong religious views , sleeps with Nicole as they cannot fight temptation . When rescued Geoff proposes to Nicole out of guilt , she turns him down . She later has a pregnancy scare but is happy to discover it was a false alarm . Nicole later decides she and Geoff should return to the island to repair their relationship . They chased through woodland by a murderer , Derrick who tries to kill them both . However they manage to escape . Nicole decides to try her best to make their relationship work . However , after Freya kisses her they enter a few rocky periods and later break up . She starts a relationship with troublesome Trey . He films them having sex , which is later leaked at the town 's movie festival . She has a brief relationship with Liam . After the death of good friend Belle , Nicole goes on a downward spiral . She starts partying and binge drinking along with Indigo . Geoff notices her behaviour and attempts to help her . After pushing him away she sleeps with drug addict Liam . She then pursues older man Sid . She kisses him and Indigo sees them , which ruins their friendship . She later moves in with Miles Copeland ( Josh Quong Tart ) who agrees to look after her . Nicole starts dating Penn who manipulates her . He makes her believe she has accidentally stepped on a needle and she has tests for HIV . She later finds out she has the all clear . Nicole reveals to Marilyn that she is pregnant with Penn 's child . She initially chooses to have an abortion , but changes her mind and decides to give the baby to Marilyn . Nicole goes on a date with Angelo and she takes him to her antenatal class . When he learns that Nicole is giving her baby away , Angelo ends their relationship . Nicole become friends with Roo and asks her to be at the birth , but Roo turns her down . Marilyn apologises to Nicole when she starts to take over and begins leaving her out of her plans for the baby . Nicole becomes fed up when the baby is late and Angelo tries to help her start labour . They go for a walk on the beach and Nicole 's water breaks . Angelo is then forced to deliver the baby . Nicole later decides that she wants her baby back and tells Marilyn , who is devastated . Marilyn takes the baby , but later returns him . Nicole then leaves Summer bay with Angelo and George . She later contacts Marilyn and they meet in the city . Nicole and Marilyn talk things through and Angelo shows up with George . = = Reception = = Holy Soap said that Nicole 's most memorable moment was when she " returned to the desert island with Geoff to rekindle their love " and she was held hostage by Derek the murderer , before her father came to the rescue . When Nicole began dating Liam , Caroline Fitton writing for the Daily Mail said " I think this reforming wild child – a kind of less moody Peaches Geldof – has struck lucky " . Inside Soap opined that Nicole was a " flighty minx from the city who prays at the altar of Paris Hilton " . The Sunday Mail said it seemed like no one could stop her downward spiral . The Daily Record said that Nicole and Geoff 's relationship ending was good for her character . They later branded her a " fiery favourite " and when she started dating Penn , they said " Impressionable Nicole looks set to fall for the wrong man all over again " . When Nicole had her HIV scare Holy Soap said " As if defending her man against the Bay 's critics wasn 't enough for one girl to take , poor Nic " . Inside Soap said " Nicole Franklin isn 't exactly backward in coming forward " . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail opined that Nicole seemed incapable of decision making when it came to deciding on a birthing partner . TV Week chose James as one of the serial 's most promising actresses opining she was ready for roles in Hollywood . TV Week often commented on her pregnancy storyline . After the plot was half way through Erin Miller of TV Week said that Nicole had changed her mind about adopting her baby " more times that Julia Gillard has uttered the phrase ' moving forward ' " . Upon watching Nicole 's beach birth scenes , the magazine website editor quipped " Who knew sand had birthing properties ? ! Well , maybe not ... but you could forgive pregnant teen Nicole for thinking that after a casual stroll along the Bay 's beach ends with Angelo delivering her newborn son ! " Commenting on the realism of the storyline they added : " Only in the Bay would a baby be born on the beach ! " Miller thought it was odd she had then " miraculously lost any signs that she even had a baby . " She quipped " already the teen is back to wearing skin @-@ tight dresses ! " . They later described Nicole and Marilyn 's argument over George as " the mother of all rifts " and said " It 's exhausting just thinking about it ! " Miller later criticised Nicole 's career in fashion , after John told her he hated her designs for the Surf Club . She said " I had to agree with him - putting lifesavers in pink polo @-@ neck swimmers is a terrible idea . "

= Livin ' the Dream = " Livin ' the Dream " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 197th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on May 2 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Michael Imperioli as Sensei Billy , and was initially scheduled to air in its half @-@ hour timeslot , before being expanded to a full hour . The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to pursue a career as a professional actor , and quits his job at Dunder Mifflin . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) finally receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Imperioli ) and , on the recommendation of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , is promoted to Regional Manager of the Scranton branch . Jim reconnects with Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , and makes it clear that he will choose her over Philadelphia . The episode was viewed by an estimated and received a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot and fourth in its second , marking a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode . " Livin ' the Dream " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Critical praise mainly went towards the dynamic between Jim , Pam and Dwight , particularly for the former two 's reconciliation and the latter 's promotion . Andy 's subplot , meanwhile , received more mixed reviews . = = Plot = = CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) plans on firing Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) due to his missing work for acting gigs . However , Andy tells David he is resigning to pursue his dreams of stardom full time , and David is relieved to not have to fire him . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Michael Imperioli ) . Seeing Dwight 's tenacity and devotion , David is inspired to make Dwight Andy 's replacement . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) has returned to Scranton full time , saying he has realized that he can 't devote himself to both his family and his new job , and has decided to go " all in " on his family since that is what makes him most happy . David asks Jim his opinion on promoting Dwight , and Jim says that Dwight deserves the job and will be a great manager . Dwight then appoints Jim the new assistant to the regional manager . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) informs Jim that Athlead has found a buyer and wants them to do a promotional tour around the country for three months . With undisguised regret , Jim says he will not do the tour because he cannot put his wife Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) through that , unaware that Pam is listening in . Everyone in the office tells Andy that quitting is a foolish move and that he has no chance of achieving stardom . Andy eventually goes back on his decision , and David allows him to stay on in a sales position . However , mere hours later Andy feels that he is only sticking with his Dundler @-@ Mifflin job because it is safe and that he has to take a shot at achieving fame . Fearing his conviction will falter a second time , he decides he cannot simply quit , but get fired . This proves difficult as he is unable to make himself go through with any offense more serious than defecating on David 's car . Andy bids farewell to his coworkers with an unexpectedly moving rendition of " I Will Remember You " , prompting them to comment to the documentary crew that he may have star potential after all . Meanwhile , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) is evicted from her studio apartment after her cats were taken away by Animal Control . She considers living in a tent in the woods , prompting Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) to offer her to stay with him until she gets back on her feet . She finally accepts with gratitude . As they set off to take Angela 's things to Oscar 's place , Oscar mentions her marriage to Robert Lipton and she breaks down into tears , saying " I love him . " However , she denies she still has feelings for Robert and claims she was talking about Dwight . = = Production = = " Livin ' the Dream " was written by story editor Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright , marking her second writing credit for the series , after the earlier season episode " Lice " . It was directed by regular Office director Jeffrey Blitz , who last directed season eight 's " Gettysburg " . The episode was originally scheduled to air in its regular half @-@ hour time slot , but NBC later announced it would be expanded to fill an hour time slot beginning a half hour early , although it still counts as one official episode , similar to the earlier season episode " Moving On " . Rogers noted that " we knew the last two episodes would be hour @-@ longs , and The Finale might even end up running longer , but we still had a lot of great storytelling to do leading up to them , and ' Livin ' the Dream ' was one that ultimately deserved to be an hour long episode as well ! " = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Livin ' the Dream " originally aired on May 2 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , " Livin ' the Dream " was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 51 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode , " Paper Airplane " . The episode ranked third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the CBS comedy series Two and a Half Men which received a 3 @.@ 2 / 10 rating and an entry of the Fox reality series American Idol which scored a 2 @.@ 6 / 9 rating . The second half @-@ hour ranked fourth in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which scored a 3 @.@ 0 / 9 rating , an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which garnered a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 rating , and installment of the Fox series Glee which received a 1 @.@ 9 / 5 rating . = = = Reviews = = = " Livin ' the Dream " received positive reviews from television critics . Roth Cornet of IGN wrote that " it pleases me greatly that at the conclusion of this super @-@ sized episode I was left , once again , truly looking forward to seeing what these next few weeks , and that final hour of The Office , will bring . " Cornet praised the full @-@ use of the ensemble , particularly the " Phyllis and Stanley Lil ' Romeo mini @-@ debate " and Creed 's confused mimicking of Dwight 's declaration . Cornet also called the Dwight storyline " perfectly executed " , as well as the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Dwight dynamic featured throughout the episode , calling their companionship to be " entirely earned " . She also praised Kinsey 's performance during her character 's storyline , and said her final scenes with Oscar " [ tugged ] at my heart @-@ string " . She gave the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , calling it " Great " . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " and wrote that " almost everybody is having their best day in a long time , in the best episode of The Office in an even longer time " . Nick Campbell of TV.com complimented the sentimental storylines in the episode , specifically between Jim , Pam and Dwight . He was positive towards Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , but felt " something hollow about their reunion " . He also noted that the Jim @-@ Pam storyline caused the Dwight @-@ Angela relationship to go " darker " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a slightly more mixed review writing that " the non @-@ Andy parts of " Livin ' the Dream " were fairly interesting " . He appreciated the drama coming from Angela 's desperation , despite disagreeing with the logic in the situation . Sepinwall praised the Jim @-@ Dwight dynamic in the episode , considering it an enjoyable payoff , and also praised Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , particularly them annoying their co @-@ workers with their flirting . Joshua Alton of The A.V. Club was more negative towards the episode , saying it felt " padded @-@ out " to fill the full hour timeslot , and that " this episode might be the nadir for the show ’ s hour @-@ long installments " . He was complimentary towards the Jim @-@ Pam storyline , but felt " there wasn ’ t much happening " beyond Pam overhearing Jim 's talk with Darryl . Alton praised the Dwight storyline and his dynamic with Jim and Pam , calling it " the true fan service " . Alton gave the episode a " C – " .

= Toniná = Tonina ( or Toniná in Spanish orthography ) is a pre @-@ Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas , some 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of the town of Ocosingo . The site is medium to large , with groups of temple @-@ pyramids set on terraces rising some 71 metres ( 233 ft ) above a plaza , a large court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame , and over 100 carved monuments , most dating from the 6th century through the 9th centuries AD , during the Classic period . Toniná is distinguished by its well preserved stucco sculptures and particularly by its in @-@ the @-@ round carved monuments , produced to an extent not seen in Mesoamerica since the end of the much earlier Olmec civilization . Toniná was an aggressive state in the Late Classic , using warfare to develop a powerful kingdom . For much of its history , Toniná was engaged in sporadic warfare with Palenque , its greatest rival and one of the most important polities in the west of the Maya region , although Toniná eventually became the dominant city in the west . The city is notable for having the last known Long Count date on any Maya monument , marking the end of the Classic Maya period in AD 909 . = = Etymology = = Toniná means house of stone in the Tzeltal language of the local Maya inhabitants , an alternate interpretation is the place where stone sculptures are raised to honour time . However , this is a modern name and the original name was either Po or Popo , appearing in Classic Maya texts in the title used for the kings of Toniná , k 'uhul po ' ajaw ( Divine Lord of Po ) . A Maya rebellion in Colonial times , in 1558 , featured a group called the po ' winikob ' ( People of Po ) . Early versions of the Toniná emblem glyph bore a doubled po glyph and the term Popo is also found in Colonial records . Since double sounds were often abbreviated in hieroglyphic texts , Popo may represent the original name of the city . = = Location = = Toniná is located at an altitude of 800 to 900 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 000 ft ) above mean sea level in the Chiapas highlands of southern Mexico , some 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the contemporary Maya city of Palenque , Toniná 's greatest rival throughout its recorded history . Toniná is separated from Palenque by mountainous terrain and the site core is located along an easily defended ascending limestone ridge immediately to the west of a seasonal tributary of the Río Jataté , one of the two rivers forming the Ocosingo Valley . = = Rulers = = Rulers of Toniná recorded in the Maya script on Toniná monuments include : The last known recorded date at the site is featured on Monument 101 as 15 January 909 CE . = = History = = = = = Early Classic = = = Toniná had a particularly active Early Classic presence , although the Early Classic remains lie entirely buried under later construction . Due to this , early texts are scarce and only offer a glimpse of the early history of the site . An 8th @-@ century text refers to a king ruling in AD 217 , although it only mentions his title , not his name . Ruler 1 is depicted on a couple of Early Classic monuments , the better preserved of which is an altar that dates to 514 . A ruler known as Jaguar Bird Peccary is represented on a 6th @-@ century stela , which describes him acceding to the throne in 568 . The first mention of Toniná in a record from a foreign state is from the site of Chinikiha , located 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) to the northeast on the Usumacinta River , the text is from a throne and describes the capture of a person from Toniná in 573 . = = = Late Classic = = = = = = = K 'inich Hix Chapat = = = = Toniná 's history comes into focus in the Late Classic , when its historical record is more fully represented by hieroglyphic texts . In 633 K 'inich Hix Chapat is recorded as installing two subordinate lords but little else is known of his reign , although he was probably enthroned in 595 . The last mention of K 'inich Hix Chapat is in a monument dated to 665 that appears to be a memorial stone . = = = = Ruler 2 = = = = Ruler 2 acceded to the throne of Toniná in 668 . His rule is marked by warfare and the frequent depiction of bound captives on his monuments . Ruler 2 established the use of in @-@ the @-@ round sculptural style that came to typify the stelae of Toniná . A monument dated to 682 depicts three naked prisoners with their arms bound , one of them is identified as a lord from Annak ' , an as yet unidentified site . His reign may have ended with his defeat and capture by K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque in September 687 , as described in a glyphic text from Temple 17 in the rival city , an event that probably culminated in his sacrifice . = = = = K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak = = = = K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak was enthroned in 688 , twenty years after Ruler 2 , and reigned for twenty @-@ seven years . During his reign he restored Toniná 's power with a number of military victories over Palenque , and his reign was dominated by the struggle against the rival city for regional power . Ballcourt 1 , the larger of Toniná 's two ballcourts , was dedicated in 699 to celebrate three victories over the city 's arch @-@ rival . The ballcourt originally had six sculptures of bound captives , all vassals of the enemy Palenque king from the Usumacinta region . The date of the king 's death is unknown . = = = = Ruler 4 = = = = Ruler 4 came to power in 708 at a very young age . Three years later , in 711 , while Ruler 4 was still a child , Toniná gained an important victory over Palenque . The battle resulted in the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II of Palenque and made Toniná the dominant centre in the lower Usumacinta region . The victory was so complete that it resulted in a ten @-@ year gap in the dynastic history of the defeated city , during which the captured ruler may have been held hostage . Ruler 4 continued in power to celebrate the period endings of 716 and 721 . A captive depicted on one of his monuments is identified as being from the distant city of Calakmul , one of the two Maya " superpowers " . = = = = K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat = = = = Ruler 4 was succeeded by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 723 . Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras , a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River , now in Guatemala . A series of events during his reign were marked on monuments between 726 and 729 and in 730 he rededicated the tomb of his predecessor K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . The mother of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is named as Lady Winik Timan K 'awiil and his father may well have been K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak himself . The reign of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is notable for the absence of the usual sculptures depicting bound war captives , although the reason for this is unknown . = = = = Later rulers = = = = Little is known of the next two rulers , Ruler 6 is named as K 'inich Tuun Chapat , he celebrated the period ending of 736 and may have died 762 . A damaged text accompanying the image of a bound captive indicates renewed warfare with Palenque during his reign , however the name of the prisoner is lost and it is unclear if it is the actual king of Palenque or merely one of his vassals . He was succeeded by Ruler 7 , about whom even less is known . Around 764 Toniná defeated Palenque in battle . In 775 a text recorded the death of Lord Wak Chan K 'ak ' , a prince who appears to have been the heir to the throne and who died before he could take power . Ruler 8 was the last of the successful warrior kings of Toniná . He celebrated a series of events between 789 and 806 , including the defeat of Pomoy in 789 , and the capture of the ruler Ucha 'an Aj Chih , who appears to have been the vassal of B 'olon K 'awiil of Calakmul . In 799 he rededicated the tomb of Ruler 1 . Ruler 8 oversaw an extensive remodelling of the upper levels of the Acropolis . Ruler 8 erected a number of sculptures of bound prisoners of war and adopted the title aj b 'olon b 'aak , " He of Many Captives " . However , the lesser extent of Toniná 's power is evident from its victory over the site of Sak Tz 'i ' ( White Dog ) , an important city in the Lacandon region , an area which had once been dominated by Toniná . By the time of Ruler 8 's successor , Uh Chapat , Toniná was clearly in decline . Only a single event , in 837 , can be dated to his reign , although a stucco mural depicting captives with garrottes at their throats may belong to his period of rule . The history of Toniná continued after most other Classic Maya cities had fallen , perhaps aided by the site 's relative isolation . Ruler 10 is associated with a monument dating to 904 in the Terminal Classic and a monument dating to 909 bears the last known Long Count date although the name of the king has not survived . Ceramic fragments indicate that occupation at the site continued for another century or more . = = = Modern history = = = The first published account of the ruins was made by Fray Jacinto Garrido at the end of the 17th century . A number of visitors investigated the ruins of Toniná in the 19th century , the first being an expedition led by Guillaume Dupaix in 1808 . John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood visited in 1840 , and Stephens wrote an extensive description of the site . Eduard Seler and Caecilie Seler @-@ Sachs investigated the monuments at Toniná , publishing their reports at the turn of the 20th century . Karl Sapper visited the site in 1895 and 1896 . Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge investigated the site in 1920s for Tulane University , publishing their reports in 1926 — 1927 . The French Toniná Project began excavations in 1972 which continued through 1975 , then resumed in 1979 to 1980 , under the direction of Pierre Becquelin and Claude Baudez . The National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico ( INAH , the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia ) began their own excavations at Toniná the following year . The site is accessible for tourism and has a small museum that was inaugurated on 15 July 2000 . = = Site description = = The site was built on a platform covering 6 hectares ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The principal architecture is located in the acropolis , which occupies seven south @-@ facing terraces on the northern side of the platform , rising 71 metres ( 233 ft ) over the plaza below . It has a more distinct geometry than at most Maya sites , with a right @-@ angle relationship between most structures . Much of the public imagery of the site details the ruthless manner in which the city dealt with its enemies . A 16 by 4 metres ( 52 by 13 ft ) stucco sculpture rising from the fourth to fifth terraces depicts a skeletal death god carrying the severed head of a lord of Palenque in one hand . A frieze on the fifth terrace probably displayed Toniná 's most distinguished victims , dozens of fragments of this frieze were discovered in the plaza below . This frieze was carved from the local sandstone but its style is that of Palenque , suggesting that captured artists carried out the work . After the abandonment of the city at the end of the Classic Period , many of the sculptures fell down the steep embankment supporting the seven terraces . = = = Structures = = = Ballcourt 1 ( the Sunken Ballcourt ) was dedicated in 699 by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak to mark three victories over K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque . Sculptures of the torsos of six captured vassals of the Palenque king were used as ballcourt markers . One of these vassals is named as Yax Ahk ( Green Turtle ) , who was the lord of Annay Te ' , a site that probably lay on the south side of the Usumacinta between Piedras Negras and Yaxchilán . Ballcourt 2 is the smaller of the two ballcourts and lies in the north of the plaza , at the foot of the Acropolis . The Palace of the Underworld is entered via three step @-@ vaulted arches on the eastern side of the second terrace of the Acropolis . The Palace of Frets is located on the fourth terrace of the Acropolis . The south facade of the palace is decorated with four large stepped frets . On the east side of the palace a stairway leads to a decorated throne of stone and stucco . One of the rooms of the palace contains a stucco decoration representing feathered serpents and crossed bones . = = = Monuments and sculptures = = = The monuments of Toniná tend to be smaller than those at other Maya sites , with most of the stelae measuring less than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . The most important difference from monuments at other Maya sites is that they are carved in the round like statues , often with hieroglyphic text running down the spine . On the fifth terrace , in @-@ the @-@ round sculptures of Toniná 's rulers dominated two @-@ dimensional representations of defeated enemies . The dated monuments at Toniná span the period from AD 495 to 909 , covering most of the Classic Period . Monument 3 is broken into various fragments , five of which were recovered from various locations in Ocosingo and Toniná through the course of the 20th century and most of which were reunited in the Toniná site museum . Aside from being broken , the stela is largely complete and only lightly eroded , it is a statue of a ruler with inscriptions describing the accession of K 'inich Baaknal Chaak and the promotion to the priesthood of Aj Ch 'aaj Naah . Monument 5 was recovered from a school in Ocosingo and moved to the site museum of Toniná . It is a badly eroded life @-@ size human statue with the head missing . Monument 7 is carved from yellow sandstone and has suffered only minor damage . It is a stela base with well @-@ preserved hieroglyphs on all four vertical sides and was dedicated by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 728 . It is currently in the Museo Regional in Tuxtla Gutiérrez . Monument 8 dates to the reign of Ruler 2 . It marks the period ending of 682 and shows the presentation of three war captives . Monument 12 is a sculpture carved in the round , representing Ruler 2 . It dates to AD 672 . Monument 27 is a carved step depicting K 'awiil Mo ' , a lord from Palenque , as an elderly prisoner , bound and lying on his back with his profile positioned in such a way as to be trodden on time and again . Monument 99 is an undated fragment that depicts a female captive , which is rare in Maya art . Monument 101 has the last Long Count date from any Maya monument , it marks the K 'atun ending of AD 909 . Monument 106 is the earliest securely dated monument at the site , dating to AD 593 . It depicts Ruler 1 . Monument 113 depicts Ruler 2 participating in a scattering ritual . Monument 114 was dedicated in 794 by Ruler 8 . It commemorates the death of an important noble , apparently a relative or vassal of Ruler 8 's predecessor Tuun Chapat . Monument 122 is a low relief sculpture marking the defeat of Palenque by Ruler 4 in 711 and the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II , who is depicted as a bound captive . Monument 141 is a very well preserved hieroglyphic panel carved from fine grained white limestone with almost the whole inscription intact . It describes the dedication of a ballcourt by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . Monument 154 dates to the reign of K 'inich Hix Chapat and records his installing of two subordinate lords in 633 . Monument 158 has a very late date , in AD 904 , at the very end of the Classic Period . It was erected during the reign of Ruler 10 . The Frieze of the Dream Lords ( also known as the Frieze of the Four Suns or Frieze of the Four Eras ) was uncovered by archaeologists during excavations in 1992 . It is a stucco mural located at the east end of the 5th terrace . It represents a complex supernatural scene divided into four by a feather @-@ covered scaffold from which hang the severed heads of sacrificial victims . Among the scaffold partitions are depicted the wayob ( spirit companions ) of the Maya elite . The most well @-@ preserved section of the sculpture depicts a skeletal supernatural way named Ak Ok Kimi ( " Turtle Foot Death " ) wearing turtleshells on its feet and carrying a severed head in one hand , interpreted as the way of a lord from the site of Pipa ' . The frieze was once brightly painted in red , blue and yellow . This frieze has strong stylistic parallels with mural paintings at the great Early Classic metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico . = = = The site museum = = = The site museum is located 300 metres ( 980 ft ) outside of the Toniná archaeological zone . It possesses 2 exhibition rooms and a conference room . The first room explains the pyramidal form of the acropolis and how it relates to Maya mythology , while the main room contains sculptures of the city 's rulers . Artefacts in the collection include stone sculptures , ceramics and artefacts sculpted from bone , shell , obsidian and flint . The pieces in the museum graphically depict the two sides of the power exercised by Toniná , on the one hand with sculptures of the city 's rulers and on the other with its depictions of bound prisoners of war .

= Central Area Command ( RAAF ) = Central Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in March 1940 , and covered the central portion of New South Wales . Headquartered at Sydney , Central Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . It was disbanded in August 1941 and control of its units taken over by other RAAF formations . Proposals in 1943 – 44 to raise a new Central Area Command did not come to fruition . = = History = = Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . After war broke out in September 1939 , the RAAF began to implement a decentralised form of command , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units . Its initial move in this direction was to create Nos. 1 and 2 Groups to control units in Victoria and New South Wales , respectively . Then , between March 1940 and May 1941 , the RAAF divided Australia and New Guinea into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of these area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary . No. 2 Group , which had been established on 20 November 1939 , was re @-@ formed as one of the first two area commands , Central Area , on 7 March 1940 . Headquartered in Sydney , Central Area Command was given control of all Air Force units in New South Wales except those in the southern Riverina and the north of the state . Units in Queensland were also temporarily assigned to its control , pending the formation of Northern Area . Central Area 's inaugural AOC was Air Commodore Adrian " King " Cole , who had also led No. 2 Group . His senior air staff officer was Wing Commander Alan Charlesworth . In May 1940 it was reported that the area 's headquarters building would change from " Mont Loana " in Point Piper to the mansion " Kilmory " nearby . Cole handed over command of Central Area to Air Commodore Bill Anderson in December 1940 . By August 1941 , the RAAF 's expanding instructional program necessitated the establishment of overarching training organisations on a semi @-@ functional , semi @-@ geographical basis . Accordingly , No. 2 ( Training ) Group was formed in Sydney , taking responsibility for the training units then under Central Area , which was disbanded . Control of other Central Area units was " divided as convenient " , according to the official history of the war , between Northern and Southern Area Commands . = = Aftermath = = The RAAF 's area command structure was revised in 1942 , following the outbreak of the Pacific War : Northern Area was split into North @-@ Eastern Area and North @-@ Western Area , and a new command covering New South Wales and southern Queensland , Eastern Area , was created , making a total of five commands . In October 1943 , the Air Board proposed carving a new Central Area Command out of Eastern Area , which by then was considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters and therefore ripe for subdivision . This Central Area Command would have been responsible for training and operational units in southern Queensland . The War Cabinet deferred its decision on the proposal . The concept was raised again in August 1944 , and this time the new Central Area Command was to control maintenance units , as well as training and operations , in southern Queensland . Once again , nothing came of the proposal .

= Corn crake = The corn crake , corncrake or landrail ( Crex crex ) is a bird in the rail family . It breeds in Europe and Asia as far east as western China , and migrates to Africa for the northern hemisphere 's winter . It is a medium @-@ sized crake with buff- or grey @-@ streaked brownish @-@ black upperparts , chestnut markings on the wings , and blue @-@ grey underparts with rust @-@ coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail . The strong bill is flesh @-@ toned , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults , and downy chicks are black , as with all rails . There are no subspecies , although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts . The male 's call is a loud krek krek , from which the scientific name is derived . The corn crake is larger than its closest relative , the African crake , which shares its wintering range ; that species is also darker @-@ plumaged , and has a plainer face . The corn crake 's breeding habitat is grassland , particularly hayfields , and it uses similar environments on the wintering grounds . This secretive species builds a nest of grass leaves in a hollow in the ground and lays 6 – 14 cream @-@ coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches . These hatch in 19 – 20 days , and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks . This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed . The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feeds on invertebrates , the occasional small frog or mammal , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Natural threats include introduced and feral mammals , large birds , various parasites and diseases . Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe , this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large , apparently stable , populations in Russia and Kazakhstan . Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought , and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses . Despite its elusive nature , the loud call has ensured the corn crake has been noted in literature , and garnered a range of local and dialect names . = = Taxonomy = = The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although origins of the group are lost in antiquity , the largest number of species and least specialised forms are found in the Old World , suggesting this family originated there . The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated , but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake , C. egregia , which has sometimes been given its own genus , Crecopsis , but is now more usually placed in Crex . Both species are short @-@ billed brown birds with a preference for grassland rather than wetland habitats typical of rails . Porzana crakes , particularly the ash @-@ throated crake ( Porzana albicollis ) are near relatives of the Crex genus . Corn crakes were first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Rallus crex , but was subsequently moved to the genus Crex , created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803 , and named Crex pratensis . The earlier use of crex gives it priority over Bechstein 's specific name pratensis , and leads to the current name of Crex crex . The binomial name , Crex crex , from the Ancient Greek " κρεξ " , is onomatopoeic , referring to the crake 's repetitive grating call . The common name was formerly spelt as a single word , " corncrake " , but the official version is now " corn crake " . The English names refer to the species habit of nesting in dry hay or cereal fields , rather than marshes used by most members of this family . = = Description = = The corn crake is a medium @-@ sized rail , 27 – 30 cm ( 11 – 12 in ) long with a wingspan of 42 – 53 cm ( 17 – 21 in ) . Males weigh 165 g ( 5 @.@ 8 oz ) on average and females 145 g ( 5 @.@ 1 oz ) . The adult male has the crown of its head and all of its upperparts brown @-@ black in colour , streaked with buff or grey . The wing coverts are a distinctive chestnut colour with some white bars . The face , neck and breast are blue @-@ grey , apart from a pale brown streak from the base of the bill to behind the eye , the belly is white , and the flanks , and undertail are barred with chestnut and white . The strong bill is flesh @-@ coloured , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Compared to the male , the female has warmer @-@ toned upperparts and a narrower duller eye streak . Outside the breeding season , the upperparts of both sexes become darker and the underparts less grey . The juvenile is like the adult in appearance , but has a yellow tone to its upperparts , and the grey of the underparts is replaced with buff @-@ brown . The chicks have black down , as with all rails . While there are no subspecies , all populations show great individual variation in colouring , and the birds gradually become paler and greyer towards the east of the range . Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding , which is normally finished by late August or early September , before migration to south eastern Africa . There is a pre @-@ breeding partial moult prior to the return from Africa , mainly involving the plumage of the head , body and tail . Young birds have a head and body moult about five weeks after hatching . The corn crake is sympatric with the African crake on the wintering grounds , but can be distinguished by its larger size , paler upperparts , tawny upperwing and different underparts pattern . In flight , it has longer , less rounded wings , and shallower wingbeats than its African relative , and shows a white leading edge to the inner wing . In both the breeding and wintering ranges it is unlikely to be confused with any other rails , since sympatric species are smaller , with white markings on the upperparts , different underparts patterns and shorter bills . A flying corn crake can resemble a gamebird , but its chestnut wing pattern and dangling legs are diagnostic . = = = Voice = = = On the breeding grounds , the male corn crake 's advertising call is a loud , repetitive , grating krek krek normally delivered from a low perch with the bird 's head and neck almost vertical and its bill wide open . The call can be heard from 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) away , and serves to establish the breeding territory , attract females , and challenge intruding males . Slight differences in vocalisations mean that individual males can be distinguished by their calls . Early in the season , the call is given almost continuously at night , and often during the day , too . It may be repeated more than 20 @,@ 000 times a night , with a peak between midnight and 3 am . The call has evolved to make a singing male 's location clear , as this species hides in vegetation . The frequency of calling reduces after a few weeks but may intensify again near the end of the laying period before falling away towards the end of the breeding season . To attract males , mechanical imitations of their call can be produced by rubbing a piece of wood down a notched stick , or by flicking a credit card against a comb or zip @-@ fastener . The male also has a growling call , given with the bill shut and used during aggressive interactions . The female corn crake may give a call that is similar to that of the male ; it also has a distinctive barking sound , similar in rhythm to the main call but without the grating quality . The female also has a high @-@ pitched cheep call , and a oo @-@ oo @-@ oo sound to call the chick . The chicks make a quiet peeick @-@ peeick contact call , and a chirp used to beg for food . Because of the difficulty in seeing this species , it is usually censused by counting males calling between 11 pm and 3 am ; the birds do not move much at night , whereas they may wander up to 600 m ( 660 yd ) during the day , which could lead to double @-@ counting if monitored then . Identifying individual males suggests that just counting calling birds underestimates the true count by nearly 30 % , and the discrepancy is likely to be greater , since only 80 % of males may call at all on a given night . The corn crake is silent in Africa . = = Distribution and habitat = = The corn crake breeds from Britain and Ireland east through Europe to central Siberia . Although it has vanished from much of its historic range , this bird was once found in suitable habitats in Eurasia everywhere between latitudes 41 ° N and 62 ° N. There is also a sizable population in western China , but this species nests only rarely in northern Spain and in Turkey . Old claims of breeding in South Africa are incorrect , and result from misidentification of eggs in a museum collection which are actually those of the African rail . The corn crake winters mainly in Africa , from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa . North of this area , it is mainly seen on migration , but occasionally winters in North Africa and to the west and north of its core area in southeast Africa . Most of the South African population of about 2 @,@ 000 birds occurs in KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former Transvaal Province , and numbers elsewhere in Africa are uncertain . There are several nineteenth @-@ century records , when populations were much higher than now , of birds being seen in western Europe , mainly Britain and Ireland , between December and February . This crake migrates to Africa along two main routes : a western route through Morocco and Algeria , and a more important flyway through Egypt . On passage , it has been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges , including much of West Africa . Birds from Coll following the western route paused in West Africa on their way further south , and again on the return flight , when they also rested in Spain or North Africa . Eastern migrants have been recorded in those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa . Further afield , the corn crake has been recorded as a vagrant to Sri Lanka , Vietnam and Australia , the Seychelles , Bermuda , Canada , the US , Greenland , Iceland , the Faroes , the Azores , Madeira , and the Canary Islands . The corn crake is mainly a lowland species , but breeds up to 1 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) altitude in the Alps , 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) in China and 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in Russia . When breeding in Eurasia , the corn crake 's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants including sedges and irises . It is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay , particularly moist traditional farmland with limited cutting or fertiliser use . It also utilises other treeless grasslands in mountains or taiga , on coasts , or where created by fire . Moister areas like wetland edges may be used , but very wet habitats are avoided , as are open areas and those with vegetation more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall , or too dense to walk through . The odd bush or hedge may be used as a calling post . Grassland which is not mown or grazed becomes too matted to be suitable for nesting , but locally crops such as cereals , peas , rape , clover or potatoes may be used . After breeding , adults move to taller vegetation such as common reed , iris , or nettles to moult , returning to the hay and silage meadows for the second brood . In China , flax is also used for nest sites . Although males often sing in intensively managed grass or cereal crops , successful breeding is uncommon , and nests in the field margins or nearby fallow ground are more likely to succeed . When wintering in Africa , the corn crake occupies dry grassland and savanna habitats , occurring in vegetation 30 – 200 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 6 @.@ 56 ft ) tall , including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or reed beds . It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields , uncut grass on airfields , and the edges of crops . It occurs at up to at least 1 @,@ 750 metres ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) altitude in South Africa . Each bird stays within a fairly small area . Although it sometimes occurs with the African crake , that species normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake . On migration , the corn crake may also occur in wheatfields and around golf courses . = = Behaviour = = The corn crake is a difficult bird to see in its breeding sites , usually being hidden by vegetation , but will sometimes emerge into the open . Occasionally , individuals may become very trusting ; for five consecutive summers , an individual crake on the Scottish island of Tiree entered a kitchen to feed on scraps , and , in 1999 , a wintering Barra bird would come for poultry feed once the chickens had finished . In Africa , it is more secretive than the African crake , and , unlike its relative , it is rarely seen in the open , although it occasionally feeds on tracks or road sides . The corn crake is most active early and late in the day , after heavy rain and during light rain . Its typical flight is weak and fluttering , although less so than that of the African crake . For longer flights , such as migration , it has a steadier , stronger action with legs drawn up . It walks with a high @-@ stepping action , and can run swiftly through grass with its body held horizontal and laterally flattened . It will swim if essential . When flushed by a dog , it will fly less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , frequently landing behind a bush or thicket , and then crouch on landing . If disturbed in the open , this crake will often run in a crouch for a short distance , with its neck stretched forward , then stand upright to watch the intruder . When captured it may feign death , recovering at once if it sees a way out . The corn crake is solitary on the wintering grounds , where each bird occupies 4 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 9 ha ( 10 – 12 acres ) at one time , although the total area used may be double that , since an individual may move locally due to flooding , plant growth , or grass cutting . Flocks of up to 40 birds may form on migration , sometimes associating with common quails . Migration takes place at night , and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites . The ability to migrate is innate , not learned from adults . Chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations were able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild @-@ bred young . = = = Breeding = = = Until 1995 , it was assumed that the corn crake is monogamous , but it transpires that a male may have a shifting home range , and mate with two or more females , moving on when laying is almost complete . The male 's territory can vary from 3 to 51 ha ( 7 @.@ 4 to 126 @.@ 0 acres ) , but averages 15 @.@ 7 ha ( 39 acres ) . The female has a much smaller range , averaging only 5 @.@ 5 ha ( 14 acres ) . A male will challenge an intruder by calling with his wings drooped and his head pointing forward . Usually the stranger moves off ; if it stays , the two birds square up with heads and necks raised and the wings touching the ground . They then run around giving the growling call and lunging at each other . A real fight may ensue , with the birds leaping at each other and pecking , and sometimes kicking . Females play no part in defending the territory . The female may be offered food by the male during courtship . He has a brief courtship display in which the neck is extended and the head held down , the tail is fanned , and the wings are spread with the tips touching the ground . He will then attempt to approach the female from behind , and then leap on her back to copulate . The nest is typically in grassland , sometimes in safer sites along a hedge , or near an isolated tree or bush , or in overgrown vegetation . Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season , the first nest may be constructed in herby or marsh vegetation , with the second brood in hay . The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first , to take advantage of the later @-@ developing grasses further up a hill . The nest , well hidden in the grass , is built in a scrape or hollow in the ground . It is made of woven coarse dry grass and other plants , and lined with finer grasses . Although nest construction is usually described as undertaken by the female , a recent aviary study found that in the captive population the male always built the nest . The nest is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) deep . The clutch is 6 – 14 , usually 8 – 12 eggs ; these are oval , slightly glossy , creamy or tinted with green , blue or grey , and blotched red @-@ brown . They average 37 mm × 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in × 1 @.@ 0 in ) and weigh about 13 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell . The eggs are laid at daily intervals , but second clutches may sometimes have two eggs added per day . Incubation is by the female only ; her tendency to sit tight when disturbed , or wait until the last moment to flee , leads to many deaths during hay @-@ cutting and harvesting . The eggs hatch together after 19 – 20 days , and the precocial chicks leave the nest within a day or two . They are fed by the female for three or four days , but can find their own food thereafter . The juveniles fledge after 34 – 38 days . The second brood is started about 42 days after the first , and the incubation period is slightly shorter at 16 – 18 days . The grown young may stay with the female until departure for Africa . Nest success in undisturbed sites is high , at 80 – 90 % , but much lower in fertilised meadows and on arable land . The method and timing of mowing is crucial ; mechanized mowing can kill 38 – 95 % of chicks in a given site , and losses average 50 % of first brood chicks and somewhat less than 40 % of second brood chicks . The influence of weather on chick survival is limited ; although chick growth is faster in dry or warm weather , the effects are relatively small . Unlike many precocial species , chicks are fed by their mother to a greater or lesser extent until they become independent , and this may cushion them from adverse conditions . The number of live chicks hatched is more important than the weather , with lower survival in large broods . The annual adult survival rate is under 30 % , although some individuals may live for 5 – 7 years . = = = Feeding = = = The corn crake is omnivorous , but mainly feeds on invertebrates , including earthworms , slugs and snails , spiders , beetles , dragonflies , grasshoppers and other insects . In the breeding areas , it is a predator of Sitona weevils , which infest legume crops. and in the past consumed large amounts of the former grassland pests , leatherjackets and wireworms . This crake will also eat small frogs and mammals , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Its diet on the wintering grounds is generally similar , but includes locally available items such as termites , cockroaches and dung beetles . Food is taken from the ground , low @-@ growing plants and from inside grass tussocks ; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill , and run in pursuit of active prey . Hunting is normally in cover , but , particularly in the wintering areas , it will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads . Indigestible material is regurgitated as 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) pellets . Chicks are fed mainly on animal food , and when fully grown they may fly with the parents up to 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) to visit supplementary feeding areas . As with other rails , grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach . = = Predators and parasites = = Predators on the breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats , introduced American mink , feral ferrets , otters and red foxes , and birds including the common buzzard and hooded crow . In Lithuania , the introduced raccoon dog has also been recorded as taking corn crakes . When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing , they may be taken by large birds including the white stork , harriers and other birds of prey , gulls and corvids . At undisturbed sites nests and broods are rarely attacked , as reflected in a high breeding success . There is a record of a corn crake on migration through Gabon being killed by a black sparrowhawk . The widespread fluke Prosthogonimus ovatus , which lives in the oviducts of birds , has been recorded in the corn crake , as have the parasitic worm Plagiorchis elegans , the larvae of parasitic flies , and hard ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Ixodes . During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season , enteritis and ill health in pre @-@ release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic Campylobacter species . Subsequently , microbiology tests were done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment . = = Status = = Until 2010 , despite a breeding range estimated at 12 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , the corn crake was classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because of serious declines in Europe , but improved monitoring in Russia indicates that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased . It is therefore now classed as least concern , since the major populations in Russia and Kazakhstan are not expected to change much in the short term . There are an estimated 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 0 million breeding pairs in Europe , three @-@ quarters of which are in European Russia , and a further 515 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 pairs in Asiatic Russia ; the total Eurasian population has been estimated at between 5 @.@ 45 and 9 @.@ 72 million individuals . In much of the western half of its range , there have been long @-@ term declines that are expected to continue , although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries , including a five @-@ fold increase in Finland , and a doubling in the UK . In the Netherlands , there were 33 breeding territories in 1996 , but this number had increased to at least 500 by 1998 . The breeding corn crake population had begun to decline in the 19th century , but the process gained pace after World War II . The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing . Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth , made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers , and the move from manual grass @-@ cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers , at first horse @-@ drawn and later pulled by tractors . Mechanisation also means that large areas can be cut quickly , leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat has gone , or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed . The pattern of mowing , typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre , gives little chance of escape for the chicks , which are also exposed to potential animal predators . Adults can often escape the mowers , although some incubating females sit tight on the nest , with fatal results . Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake . Apart from the reduced suitability of drained and fertilised silage fields compared to traditional hay meadows , in western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable has been aided by subsidies , and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area . More localised threats include floods in spring , and disturbance by roads or wind farms . This bird is good eating ; when they were common in England , Mrs Beeton recommended roasting four on a skewer . More significant than direct hunting is the loss of many birds , up to 14 @,@ 000 a year , in Egypt , where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate . Although this may account for 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 7 % of the European population , the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species were more numerous and predictable . Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies ; there is also an overall European action plan . The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival , principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting . Later cutting gives time for breeding to be completed , and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduces the casualties from mowing . Implementing these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale . Reduction of illegal hunting , and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed , are also conservation aims . Reintroduction of the corn crake is being attempted in England , and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many other countries . Where breeding sites impinge on urban areas , there are cost implications , estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake . The corn crake does not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from deforestation , which creates more open habitats . = = In culture = = Most rails are secretive wetland birds that have made little cultural impression , but as a formerly common farmland bird with a loud nocturnal call that sometimes led to disturbed sleep for rural dwellers , the corn crake has acquired a variety of folk names and some commemoration in literature . = = = Names = = = The favoured name for this species among naturalists has changed over the years , with " landrail " and variants of " corncrake " being preferred at various times . " Crake gallinule " also had a period of popularity between 1768 and 1813 . The originally Older Scots " cornecrake " was popularised by Thomas Bewick , who used this term in his 1797 A History of British Birds . Other Scots names include " corn scrack " and " quailzie " ; the latter term , like " king of the quail " , " grass quail " , the French " roi de caille " , and the German " Wachtelkönig " refer to the association with the small gamebird . Another name , " daker " , has been variously interpreted as onomatopoeic , or derived from the Old Norse ager @-@ hoene , meaning " cock of the field " ; variants include " drake " , " drake Hen " and " gorse drake " . = = = In literature = = = Corn crakes are the subject of three stanzas of the seventeenth century poet Andrew Marvell 's " Upon Appleton House " , written in 1651 about the North Yorkshire country estate of Thomas Fairfax . The narrator depicts the scene of a mower cutting the grass , before his " whistling Sithe " unknowingly " carves the Rail " . The farmhand draws out the scythe " all bloody from its breast " and " does the stroke detest " . It continues with a stanza that demonstrates the problematic nature of the corn crake 's nesting habits : John Clare , the nineteenth @-@ century English poet based in Northamptonshire , wrote " The Landrail " , a semi @-@ comic piece which is primarily about the difficulty of seeing corn crakes – as opposed to hearing them . In the fourth verse he exclaims : " Tis like a fancy everywhere / A sort of living doubt " . Clare wrote about corn crakes in his prose works too , and his writings help to clarify the distribution of this rail when it was far more widespread than now . The Finnish poet Eino Leino also wrote about the bird in his poem " Nocturne " . The proverbial use of the corn crake 's call to describe someone with a grating or unmelodious voice is illustrated in the quotation " thanks to a wee woman with a voice like a corncrake who believed she was an apprentice angel " . This usage dates from at least the first half of the nineteenth century , and continues through to the present .

= Acute myeloid leukemia = Acute myeloid leukemia ( AML ) , also known as acute myelogenous leukemia or acute nonlymphocytic leukemia ( ANLL ) , is a cancer of the myeloid line of blood cells , characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal white blood cells that accumulate in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells . AML is the most common acute leukemia affecting adults , and its incidence increases with age . Although AML is a relatively rare disease , accounting for roughly 1 @.@ 2 % of cancer deaths in the United States , its incidence is expected to increase as the population ages . The symptoms of AML are caused by replacement of normal bone marrow with leukemic cells , which causes a drop in red blood cells , platelets , and normal white blood cells . These symptoms include fatigue , shortness of breath , easy bruising and bleeding , and increased risk of infection . Several risk factors and chromosomal abnormalities have been identified , but the specific cause is not clear . As an acute leukemia , AML progresses rapidly and is typically fatal within weeks or months if left untreated . AML has several subtypes ; treatment and prognosis vary among subtypes . AML is cured in 35 – 40 % of people less than 60 years old and 5 – 15 % more than 60 years old . Older people who are not able to withstand intensive chemotherapy have an average survival of 5 – 10 months . AML is treated initially with chemotherapy aimed at inducing a remission ; people may go on to receive additional chemotherapy or a hematopoietic stem cell transplant . Recent research into the genetics of AML has resulted in the availability of tests that can predict which drug or drugs may work best for a particular person , as well as how long that person is likely to survive . The treatment and prognosis of AML differ from those of chronic myelogenous leukemia ( CML ) in part because the cellular differentiation is not the same ; AML involves higher percentages of dedifferentiated and undifferentiated cells , including more blasts ( myeloblasts , monoblasts , and megakaryoblasts ) . = = Signs and symptoms = = Most signs and symptoms of AML are caused by the replacement of normal blood cells with leukemic cells . A lack of normal white blood cell production makes people more susceptible to infections ; while the leukemic cells themselves are derived from white blood cell precursors , they have no infection @-@ fighting capacity . A drop in red blood cell count ( anemia ) can cause fatigue , paleness , and shortness of breath . A lack of platelets can lead to easy bruising or bleeding with minor trauma . The early signs of AML are often vague and nonspecific , and may be similar to those of influenza or other common illnesses . Some generalized symptoms include fever , fatigue , weight loss or loss of appetite , shortness of breath , anemia , easy bruising or bleeding , petechiae ( flat , pin @-@ head sized spots under the skin caused by bleeding ) , bone and joint pain , and persistent or frequent infections . Enlargement of the spleen may occur in AML , but it is typically mild and asymptomatic . Lymph node swelling is rare in AML , in contrast to acute lymphoblastic leukemia . The skin is involved about 10 % of the time in the form of leukemia cutis . Rarely , Sweet 's syndrome , a paraneoplastic inflammation of the skin , can occur with AML . Some people with AML may experience swelling of the gums because of infiltration of leukemic cells into the gum tissue . Rarely , the first sign of leukemia may be the development of a solid leukemic mass or tumor outside of the bone marrow , called a chloroma . Occasionally , a person may show no symptoms , and the leukemia may be discovered incidentally during a routine blood test . = = Risk factors = = A number of risk factors for developing AML have been identified , including : other blood disorders , chemical exposures , ionizing radiation , and genetics . = = = Preleukemia = = = " Preleukemic " blood disorders , such as myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( MPS ) , can evolve into AML ; the exact risk depends on the type of MDS / MPS . = = = Chemical exposure = = = Exposure to anticancer chemotherapy , in particular alkylating agents , can increase the risk of subsequently developing AML . The risk is highest about three to five years after chemotherapy . Other chemotherapy agents , specifically epipodophyllotoxins and anthracyclines , have also been associated with treatment @-@ related leukemias , which are often associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities in the leukemic cells . Occupational chemical exposure to benzene and other aromatic organic solvents is controversial as a cause of AML . Benzene and many of its derivatives are known to be carcinogenic in vitro . While some studies have suggested a link between occupational exposure to benzene and increased risk of AML , others have suggested the attributable risk , if any , is slight . = = = Radiation = = = High amounts of ionizing radiation exposure can increase the risk of AML . Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had an increased rate of AML , as did radiologists exposed to high levels of X @-@ rays prior to the adoption of modern radiation safety practices . People treated with ionizing radiation after treatment for prostate cancer , non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma , lung cancer and breast cancer have the highest chance of acquiring AML , but this increased risk returns to the background risk observed in the general population after 12 years . = = = Genetics = = = A hereditary risk for AML appears to exist . Multiple cases of AML developing in a family at a rate higher than predicted by chance alone have been reported . Several congenital conditions may increase the risk of leukemia ; the most common is probably Down syndrome , which is associated with a 10- to 18 @-@ fold increase in the risk of AML . = = Diagnosis = = The first clue to a diagnosis of AML is typically an abnormal result on a complete blood count . While an excess of abnormal white blood cells ( leukocytosis ) is a common finding , and leukemic blasts are sometimes seen , AML can also present with isolated decreases in platelets , red blood cells , or even with a low white blood cell count ( leukopenia ) . While a presumptive diagnosis of AML can be made by examination of the peripheral blood smear when there are circulating leukemic blasts , a definitive diagnosis usually requires an adequate bone marrow aspiration and biopsy . Marrow or blood is examined under light microscopy , as well as flow cytometry , to diagnose the presence of leukemia , to differentiate AML from other types of leukemia ( e.g. acute lymphoblastic leukemia - ALL ) , and to classify the subtype of disease . A sample of marrow or blood is typically also tested for chromosomal abnormalities by routine cytogenetics or fluorescent in situ hybridization . Genetic studies may also be performed to look for specific mutations in genes such as FLT3 , nucleophosmin , and KIT , which may influence the outcome of the disease . Cytochemical stains on blood and bone marrow smears are helpful in the distinction of AML from ALL , and in subclassification of AML . The combination of a myeloperoxidase or Sudan black stain and a nonspecific esterase stain will provide the desired information in most cases . The myeloperoxidase or Sudan black reactions are most useful in establishing the identity of AML and distinguishing it from ALL . The nonspecific esterase stain is used to identify a monocytic component in AMLs and to distinguish a poorly differentiated monoblastic leukemia from ALL . The diagnosis and classification of AML can be challenging , and should be performed by a qualified hematopathologist or hematologist . In straightforward cases , the presence of certain morphologic features ( such as Auer rods ) or specific flow cytometry results can distinguish AML from other leukemias ; however , in the absence of such features , diagnosis may be more difficult . The two most commonly used classification schemata for AML are the older French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) system and the newer World Health Organization ( WHO ) system . According to the widely used WHO criteria , the diagnosis of AML is established by demonstrating involvement of more than 20 % of the blood and / or bone marrow by leukemic myeloblasts , except in the three best prognosis forms of AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities ( t ( 8 ; 21 ) , inv ( 16 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) in which the presence of the genetic abnormality is diagnostic irrespective of blast percent . The French – American – British ( FAB ) classification is a bit more stringent , requiring a blast percentage of at least 30 % in bone marrow ( BM ) or peripheral blood ( PB ) for the diagnosis of AML . AML must be carefully differentiated from " preleukemic " conditions such as myelodysplastic or myeloproliferative syndromes , which are treated differently . Because acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) has the highest curability and requires a unique form of treatment , it is important to quickly establish or exclude the diagnosis of this subtype of leukemia . Fluorescent in situ hybridization performed on blood or bone marrow is often used for this purpose , as it readily identifies the chromosomal translocation [ t ( 15 ; 17 ) ( q22 ; q12 ) ; ] that characterizes APL . There is also a need to molecularly detect the presence of PML / RARA fusion protein , which is an oncogenic product of that translocation . = = = World Health Organization = = = The WHO 2008 classification of acute myeloid leukemia attempts to be more clinically useful and to produce more meaningful prognostic information than the FAB criteria . Each of the WHO categories contains numerous descriptive subcategories of interest to the hematopathologist and oncologist ; however , most of the clinically significant information in the WHO schema is communicated via categorization into one of the subtypes listed below . The WHO subtypes of AML are : Acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage ( also known as mixed phenotype or biphenotypic acute leukemia ) occur when the leukemic cells can not be classified as either myeloid or lymphoid cells , or where both types of cells are present . = = = French @-@ American @-@ British = = = The French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) classification system divides AML into eight subtypes , M0 through to M7 , based on the type of cell from which the leukemia developed and its degree of maturity . This is done by examining the appearance of the malignant cells with light microscopy and / or by using cytogenetics to characterize any underlying chromosomal abnormalities . The subtypes have varying prognoses and responses to therapy . Although the WHO classification ( see above ) may be more useful , the FAB system is still widely used . Eight FAB subtypes were proposed in 1976 . The morphologic subtypes of AML also include rare types not included in the FAB system , such as acute basophilic leukemia , which was proposed as a ninth subtype , M8 , in 1999 . = = Pathophysiology = = The malignant cell in AML is the myeloblast . In normal hematopoiesis , the myeloblast is an immature precursor of myeloid white blood cells ; a normal myeloblast will gradually mature into a mature white blood cell . In AML , though , a single myeloblast accumulates genetic changes which " freeze " the cell in its immature state and prevent differentiation . Such a mutation alone does not cause leukemia ; however , when such a " differentiation arrest " is combined with other mutations which disrupt genes controlling proliferation , the result is the uncontrolled growth of an immature clone of cells , leading to the clinical entity of AML . Much of the diversity and heterogeneity of AML stems is because leukemic transformation can occur at a number of different steps along the differentiation pathway . Modern classification schemes for AML recognize the characteristics and behavior of the leukemic cell ( and the leukemia ) may depend on the stage at which differentiation was halted . Specific cytogenetic abnormalities can be found in many people with AML ; the types of chromosomal abnormalities often have prognostic significance . The chromosomal translocations encode abnormal fusion proteins , usually transcription factors whose altered properties may cause the " differentiation arrest " . For example , in acute promyelocytic leukemia , the t ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation produces a PML @-@ RARα fusion protein which binds to the retinoic acid receptor element in the promoters of several myeloid @-@ specific genes and inhibits myeloid differentiation . The clinical signs and symptoms of AML result from the growth of leukemic clone cells , which tends to displace or interfere with the development of normal blood cells in the bone marrow . This leads to neutropenia , anemia , and thrombocytopenia . The symptoms of AML are , in turn , often due to the low numbers of these normal blood elements . In rare cases , people with AML can develop a chloroma , or solid tumor of leukemic cells outside the bone marrow , which can cause various symptoms depending on its location . An important pathophysiological mechanism of leukemogenesis in AML is the epigenetic induction of dedifferentiation by genetic mutations that alter the function of epigenetic enzymes , such as the DNA demethylase TET2 and the metabolic enzymes IDH1 and IDH2 , which lead to the generation of a novel oncometabolite , D @-@ 2 @-@ hydroxyglutarate , which inhibits the activity of epigenetic enzymes such as TET2 . The hypothesis is that such epigenetic mutations lead to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and / or the activation of proto @-@ oncogenes . = = Treatment = = First @-@ line treatment of AML consists primarily of chemotherapy , and is divided into two phases : induction and postremission ( or consolidation ) therapy . The goal of induction therapy is to achieve a complete remission by reducing the number of leukemic cells to an undetectable level ; the goal of consolidation therapy is to eliminate any residual undetectable disease and achieve a cure . Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is usually considered if induction chemotherapy fails or after a person relapses , although transplantation is also sometimes used as front @-@ line therapy for people with high @-@ risk disease . Efforts to use tyrosine kinase inhibitors in AML continue . = = = Induction = = = All FAB subtypes except M3 are usually given induction chemotherapy with cytarabine ( ara @-@ C ) and an anthracycline ( most often daunorubicin ) . This induction chemotherapy regimen is known as " 7 + 3 " ( or " 3 + 7 " ) , because the cytarabine is given as a continuous IV infusion for seven consecutive days while the anthracycline is given for three consecutive days as an IV push . Up to 70 % of people with AML will achieve a remission with this protocol . Other alternative induction regimens , including high @-@ dose cytarabine alone , FLAG @-@ like regimens or investigational agents , may also be used . Because of the toxic effects of therapy , including myelosuppression and an increased risk of infection , induction chemotherapy may not be offered to the very elderly , and the options may include less intense chemotherapy or palliative care . The M3 subtype of AML , also known as acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , is almost universally treated with the drug all @-@ trans @-@ retinoic acid ( ATRA ) in addition to induction chemotherapy , usually an anthracycline . Care must be taken to prevent disseminated intravascular coagulation ( DIC ) , complicating the treatment of APL when the promyelocytes release the contents of their granules into the peripheral circulation . APL is eminently curable , with well @-@ documented treatment protocols . The goal of the induction phase is to reach a complete remission . Complete remission does not mean the disease has been cured ; rather , it signifies no disease can be detected with available diagnostic methods . Complete remission is obtained in about 50 % – 75 % of newly diagnosed adults , although this may vary based on the prognostic factors described above . The length of remission depends on the prognostic features of the original leukemia . In general , all remissions will fail without additional consolidation therapy . = = = Consolidation = = = Even after complete remission is achieved , leukemic cells likely remain in numbers too small to be detected with current diagnostic techniques . If no further postremission or consolidation therapy is given , almost all people with AML will eventually relapse . Therefore , more therapy is necessary to eliminate nondetectable disease and prevent relapse — that is , to achieve a cure . The specific type of postremission therapy is individualized based on a person 's prognostic factors ( see above ) and general health . For good @-@ prognosis leukemias ( i.e. inv ( 16 ) , t ( 8 ; 21 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) , people will typically undergo an additional three to five courses of intensive chemotherapy , known as consolidation chemotherapy . For people at high risk of relapse ( e.g. those with high @-@ risk cytogenetics , underlying MDS , or therapy @-@ related AML ) , allogeneic stem cell transplantation is usually recommended if the person is able to tolerate a transplant and has a suitable donor . The best postremission therapy for intermediate @-@ risk AML ( normal cytogenetics or cytogenetic changes not falling into good @-@ risk or high @-@ risk groups ) is less clear and depends on the specific situation , including the age and overall health of the person , the person 's values , and whether a suitable stem cell donor is available . For people who are not eligible for a stem cell transplant , immunotherapy with a combination of histamine dihydrochloride ( Ceplene ) and interleukin 2 ( Proleukin ) after the completion of consolidation has been shown to reduce the absolute relapse risk by 14 % , translating to a 50 % increase in the likelihood of maintained remission . = = = Relapsed AML = = = For people with relapsed AML , the only proven potentially curative therapy is a hematopoietic stem cell transplant , if one has not already been performed . In 2000 , the monoclonal antibody @-@ linked cytotoxic agent gemtuzumab ozogamicin ( Mylotarg ) was approved in the United States for people aged more than 60 years with relapsed AML who are not candidates for high @-@ dose chemotherapy . This drug was voluntarily withdrawn from the market by its manufacturer , Pfizer in 2010 . Since treatment options for relapsed AML are so limited , palliative care or enrolment in a clinical trial may be offered . For relapsed acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , arsenic trioxide is approved by the US FDA . Like ATRA , arsenic trioxide does not work with other subtypes of AML . = = Prognosis = = Acute myeloid leukemia is a curable disease ; the chance of cure for a specific person depends on a number of prognostic factors . = = = Cytogenetics = = = The single most important prognostic factor in AML is cytogenetics , or the chromosomal structure of the leukemic cell . Certain cytogenetic abnormalities are associated with very good outcomes ( for example , the ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation in acute promyelocytic leukemia ) . About half of people with AML have " normal " cytogenetics ; they fall into an intermediate risk group . A number of other cytogenetic abnormalities are known to associate with a poor prognosis and a high risk of relapse after treatment . The first publication to address cytogenetics and prognosis was the MRC trial of 1998 : Later , the Southwest Oncology Group and Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group and , later still , Cancer and Leukemia Group B published other , mostly overlapping lists of cytogenetics prognostication in leukemia . = = = Myelodysplastic syndrome = = = AML which arises from a pre @-@ existing myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( so @-@ called secondary AML ) has a worse prognosis , as does treatment @-@ related AML arising after chemotherapy for another previous malignancy . Both of these entities are associated with a high rate of unfavorable cytogenetic abnormalities . = = = Other prognostic markers = = = In some studies , age > 60 years and elevated lactate dehydrogenase level were also associated with poorer outcomes . As with most forms of cancer , performance status ( i.e. the general physical condition and activity level of the person ) plays a major role in prognosis as well . = = = = Genotype = = = = A large number of molecular alterations are under study for their prognostic impact in AML . However , only FLT3 @-@ ITD , NPM1 , CEBPA and c @-@ KIT are currently included in validated international risk stratification schema . These are expected to increase rapidly in the near future . FLT3 internal tandem duplications ( ITDs ) have been shown to confer a poorer prognosis in AML with normal cytogenetics . Several FLT3 inhibitors have undergone clinical trials , with mixed results . Two other mutations - NPM1 and biallelic CEBPA are associated with improved outcomes , especially in people with normal cytogenetics and are used in current risk stratification algorithms . Researchers are investigating the clinical significance of c @-@ KIT mutations in AML . These are prevalent , and potentially clinically relevant because of the availability of tyrosine kinase inhibitors , such as imatinib and sunitinib that can block the activity of c @-@ KIT pharmacologically . It is expected that additional markers ( e.g. , RUNX1 , ASXL1 , and TP53 ) that have consistently been associated with an inferior outcome will soon be included in these recommendations . The prognostic importance of other mutated genes ( e.g. , DNMT3A , IDH1 , IDH2 ) is less clear . = = = Expectation of cure = = = Cure rates in clinical trials have ranged from 20 – 45 % ; although clinical trials often include only younger people and those able to tolerate aggressive therapies . The overall cure rate for all people with AML ( including the elderly and those unable to tolerate aggressive therapy ) is likely lower . Cure rates for promyelocytic leukemia can be as high as 98 % . = = Epidemiology = = Acute myeloid leukemia is a relatively rare cancer . There are approximately 10 @,@ 500 new cases each year in the United States , and the incidence rate has remained stable from 1995 through 2005 . AML accounts for 1 @.@ 2 % of all cancer deaths in the United States . The incidence of AML increases with age ; the median age at diagnosis is 63 years . AML accounts for about 90 % of all acute leukemias in adults , but is rare in children . The rate of therapy @-@ related AML ( that is , AML caused by previous chemotherapy ) is rising ; therapy @-@ related disease currently accounts for about 10 – 20 % of all cases of AML . AML is slightly more common in men , with a male @-@ to @-@ female ratio of 1 @.@ 3 : 1 . There is some geographic variation in the incidence of AML . In adults , the highest rates are seen in North America , Europe , and Oceania , while adult AML is rarer in Asia and Latin America . In contrast , childhood AML is less common in North America and India than in other parts of Asia . These differences may be due to population genetics , environmental factors , or a combination of the two . = = = UK = = = AML accounts for 34 % of all leukaemia cases in the UK , and around 2 @,@ 900 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 . = = History = = The first published description of a case of leukemia in medical literature dates to 1827 , when French physician Alfred @-@ Armand @-@ Louis @-@ Marie Velpeau described a 63 @-@ year @-@ old florist who developed an illness characterized by fever , weakness , urinary stones , and substantial enlargement of the liver and spleen . Velpeau noted the blood of this person had a consistency " like gruel " , and speculated the appearance of the blood was due to white corpuscles . In 1845 , a series of people who died with enlarged spleens and changes in the " colors and consistencies of their blood " was reported by the Edinburgh @-@ based pathologist J.H. Bennett ; he used the term " leucocythemia " to describe this pathological condition . The term " leukemia " was coined by Rudolf Virchow , the renowned German pathologist , in 1856 . As a pioneer in the use of the light microscope in pathology , Virchow was the first to describe the abnormal excess of white blood cells in people with the clinical syndrome described by Velpeau and Bennett . As Virchow was uncertain of the etiology of the white blood cell excess , he used the purely descriptive term " leukemia " ( Greek : " white blood " ) to refer to the condition . Further advances in the understanding of acute myeloid leukemia occurred rapidly with the development of new technology . In 1877 , Paul Ehrlich developed a technique of staining blood films which allowed him to describe in detail normal and abnormal white blood cells . Wilhelm Ebstein introduced the term " acute leukemia " in 1889 to differentiate rapidly progressive and fatal leukemias from the more indolent chronic leukemias . The term " myeloid " was coined by Franz Ernst Christian Neumann in 1869 , as he was the first to recognize white blood cells were made in the bone marrow ( Greek : µυєλός , myelos = ( bone ) marrow ) as opposed to the spleen . The technique of bone marrow examination to diagnose leukemia was first described in 1879 by Mosler . Finally , in 1900 , the myeloblast , which is the malignant cell in AML , was characterized by Otto Naegeli , who divided the leukemias into myeloid and lymphocytic . In 2008 , AML became the first cancer genome to be fully sequenced . DNA extracted from leukemic cells were compared to unaffected skin . The leukemic cells contained acquired mutations in several genes that had not previously been associated with the disease . = = Pregnancy = = Leukemia is rarely associated with pregnancy , affecting only about 1 in 10 @,@ 000 pregnant women . How it is handled depends primarily on the type of leukemia . Acute leukemias normally require prompt , aggressive treatment , despite significant risks of pregnancy loss and birth defects , especially if chemotherapy is given during the developmentally sensitive first trimester .

= Love Me Like You = " Love Me Like You " is a song recorded by British girl group Little Mix for their third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . The song was released on 25 September 2015 , as the second single from the album . Produced by Steve Mac , he co @-@ wrote the song with Iain James , Camille Purcell and James Newman . Backed by an instrumental of pianos , bells , sax and percussion , the song is a down @-@ tempo retro homage to doo @-@ wop , with lyrics about puppy love . Its composition was compared by several critics to Motown artists of the 1950s and 1960s , namely The Ronettes , The Supremes and Shadow Morton . Critical response to " Love Me Like You " was positive : critics praised its vintage style and highlighted it as an album standout . It reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and has been certified gold by the BPI . The accompanying music video for the song was set at a high school dance . Unbeknownst to each member of the group , they had been invited to attend by the same date after previously meeting him in different situations . He arrives with another girl near the end of the night , and they realise that he had all been invited by the same guy , and end up dateless . Little Mix have performed the track on both the Australian and British versions of The X Factor and on Good Morning America in the United States . = = Background and release = = " Love Me Like You " was written by Steve Mac , Camille Purcell , Iain James and James Newman for Little Mix 's third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . It was published by Rokstone Music Ltd. under exclusive licence to BMG Rights Management ( UK ) Ltd ; Kobalt Music Group ; Sony / ATV Music Publishing ; Black Butter Music Publishing and BMG Rights Management . The song was produced by Mac and mixed by Serban Ghenea at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . It was engineered for mixing by John Hanes and engineered by Chris Laws and Dann Pursey , and mastered by Tom Coyne and Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound Studios in New York . The track was recorded at Rokstone Studios in London . Purcell also provided background vocals . The keyboards were performed by Mac , and the guitars were played by Paul Gendler . Laws and Pursey performed the drums and the percussion , respectively . The group announced on 9 September 2015 that " Love Me Like You " would be the second single to be released from the album , and that it would be made available to pre @-@ order on 11 September , and be released on 25 September . It was released by Syco and Columbia in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 25 September 2015 . The single 's artwork was released on the same day . In their review , MTV News joked that the group were suggesting that it would be number @-@ one due to each of the band members eyeline , writing " We can 't help but get the hint they 're on the hunt for ANOTHER chart topping trophy . Leigh @-@ Anne clearly thinks she can see it in the distance , Jesy is just imagining it with her brain , Jade definitely thinks she can hear the noise of records being sold and Perrie is convinced it 's on the floor . " M magazine writer Heather Thompson described the artwork as " vibrant " . A collection of alternate versions called " Love Me Like You ( The Collection ) " was also released in Australia and New Zealand in addition to Ireland and the United Kingdom on 16 October 2015 . It consists of a Christmas mix , several remixes and an instrumental version of " Love Me Like You " and another album track called " Lightning " . = = Composition = = " Love Me Like You " has been described as a down @-@ tempo " ode to ' 60s doo @-@ wop " retro style pop song , which lasts for a duration of three minutes , seventeen seconds . The song is composed in the key of G major using common time and a tempo of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by " vintage " pianos , bells and a " pumping " tenor sax . The use of percussion gives the a track a more modern style . During the track , the band members vocal range spans one octave , from the low note of D4 to the high note of E5 . The song opens with the group harmonising " Sha la la la " over pianos . The lyrics are about puppy love , as they yearningly sing " Last night I lay in bed so blue / Cause ' I realized the truth / They can 't love me like you / I tried to find somebody new / Baby they ain 't got a clue / Can 't love me like you . " Fuse writer Jeff Benjamin described the song as being reminiscent of 1960s girl group The Ronettes but with a more modern feel for 2015 radio , highlighting the line " They try to romance me but you got that nasty and that 's what I want " as an example . Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner thought that the line " He might got the biggest ca @-@ aa @-@ ar " does not fool listeners into thinking that " they 're not actually talking about his Fiat 500 . " Several music critics compared the song to recordings from the Motown era in the 1950s and 1960s , with Andy Gill of The Independent likening it to material composed by Shadow Morton . Emilee Lindner of MTV News likened the production to material composed by Phil Spector . The Christmas mix version features added church bells and jingles . = = Critical reception = = Andy Gill of The Independent described the track as having a " nice " retro sound , and singled it out as being one of his top three songs from the album to download , along with " Black Magic " and " Grown " . Writing for NME , Nick Levine thought that " Love Me Like You " was reminiscent of songs recorded by Stooshe , but added that Little Mix performed the Motown style " without the forced sense of fun . " Similarly , Billboard writer Malorie MaCall and Digital Spy critic Jack Klompus likened the retro style to songs performed by Meghan Trainor and The Supremes , respectively . Music Times writer Carolyn Menyes praised its composition for being " charming " and described the track as " totally charming . " A reviewer for Press Play OK commented that the song was " less club night and more prom night . " Broadcaster Stephen Fry criticised the track when interviewed by Newsbeat about his review of a selection of songs released in 2015 . He described it as " horrible " and a modern @-@ day " hideous , toxic compound " take on a Phil Spector song . = = Chart performance = = In the United Kingdom , " Love Me Like You " debuted at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart on 8 October 2015 . It later peaked at number 11 on 7 January 2016 . It also peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Downloads Chart . The track has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 400 @,@ 000 copies . In Scotland , the song reached number five . It achieved success in Ireland , reaching number 8 on 31 December 2015 . It peaked at number 66 on the Belgium Ultratip Flanders chart on 31 October 2015 . It also peaked at number 64 in Slovakia , number 81 in the Czech Republic , and number 140 in France . Outside of Europe , " Love Me Like You " reached number 80 on the Japan Hot 100 , number 27 in Australia , and number one on the New Zealand Heatseekers chart . = = Music video = = The accompanying music video for " Love Me Like You " was released on 10 October 2015 . The video takes place at a school dance , where a professor in the hall ( the same man who appeared in their previous single 's video " Black Magic " ) tells everyone that it is the last dance . Jade , Leigh @-@ Anne , Jesy and Perrie are waiting for their dates to arrive . Scenes of the girls waiting for their date are intercut throughout the video of them sitting at a table while all of the other couples are dancing . Unbeknownst to them , the man , played by Hector David Junior , has invited each of them to go to the dance after meeting them in different situations prior to that night . He asked Jade by picking her up in his car to go on a date . As she gets in , he invites her to be his date at the dance and presents her with a corsage to wear on her wrist on the night . He mets Leigh @-@ Anne at a high school basketball game , where she and her girlfriends were watching him and some other boys play on the court . He sees that she is infatuated by how good he is at the sport , walks up to her , and asks her to be his date by giving her a corsage . He asked Jesy to be his date while they were at the cinema as they shared a bucket of popcorn . As he gives her the corsage , she throws the bucket over her shoulder and eagerly jumps on his lap , causing them to fall off the chair . Finally , he invited Perrie to be his date after she fell off her bike while staring at him work out on a field and pouring water over his torso to cool down . He helps her up , and gives her a corsage . Toward the end of the video , they sit on a bench next to the entrance , and see their date walk in with another girl wearing the same corsage as the ones that he had given each of them . They realise that they have all been two @-@ timed by the same guy , and are all dateless . It ends with the girls being each other 's date and solemnly dancing whilst everyone else has a good time . Metro writer Rebecca Lewis noted that the man in the video strongly resembled Perrie 's former fiancé Zayn Malik of One Direction . She also wrote that fans had noticed that she was still wearing her engagement ring in the video , meaning that the video was filmed before they split up in August 2015 . = = Live performances = = " Little Mix " performed " Love Me Like You " live on the seventh season of The X Factor in Australia on 13 October 2015 . Capital praised their performed , writing that it set an " amazing example " for the contestants on the show and that their vocals were " pitch perfect " . On 1 November , the group performed a " Love Me Like You " / " Black Magic " medley on the twelfth series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom . It featured the group wearing prom dresses for their performance of " Love Me Like You " , which were then torn off to reveal leotards to sing " Black Magic " . Little Mix " sang the track live on Good Morning America in the United States on 5 November . They returned to the UK to perform " Love Me Like You " at the Radio 1 Teen Awards at Wembley Arena on 8 November , and again the following morning on breakfast show Lorraine . " Love Me Like You " was included on the set @-@ list of their segment at Capital 's annual Jingle Bell Ball on 6 December , along with the other singles to be released Get Weird " Black Magic " and " Secret Love Song " , as well as previous singles " Salute " , " Move " and " Wings " . = = Track listing = = Digital download " Love Me Like You " – 3 : 17 Digital download — The Collection " Love Me Like You " ( Christmas Mix ) – 3 : 29 " Lightning " – 5 : 09 " Love Me Like You " ( J @-@ Vibe Reggae Remix ) – 3 : 04 " Love Me Like You " ( Bimbo Jones Remix ) – 3 : 07 " Love Me Like You " ( 7th Heaven Remix ) – 3 : 10 " Love Me Like You " ( Exclusive Interview ) – 3 : 16 " Love Me Like You " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 15 = = Charts and certifications = =

= Shaoguan incident = The Shaoguan incident was a civil disturbance which took place overnight on 25 / 26 June 2009 in Guangdong province , China . A violent dispute erupted between migrant Uyghurs and Han workers at a toy factory in Shaoguan as a result of allegations of the sexual assault of a Han female . Groups of Han set upon Uyghur co @-@ workers , leading to at least two Uyghurs being killed , ( Uyghur workers who witnessed the incident report at least 100 dead and 400 wounded ) and some 118 people injured . The event was widely cited as the trigger event for July 2009 Ürümqi riots , which ostensibly started as a peaceful street protest demanding official action over the two Uyghurs who died in Shaoguan . Following trials in October 2009 , one person was executed and several others sentenced to terms between life imprisonment and five to seven years . = = Background = = The factory where the incident took place is the Xuri ( " Early Light " ) Toy Factory ( 旭日玩具厂 ) , owned by Hong Kong @-@ based Early Light International ( Holdings ) Ltd . , the largest toy manufacturer in the world . The company 's Shaoguan factory in the Wujiang district employs some 16 @,@ 000 workers . At the behest of the Guangdong authorities , it hired 800 workers from Kashgar , in Xinjiang as part of an ethnic program which relocated 200 @,@ 000 young Uyghurs since the start of 2008 . According to The Guardian , most workers sign a one- to three @-@ year contract then travel to factory dormitories in the south ; in addition to their salaries ranging from 1 @,@ 000 yuan to 1 @,@ 400 yuan a month , many get free board and lodging . Most of these Kashgars are away from home to work for the first time . The Far Eastern Economic Review said Guangdong authorities initiated a controversial plan to ship [ Uyghur ] workers to Guangdong factories amid continuing labour shortages . The young workers , whose families have charged that they were forced to send their children south , often lack even basic Chinese language skills and find it difficult to fit in with the dominant Han culture . " The New York Times quoted Xinjiang Daily saying in May that 70 percent of the young Uyghurs had " signed up for employment voluntarily . " However , Kashgar residents say the families of those who refuse to go are threatened with fines of up to six months ' worth of a villager 's income . An official in charge of ethnic and religious affairs in Guangdong said that the province had hired Uygurs , aged from 18 to 29 , in May . A small group of Uyghurs arrived on 2 May , and workers at the factory remarked that relations between the two groups deteriorated as the number of Uyghurs increased . State media confirmed that all the workers were from Shufu County . China Labor Watch reported that workers at the Shaoguan factory , where the Uyghurs were employed , earned 28 yuan per day compared with 41 @.@ 3 yuan in its factory in Shenzhen . They noted that rights of workers , Han and Uyghur alike , were frequently violated by verbal abuse from factory supervisors , unpaid overtime , poor dormitory conditions and illegal labour contracts . Li Qiang , executive director of China Labor Watch said that low pay , long hours and poor working conditions combined with the inability to communicate with their colleagues exacerbated deeply held mistrust between the Han and Uyghurs . = = Causes and events = = Overnight on 25 – 26 June , tensions flared at the factory , leading to a full @-@ blown ethnic brawl between Uyghurs and Han . As a result of the fighting , 2 Uyghurs died and 118 people were injured , 16 of them seriously . Of the injured , 79 were Uyghurs and 39 were Hans . 400 police and 50 anti @-@ riot vehicles were mobilised . Official sources state that the rioting began at around 2 a.m. , and there were reports that they lasted until at least 4 @.@ 30 a.m. , when police arrived . An initial disturbance was reported at around 11 p.m. when security guards responded to a call for help by a female worker who felt intimidated by several chanting male Uyghurs . Two dozen Han workers armed with batons and metal rods then responded ; they called for backup using their phones . Uyghurs maintained that the attacks started after the night shift at around 12 @.@ 30 a.m. , when Han mobs stormed into Uyghur dormitories and started indiscriminate and unprovoked beatings . Amateur videos posted online showed brutal attacks , and Han chasing Uyghurs through the dorm floors . One man said that he saw that security had been overwhelmed by the arrival of outside gangs ; he said it was common knowledge that the outsiders brought in machetes . Han and Uyghur witnesses interviewed by the foreign press thought the casualties had been understated by the authorities : a Han claimed to have killed seven or eight Uyghurs ; Uyghurs cited " merciless " assaults on those already in ambulances . The rioting stopped soon after the police arrived . A policeman explained their delay in arriving at the scene due to difficulties in assembling enough officers . The two dead men were later named as Aximujiang Aimaiti and Sadikejiang Kaze , both from Xinjiang . = = = Rape rumours = = = The rioting was sparked by allegations of sexual assault on Han women by Uyghurs , and rumours of an incident in which two female Han workers were sexually assaulted by six Uyghur co @-@ workers at the factory , according to Voice of America . The authorities said that the rumours were false , and had been initiated by a disgruntled former co @-@ worker . Xinhua said that a man surnamed Zhu " faked the information to express his discontent " over failing to find new work after quitting his job at the factory . = = Responses = = Police said that their investigations found no evidence that a rape had taken place . Shaoguan government spokesman Wang Qinxin , called it " a very ordinary incident " , which he said had been exaggerated to foment unrest.The Guardian reported that video of the riots and photographs of the victims were quickly circulated on the internet by Uighur exile groups , along with claims that the death toll was under @-@ reported and the police were slow to act ; protests in Ürümqi were assembled by email . Xinhua reported that Guangdong authorities had arrested two people who are suspected of having spread rumours online which alleged sexual assault of Han women had taken place . In addition , it reported on 7 July 2009 that 13 suspects had been taken into custody following the incident , of which 3 were Uyghurs from Xinjiang . Xinhua quoted 23 @-@ year @-@ old Huang Jiangyuan saying that he was angry at being turned down for a job in June at the toy factory , and thus posted an article at a forum on sg169.com on 16 June which alleged six Xinjiang boys had raped two innocent girls at the Xuri Toy Factory ; Huang Zhangsha , 19 , was detained for writing on his online chat space on 28 June that eight Xinjiang people had died in the factory fight . Kang Zhijian , vice director with the Shaoguan Public Security Bureau , said that the offenders would face up to 15 days in administrative detention . On 8 July 2009 , Xinhua released an interview with Huang Cuilian , the " Han girl " whose alleged rape triggered the disturbances . The 19 @-@ year @-@ old trainee from rural Guangdong , who had worked at the factory less than two months , said : " I was lost and entered the wrong dormitory and screamed when I saw those Uyghur young men in the room ... I just felt they were unfriendly so I turned and ran . " She recounted how one of them stood up and stamped his feet as if to chase her . " I later realized that he was just making fun of me . " She said she only found out hours later that she was the cause of the violence . Shaoguan authorities moved the Uyghur workers to temporary accommodation , and the workers were transferred on 7 July to another facility belonging to Early Light , 30 km away in Baitu town . The Baitu factory is now reported to be an Uyghur enclave , with , sporting facilities , canteen serving Xinjiang food , a round @-@ the @-@ clock staff clinic , and plain @-@ clothed police officers in their midst . According to the South China Morning Post , the Kashgar staff were apparently unable to mix with colleagues in their previous location because of the language barrier – a local shop worker estimated that less than one in three spoke Mandarin . Two months on , the South China Morning Post found few willing to talk about the events of the fateful night . The authorities ' claims that 50 Uyghur workers were granted their repatriation requests following the violence are contested by Uyghur workers . Abdukeyum Muhammat , deputy secretary of Xinjiang kanji Prefectural Committee of the Communist Party , led a working team to Shaoguan on 27 June . Zhou Yongkang , Politburo Standing Committee member responsible for security , reportedly visited Shaoguan in early September 2009 . On 5 August , Xinhua reported that Chinese police had arrested Kurban Khayum , a chef at an Arabic restaurant in Guangzhou who they claimed confessed to being an agent for the World Uygur Congress ( WUC ) and who allegedly spread rumours that were later used as a pretext to trigger the Ürümqi riots of 5 July . Xinhua alleged that he had fabricated a report that " the factory brawl had caused the death of 17 to 18 people , including three females , " which he sent in an e @-@ mail to Rebiya Kadeer . At a trial on 10 October at Shaoguan Intermediate People 's Court , Xiao Jianhua ( 肖建华 ) was sentenced to death for being the " principal instigator " of the violence and Xu Qiqi ( 许其琪 ) was given a life sentence for manslaughter ; three other people were sentenced to seven to eight years for assault . On the same day , the People 's Court of Wujiang District , Shaoguan , jailed three more Han workers and three Uyghurs for participating in the brawl ; they were sentenced to five to seven years ' imprisonment .

= Galveston , Texas = Galveston / ˈɡælvᵻstən / is a coastal city located on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U.S. state of Texas . The community of 208 @.@ 3 square miles ( 539 km2 ) , with its population of 47 @,@ 762 people ( 2012 Census estimate ) , is the county seat and second @-@ largest municipality of Galveston County . It is located within Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land metropolitan area . Named after Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez ( born in Málaga , Spain ) , Galveston 's first European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by French pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury to help the fledgling Republic of Mexico fight Spain . The Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its successful independence from Spain . The city served as the main port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution , and later served as the capital of the Republic of Texas . During the 19th century , Galveston became a major U.S. commercial center and one of the largest ports in the United States . It was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane , whose effects included flooding and a storm surge . The natural disaster on the exposed barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history , with an estimated toll of 8 @,@ 000 people . Much of Galveston 's modern economy is centered in the tourism , health care , shipping , and financial industries . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students is a major economic force of the city . Galveston is home to six historic districts containing one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States , with over 60 structures listed in the National Register of Historic Places . = = History = = = = = Exploration and 19th century development = = = Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and Akokisa tribes who called the island Auia . The Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November 1528 , calling it " Isla de Malhado " ( " Isle of Bad Fate " ) . They began their years @-@ long trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City . During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785 , the Spanish explorer José de Evia named the island Gálvez @-@ town or Gálveztown in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez . The first permanent European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury as a base of operations to support Mexico 's rebellion against Spain . In 1817 , Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte . Lafitte organized Galveston into a pirate " kingdom " he called " Campeche " , anointing himself the island 's " head of government . " Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821 , when he and his raiders were forced off the island by the United States Navy . In 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house . Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. Burnet relocated his government there . In 1836 , the French @-@ Canadian Michel Branamour Menard and several associates purchased 4 @,@ 605 acres ( 18 @.@ 64 km2 ) of land for $ 50 @,@ 000 to found the town that would become the modern city of Galveston . As Anglo @-@ Americans migrated to the city , they brought along or purchased enslaved African @-@ Americans , some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront , including on riverboats . In 1839 the City of Galveston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas . The city was by then a burgeoning port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas , including Jewish merchants . Together with ethnic Mexican residents , these groups tended to oppose slavery , support the Union during the Civil War , and join the Republican Party after the war . During this expansion , the city had many " firsts " in the state , with the founding of institutions and adoption of inventions : post office ( 1836 ) , naval base ( 1836 ) , Texas chapter of a Masonic order ( 1840 ) ; cotton compress ( 1842 ) , Catholic parochial school ( Ursuline Academy ) ( 1847 ) , insurance company ( 1854 ) , and gas lights ( 1856 ) . During the American Civil War , Confederate forces under Major General John B. Magruder attacked and expelled occupying Union troops from the city in January 1863 in the Battle of Galveston . In 1867 Galveston suffered a yellow fever epidemic ; 1800 people died in the city . These occurred in waterfront and river cities throughout the 19th century , as did cholera epidemics . The city 's progress continued through the Reconstruction era with numerous " firsts " : construction of the opera house ( 1870 ) , and orphanage ( 1876 ) , and installation of telephone lines ( 1878 ) and electric lights ( 1883 ) . Having attracted freedmen from rural areas , in 1870 the city had a black population that totaled 3 @,@ 000 , made up mostly of former slaves but also by numerous persons who were free men of color and educated before the war . The " blacks " comprised nearly 25 % of the city 's population of 13 @,@ 818 that year . During the post @-@ Civil @-@ War period , leaders such as George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney , who headed the Texas Republican Party and promoted civil rights for freedmen , helped to dramatically improve educational and employment opportunities for blacks in Galveston and in Texas . Cuney established his own business of stevedores and a union of black dockworkers to break the white monopoly on dock jobs . Galveston was a cosmopolitan city and one of the more successful during Reconstruction ; the Freedmen 's Bureau was headquartered here . German families sheltered teachers from the North , and hundreds of freedmen were taught to read . Its business community promoted progress , and immigrants continued to stay after arriving at this port of entry . By the end of the 19th century , the city of Galveston had a population of 37 @,@ 000 . Its position on the natural harbor of Galveston Bay along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas . It was one of the largest cotton ports in the nation , in competition with New Orleans . Throughout the 19th century , the port city of Galveston grew rapidly and the Strand was considered the region 's primary business center . For a time , the Strand was known as the " Wall Street of the South " . In the late 1890s , the government constructed Fort Crockett defenses and coastal artillery batteries in Galveston and along the Bolivar Roads . In February 1897 , Galveston was officially visited by the USS Texas ( nicknamed Old Hoodoo ) , the first commissioned battleship of the United States Navy . During the festivities , the ship 's officers were presented with a $ 5 @,@ 000 silver service , adorned with various Texas motifs , as a gift from the citizens of the state . = = = Hurricane of 1900 and recovery = = = On September 8 , 1900 , the island was struck by a devastating hurricane . This event holds the record as the United States ' deadliest natural disaster . The city was devastated , and an estimated 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 people on the island were killed . Following the storm , a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long , 17 foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high seawall was constructed to protect the city from floods and hurricane storm surge . A team of engineers including Henry Martyn Robert ( Robert 's Rules of Order ) designed the plan to raise much of the existing city to a sufficient elevation behind a seawall so that confidence in the city could be maintained . The city developed the city commission form of city government , known as the " Galveston Plan " , to help expedite recovery . Despite attempts to draw new investment to the city after the hurricane , Galveston never fully returned to its previous levels of national importance or prosperity . Development was also hindered by the construction of the Houston Ship Channel , which brought the Port of Houston into direct competition with the natural harbor of the Port of Galveston for sea traffic . To further her recovery , and rebuild her population , Galveston actively solicited immigration . Through the efforts of Rabbi Henry Cohen and Congregation B 'nai Israel , Galveston became the focus of an immigration plan called the Galveston Movement that , between 1907 and 1914 , diverted roughly 10 @,@ 000 Eastern European Jewish immigrants from the usual destinations of the crowded cities of the Northeastern United States . Additionally numerous other immigrant groups , including Greeks , Italians and Russian Jews , came to the city during this period . This immigration trend substantially altered the ethnic makeup of the island , as well as many other areas of Texas and the western U.S. Though the storm stalled economic development and the city of Houston developed as the region 's principal metropolis , Galveston economic leaders recognized the need to diversify from the traditional port @-@ related industries . In 1905 William Lewis Moody , Jr. and Isaac H. Kempner , members of two of Galveston 's leading families , founded the American National Insurance Company . Two years later , Moody established the City National Bank , which would later become the Moody National Bank . During the 1920s and 1930s , the city re @-@ emerged as a major tourist destination . Under the influence of Sam Maceo and Rosario Maceo , the city exploited the prohibition of liquor and gambling in clubs like the Balinese Room , which offered entertainment to wealthy Houstonians and other out @-@ of @-@ towners . Combined with prostitution , which had existed in the city since the Civil War , Galveston became known as the " sin city " of the Gulf . Galvestonians accepted and supported the illegal activities , often referring to their island as the " Free State of Galveston " . The island had entered what would later become known as the " open era " . The 1930s and 1940s brought much change to the Island City . During World War II , the Galveston Municipal Airport , predecessor to Scholes International Airport , was re @-@ designated a U.S. Army Air Corps base and named " Galveston Army Air Field " . In January 1943 , Galveston Army Air Field was officially activated with the 46th Bombardment Group serving an anti @-@ submarine role in the Gulf of Mexico . In 1942 , William Lewis Moody , Jr . , along with his wife Libbie Shearn Rice Moody , established the Moody Foundation , to benefit " present and future generations of Texans . " The foundation , one of the largest in the United States , would play a prominent role in Galveston during later decades , helping to fund numerous civic and health @-@ oriented programs . = = = Post – World War II = = = The end of the war drastically reduced military investment in the island . Increasing enforcement of gambling laws and the growth of Las Vegas , Nevada as a competitive center of gambling and entertainment put pressure on the gaming industry on the island . Finally in 1957 , Texas Attorney General Will Wilson and the Texas Rangers began a massive campaign of raids which disrupted gambling and prostitution in the city . As these vice industries crashed , so did tourism , taking the rest of the Galveston economy with it . Neither the economy nor the culture of the city was the same afterward . The economy of the island entered a long stagnant period . Many businesses relocated off the island during this period ; however , health care , insurance and financial industries continue to be strong contributors to the economy . By 1959 , the city of Houston had long out @-@ paced Galveston in population and economic growth . Beginning in 1957 , the Galveston Historical Foundation began its efforts to preserve historic buildings . The 1966 book The Galveston That Was helped encourage the preservation movement . Restoration efforts financed by motivated investors , notably Houston businessman George P. Mitchell , gradually developed the Strand Historic District and reinvented other areas . A new , family @-@ oriented tourism emerged in the city over many years . With the 1960s came the expansion of higher education in Galveston . Already home to the University of Texas Medical Branch , the city got a boost in 1962 with the creation of the Texas Maritime Academy , predecessor of Texas A & M University at Galveston ; and by 1967 a community college , Galveston College , had been established . In the 2000s , property values rose after expensive projects were completed and demand for second homes by the wealthy increased . It has made it difficult for middle @-@ class workers to find affordable housing on the island . Hurricane Ike made landfall on Galveston Island in the early morning of September 13 , 2008 as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 miles per hour . Damage was extensive to buildings along the seawall . After the storm , the island was rebuilt with further investments into tourism , shipping , and continued emphasis on higher education and health care . Notably the addition of the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier and the replacement of the bascule @-@ type drawbridge on the railroad causeway with a vertical @-@ lift @-@ type drawbridge to allow heavier freight . = = Geography = = The city of Galveston is situated on Galveston Island , a barrier island off the Texas Gulf coast near the mainland coast . Made up of mostly sand @-@ sized particles and smaller amounts of finer mud sediments and larger gravel @-@ sized sediments , the island is unstable , affected by water and weather , and can shift its boundaries through erosion . The city is about 45 miles ( 72 km ) southeast of downtown Houston . The island is oriented generally northeast @-@ southwest , with the Gulf of Mexico on the east and south , West Bay on the west , and Galveston Bay on the north . The island 's main access point from the mainland is the Interstate Highway 45 causeway that crosses West Bay on the northeast side of the island . A deepwater channel connects Galveston 's harbor with the Gulf and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 208 @.@ 4 square miles ( 540 km2 ) , of which 46 @.@ 2 square miles ( 120 km2 ) is land and 162 @.@ 2 square miles ( 420 km2 ) and 77 @.@ 85 % is water . The island is 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Houston . The western portion of Galveston is referred to as the " West End " . Communities in eastern Galveston include Lake Madeline , Offats Bayou , Central City , Fort Crockett , Bayou Shore , Lasker Park , Carver Park , Kempner Park , Old City / Central Business District , San Jacinto , East End , and Lindale . As of 2009 many residents of the west end use golf carts as transportation to take them to and from residential houses , the Galveston Island Country Club , and stores . In 2009 , Chief of Police Charles Wiley said he believed that golf carts should be prohibited outside golf courses , and West End residents campaigned against any ban on their use . In 2011 Rice University released a study , " Atlas of Sustainable Strategies for Galveston Island , " which argued that the West End of Galveston was quickly eroding and that the City should reduce construction and / or population in that area . It recommended against any rebuilding of the West End in the event of damage due to another hurricane . Scientists increasingly recognize that barrier islands are inherently unstable and cannot be permanently fixed . = = = Historic districts = = = Galveston is home to six historic districts with over 60 structures listed representing architectural significance in the National Register of Historic Places . The Silk Stocking National Historic District , located between Broadway and Seawall Boulevard and bounded by Ave . K , 23rd St. , Ave . P , and 26th St. , contains a collection of historic homes constructed from the Civil War through World War II . The East End Historic District , located on both sides of Broadway and Market Streets , contains 463 buildings . Other historic districts include Cedar Lawn , Denver Court and Fort Travis . The Strand National Historic Landmark District is a National Historic Landmark District of mainly Victorian era buildings that have been adapted for use as restaurants , antique stores , historical exhibits , museums and art galleries . The area is a major tourist attraction for the island city . It is the center for two very popular seasonal festivals . It is widely considered the island 's shopping and entertainment center . Today , " the Strand " is generally used to refer to the entire five @-@ block business district between 20th and 25th streets in downtown Galveston , very close to the city 's wharf . = = = Climate = = = Galveston 's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa in Köppen climate classification system ) . Prevailing winds from the south and southeast bring both heat from the deserts of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Summer temperatures regularly exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) and the area 's humidity drives the heat index even higher , while nighttime lows average around 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . Winters in the area are temperate with typical January highs above 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and lows near 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . Snowfall is generally rare ; however , 15 @.@ 4 in ( 39 @.@ 1 cm ) of snow fell in February 1895 , making the 1894 – 95 winter the snowiest on record . Annual rainfall averages well over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) a year with some areas typically receiving over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . Hurricanes are an ever @-@ present threat during the summer and fall season , which puts Galveston in Coastal Windstorm Area . Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula are generally at the greatest risk among the communities near the Galveston Bay . However , though the island and peninsula provide some shielding , the bay shoreline still faces significant danger from storm surge . = = Demographics = = = = = 2000 Census data = = = As of the census of 2000 , there were 57 @,@ 247 people , 23 @,@ 842 households , and 13 @,@ 732 families residing in the city . As of the 2006 U.S. Census estimate , the city had a total population of 57 @,@ 466 . The population density was 1 @,@ 240 @.@ 4 people per square mile ( 478 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 30 @,@ 017 housing units at an average density of 650 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 251 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 58 @.@ 7 % White , 25 @.@ 5 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 3 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 9 @.@ 7 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 4 % from two or more races . 25 @.@ 8 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . There were 23 @,@ 842 households out of which 26 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 13 living with them , 36 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 16 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 42 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families . 35 @.@ 6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 2 % had someone living alone who was 89 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 30 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 03 . In the city the population was 23 @.@ 4 % under the age of 13 , 11 @.@ 3 % from 13 to 24 , 29 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 21 @.@ 8 % from 45 to 88 , and 13 @.@ 7 % who were 89 years of age or older . The median age was 36 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 13 and over , there were 90 @.@ 4 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 28 @,@ 895 , and the median income for a family was $ 35 @,@ 049 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 150 versus $ 26 @,@ 030 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 275 . About 17 @.@ 8 % of families and 22 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 32 @.@ 1 % of those under age 13 and 14 @.@ 2 % of those age 89 or over . = = Economy = = = = = Port of Galveston = = = The Port of Galveston , also called Galveston Wharves , began as a trading post in 1825 . Today , the port has grown to 850 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 km2 ) of port facilities . The port is located on the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway , on the north side of Galveston Island , with some facilities on Pelican Island . The port has facilities to handle all types of cargo including containers , dry and liquid bulk , breakbulk , Roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off , refrigerated cargo and project cargoes . The port also serves as a passenger cruise ship terminal for cruise ships operating in the Caribbean . The terminal is home port to two Carnival Cruise Lines vessels , the Carnival Conquest and the Carnival Ecstasy . In November 2011 the company made Galveston home port to its 3 @,@ 960 @-@ passenger mega @-@ ships Carnival Magic and Carnival Triumph , as well . Carnival Magic sails a seven @-@ day Caribbean cruise from Galveston , and it is the largest cruise ship based at the Port year @-@ round . Galveston is the home port to Royal Caribbean International 's , MS Libertty of the Seas , which is the largest cruise ship ever based here and one of the largest ships in the world . In September 2012 Disney Cruise Line 's Disney Magic also became based in Galveston , offering four- , six- , seven- , and eight @-@ day cruises to the Caribbean and the Bahamas . = = = Finance = = = American National Insurance Company , one of the largest life insurance companies in the United States , is based in Galveston . The company and its subsidiaries operate in all 50 U.S. states , the District of Columbia , Puerto Rico , and American Samoa . Through its subsidiary , American National de México , Compañía de Seguros de Vida , it provides products and services in Mexico . Moody National Bank , with headquarters in downtown Galveston , is one of the largest privately owned Texas @-@ based banks . Its trust department , established in 1927 , administers over 12 billion dollars in assets , one of the largest in the state . In addition , the regional headquarters of Iowa @-@ based United Fire & Casualty Company are located in the city . = = = Health care = = = Galveston is the home of several of the largest teaching hospitals in the state , located on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston . Prior to Hurricane Ike , the University employed more than 12 @,@ 000 people . Its significant growth in the 1970s and 1980s was attributable to a uniquely qualified management and medical faculty including : Mr. John Thompson ; Dr. William James McGanity , Dr. William Levin , Dr. David Daeschner and many more . Ike severely damaged the 550 @-@ bed John Sealy Hospital causing the University of Texas System Board of Regents to cut nearly one @-@ third of the hospital staff . Since the storm , the regents have committed to spending $ 713 million to restore the campus , construct new medical towers , and return John Sealy Hospital to its 550 bed pre @-@ storm capacity . In 2011 , the UT Board of Regents approved the construction of a new 13 story hospital that will be located next to John Sealy Hospital . Construction will begin in the fall of 2011 , with the demolition of the old Jennie Sealy and Shriners hospitals , and continue until completion in 2016 . The facility will have 250 room , 20 operating suites and 54 intensive care beds . When the new hospital is complete , along with the renovations at John Sealy , both complexes will have around 600 beds . The university reopened their Level I Trauma Center on August 1 , 2009 which had been closed for eleven months after the hurricane and , as of September 2009 , had reopened 370 hospital beds . The city is also home to a 30 @-@ bed acute burns hospital for children , the Shriners Burns Hospital at Galveston . The Galveston hospital is one of only four in the chain of 22 non @-@ profit Shriners hospitals , that provides acute burns care . Although the Galveston Hospital was damaged by Hurricane Ike , the Shriners national convention held in July 2009 voted to repair and reopen the hospital . = = = Tourism = = = In the late 1800s Galveston was known as the " Playground of the South " Today , it still retains a shared claim to the title among major cities along the Gulf Coast states . Galveston is a popular tourist destination which in 2007 brought $ 808 million to the local economy and attracted 5 @.@ 4 million visitors . The city features an array of lodging options , including hotels such as the historic Hotel Galvez and Tremont House , vintage bed and breakfast inns , beachfront condominiums , and resort rentals . The city 's tourist attractions include the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier , Galveston Schlitterbahn waterpark , Moody Gardens botanical park , the Ocean Star Offshore Drilling Rig & Museum , the Lone Star Flight Museum , Galveston Railroad Museum , a downtown neighborhood of historic buildings known as The Strand , many historical museums and mansions , and miles of beach front from the East End 's Porretto Beach , Stewart Beach to the West End pocket parks . The Strand plays host to a yearly Mardi Gras festival , Galveston Island Jazz & Blues Festival and a Victorian @-@ themed Christmas festival called Dickens on the Strand ( honoring the works of novelist Charles Dickens , especially A Christmas Carol ) in early December . Galveston is home to several historic ships : the tall ship Elissa ( the official Tall Ship of Texas ) at the Texas Seaport Museum and USS Cavalla and USS Stewart , both berthed at Seawolf Park on nearby Pelican Island . Galveston is ranked the number one cruise port on the Gulf Coast and fourth in the United States . = = Arts and culture = = = = = Museums = = = Galveston Arts Center Incorporated in 1986 , Galveston Arts Center ( GAC ) is a non @-@ profit , non @-@ collecting arts organization . The center exhibits contemporary art , often by Texas @-@ based artists , and offers educational and outreach programs . Notably , GAC organizes and produces Galveston ArtWalk . Museum entry is free to the public , although cash donations are welcomed . Tiered membership options and a range of volunteer opportunities are also available . In October 2015 , Galveston Arts Center will celebrate relocation to its original home , the historic 1878 First National Bank Building on the Strand . This Italianate @-@ style 1900 Storm survivor was extensively damaged during Hurricane Ike in 2008 . Fortunately , just weeks before Ike made landfall , scaffolding was installed to support the entire structural load of the building for repairs , likely preventing collapse under heavy winds and storm surge . After a lengthy fundraising campaign , restoration is nearing completion . = = = Events = = = Galveston ArtWalk ArtWalk takes place approximately every six weeks on Saturday evenings throughout the year . ArtWalk is organized by Galveston Arts Center , which releases an ArtWalk brochure featuring a map of participating venues as well as descriptions of shows and exhibits . Venues include GAC , Galveston Artist Residency and artist ’ s studios and galleries . Additionally , art is shown in “ other walls ” — for example MOD Coffeehouse or Mosquito Cafe — or outdoors at Art Market on Market Street . Musicians perform outdoors and at venues such as the Proletariat Gallery & Public House or Old Quarter Acoustic Cafe . While most ArtWalk events are concentrated downtown , there are a number or participants elsewhere on the island . = = = Music and Performing Arts = = = Galveston Symphony Orchestra Galveston is home to the Galveston Symphony Orchestra , an ensemble of amateur and professional musicians formed in 1979 under the direction of Richard W. Pickar , Musical Director @-@ Conductor . Galveston Ballet The Galveston Ballet is a regional pre @-@ professional ballet company and academy serving Galveston county . The company presents one full @-@ length classical ballet in the spring of each year and one mixed repertory program in the fall , both presented at the Grand 1894 Opera House . = = = Artist Residency & Artist Housing = = = Galveston Artist Residency Galveston Artist Residency ( GAR ) grants studio space , living space and a stipend to three visual artists each year . Resident artists work in a variety of mediums and exhibit their work in the GAR Gallery and Courtyards . Located in renovated industrial structures on the west side of downtown , GAR also hosts performances and other public events . The National Hotel Artist Lofts The National Hotel Artist Lofts ( NHAL ) is an Artspace @-@ developed property featuring twenty @-@ seven live / work units designated as affordable housing for artists . The project brought new life to the historic E.S. Levy Building , which was left abandoned for twenty years . Originally built as the Tremont Opera House in 1870 , the structure was extensively renovated to serve various functions , from offices and stores to the National Hotel . The building also housed the U.S. National Weather Bureau 's Galveston office under Isaac Cline during the 1900 Storm . Under Property Manager / Creative Director Becky Major , the unused retail space in the front of the building found a new purpose as a DIY art and music venue , despite its gutted and undeveloped state . In May 2015 , the newly renovated space reopened as the Proletariat Gallery & Public House . This unique bar and gallery provides a common area for NHAL and neighborhood residents and a cultural hub for the broader community . Visual art , events and live music are regularly hosted in the space . = = = Architecture = = = Galveston contains one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States . Galveston 's architectural preservation and revitalization efforts over several decades have earned national recognition . Located in the Strand District , the Grand 1894 Opera House is a restored historic Romanesque Revival style Opera House that is currently operated as a not @-@ for @-@ profit performing arts theater . The Bishop 's Palace , also known as Gresham 's Castle , is an ornate Victorian house located on Broadway and 14th Street in the East End Historic District of Galveston , Texas . The American Institute of Architects listed Bishop 's Palace as one of the 100 most significant buildings in the United States , and the Library of Congress has classified it as one of the fourteen most representative Victorian structures in the nation . The Galvez Hotel is a historic hotel that opened in 1911 . The building was named the Galvez , honoring Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez , for whom the city was named . The hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 4 , 1979 . The Michel B. Menard House , built in 1838 and oldest in Galveston , is designed in the Greek revival style . In 1880 , the house was bought by Edwin N. Ketchum who was police chief of the city during the 1900 Storm . The Ketchum family owned the home until the 1970s . The red @-@ brick Victorian Italianate home , Ashton Villa , was constructed in 1859 by James Moreau Brown . One of the first brick structures in Texas , it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a recorded Texas Historic Landmark . The structure is also the site of what was to become the holiday known as Juneteenth . Where On June 19 , 1865 , Union General Gordon Granger , standing on its balcony , read the contents of “ General Order No. 3 ” , thereby emancipating all slaves in the state of Texas . St. Joseph ’ s Church was built by German immigrants in 1859 @-@ 60 and is the oldest wooden church building in Galveston and the oldest German Catholic Church in Texas . The church was dedicated in April 1860 , to St. Joseph , the patron saint of laborers . The building is a wooden gothic revival structure , rectangular with a square bell tower with trefoil window . The U.S. Custom House began construction in 1860 and was completed in 1861 . The Confederate Army occupied the building during the American Civil War , In 1865 , the Custom House was the site of the ceremony officially ending the Civil War . Galveston 's modern architecture include the American National Insurance Company Tower ( One Moody Plaza ) , San Luis Resort South and North Towers , The Breakers Condominiums , The Galvestonian Resort and Condos , One Shearn Moody Plaza , US National Bank Building , the Rainforest Pyramid at Moody Gardens , John Sealy Hospital Towers at UTMB and Medical Arts Building ( also known as Two Moody Plaza ) . = = = Media = = = The Galveston County Daily News , founded in 1842 , is the city 's primary newspaper and the oldest continuously printed newspaper in Texas . It currently serves as the newspaper of record for the city and the Texas City Post serves as the newspaper of record for the County . Radio station KGBC , on air from 1947 @-@ 2010 , has previously served as a local media outlet . Television station KHOU signed on the air as KGUL @-@ TV on March 23 , 1953 . Originally licensed in Galveston , KGUL was the second television station to launch in the Houston area after KPRC @-@ TV . One of the original investors in the station was actor James Stewart , along with a small group of other Galveston investors . In June 1959 , KGUL changed its call sign to KHOU and moved their main office to Houston . The local hip hop name for Galveston is " G @-@ town . " = = = Sculpture = = = Many statues and sculptures can be found around the city . Here are a few well @-@ known sculptures . 1900 Storm Memorial by David W. Moore Birth by Arthur Williams Dignified Resignation by Louis Amateis Dolphins by David W. Moore High Tide by Charles Parks Jack Johnson by Adrienne Isom Pink Dolphin Monument by Joe Joe Orangias Texas Heroes Monument by Louis Amateis = = = Notable people = = = Galveston has been home to many important figures in Texas and U.S. history . During the island 's earliest history it became the domain of Jean Lafitte , the famed pirate and American hero of the War of 1812 . Richard Bache , Jr. who represented Galveston in the Senate of the Second Texas Legislature in 1847 and assisted in drawing up the Constitution of 1845 . He was also the grandson of Benjamin Franklin , one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America and Deborah Read . In 1886 , the African @-@ American Galveston civil rights leader Norris Wright Cuney rose to become the head of the Texas Republican Party and one of the most important Southern black leaders of the century . Noted portrait and landscape artist Verner Moore White moved from Galveston the day before the 1900 hurricane . While he survived , his studio and much of his portfolio were destroyed . A survivor of the hurricane was the Hollywood director King Vidor , who made his directing debut in 1913 with the film Hurricane in Galveston . Later Jack Johnson , nicknamed the “ Galveston Giant ” , became the first black world heavyweight boxing champion . During the first half of the 20th century , William L. Moody Jr. established a business empire , which includes American National Insurance Company , a major national insurer , and founded the Moody Foundation , one of the largest charitable organizations in the United States . Sam Maceo , a nationally known organized crime boss , with the help of his family , was largely responsible for making Galveston a major U.S. tourist destination from the 1920s to the 1940s . John H. Murphy , a Texas newspaperman for seventy @-@ four years , was the longtime executive vice president of the Texas Daily Newspaper Association . Douglas Corrigan became one of the early transatlantic aviators , and was given the nickname " Wrong Way " for claiming to have mistakenly made the ocean crossing after being refused permission to make the flight . Grammy @-@ award winning singer @-@ songwriter Barry White was born on the island and later moved to Los Angeles . George P. Mitchell , pioneer of hydraulic fracturing technology and developer of The Woodlands , Texas , was born and raised in Galveston . More recently Tilman J. Fertitta , part of the Maceo bloodline , established the Landry 's Restaurants corporation , which owns numerous restaurants and entertainment venues in Texas and Nevada . Kay Bailey Hutchison was the senior senator from Texas and the first female Texas senator . Gilbert Pena , incoming 2015 Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives from Pasadena , was born in Galveston in 1949 and lived there in early childhood . Jonathan Pollard , who spied for Israel and was convicted in the US and sentenced to life in jail , was born in Galveston . The film and television actor Lee Patterson , a native of Vancouver , British Columbia , lived in Galveston and died there in 2007 . Other notable people include Matt Carpenter , second baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals , Mike Evans , wide receiver for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , actress Katherine Helmond and Tina Knowles , fashion designer and creator of House of Deréon , mother of Beyoncé and Solange . Grammy award winning R & B and Jazz legend Esther Phillips was born in Galveston in 1935 . = = Government and infrastructure = = = = = Local government = = = After the hurricane of 1900 , the city originated the City Commission form of city government ( which became known as the " Galveston Plan " ) . The city has since adopted the council @-@ manager form of government . Galveston 's city council serves as the city 's legislative branch , while the city manager works as the chief executive officer , and the municipal court system serves as the city 's judicial branch . The city council and mayor promote ordinances to establish municipal policies . The Galveston City Council consists of six elected positions , each derived from a specified electoral district . Each city council member is elected to a two @-@ year term , while the mayor is elected to a two @-@ year term . The city council appoints the city manager , the city secretary , the city auditor , the city attorney , and the municipal judge . The city 's Tax Collector is determined by the city council and is outsourced to Galveston County . The city manager hires employees , promotes development , presents and administers the budget , and implements city council policies . Joe Jaworski is mayor , having replaced term @-@ limited Lyda Ann Thomas May 2010 . Jaworski is also the grandson of Leon Jaworski , United States Special Prosecutor during the Watergate Scandal in the 1970s . = = = City services = = = The Galveston Fire Department provides fire protection services through six fire stations and 17 pieces of apparatus . The Galveston Police Department has provided the city 's police protection for more than 165 years . Over 170 authorized officers serve in three divisions . The city is served by the Rosenberg Library , successor to the Galveston Mercantile Library , which was founded in 1871 . It is the oldest public library in the State of Texas . The library also serves as headquarters of the Galveston County Library System , and its librarian also functions as the Galveston County Librarian . = = = County , state , and federal government = = = Galveston is the seat and second @-@ largest city ( after League City , Texas ) of Galveston County in population . The Galveston County Justice Center , which houses all the county 's judicial functions as well as jail , is located on 59th street . The Galveston County Administrative Courthouse , the seat of civil and administrative functions , is located near the city 's downtown . Galveston is within the County Precinct 1 ; as of 2008 Patrick Doyle serves as the Commissioner of Precinct 1 . The Galveston County Sheriff 's Office operates its law enforcement headquarters and jail from the Justice Center . The Galveston County Department of Parks and Senior Services operates the Galveston Community Center . Galveston is located in District 23 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2008 , Craig Eiland represents the district . Most of Galveston is within District 17 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Joan Huffman represents the district . A portion of Galveston is within District 11 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Mike Jackson represents the district . Galveston is in Texas 's 14th congressional district and is represented by Republican Randy Weber as of 2012 . The Galveston Division of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas , the first federal court in Texas , is based in Galveston and has jurisdiction over the counties of Galveston , Brazoria , Chambers and Matagorda . It is housed in the United States Post Office , Customs House and Court House federal building in downtown Galveston . The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in Galveston , including the Galveston Main Post Office and the Bob Lyons Post Office Station . In addition the post office has a contract postal unit at the Medical Branch Unit on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch and the West Galveston Contract Postal Unit , located on the west end of Galveston Island in the beachside community of Jamaica Beach . = = = Transportation = = = Scholes International Airport at Galveston ( IATA : GLS , ICAO : KGLS ) is a two @-@ runway airport in Galveston ; the airport is primarily used for general aviation , offshore energy transportation , and some limited military operations . The nearest commercial airline service for the city is operated out of Houston through William P. Hobby Airport and George Bush Intercontinental Airport . The University of Texas Medical Branch has two heliports , one for Ewing Hall and one for its emergency room . The Galveston Railway , originally established and named in 1854 as the Galveston Wharf and Cotton Press Company , is a Class III terminal switching railroad that primarily serves the transportation of cargo to and from the Port of Galveston . The railway operates 32 miles ( 51 km ) of yard track at Galveston , over a 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) facility . Island Transit , which operates the Galveston Island Trolley manages the city 's public transportation services . Intercity bus service to Galveston was previously operated by Kerrville Bus Company ; following the company 's acquisition by Coach USA , service was operated by Megabus . All regular intercity bus service has been discontinued . Galveston is served by Amtrak 's Texas Eagle via connecting bus service at Longview , Texas . Interstate 45 has a southern terminus in Galveston and serves as a main artery to Galveston from mainland Galveston County and Houston . Farm to Market Road 3005 ( locally called Seawall Boulevard ) connects Galveston to Brazoria County via the San Luis Pass @-@ Vacek Toll Bridge . State Highway 87 , known locally as Broadway Street , connects the island to the Bolivar Peninsula via the Bolivar Ferry . A project to construct the proposed Bolivar Bridge to link Galveston to Bolivar Peninsula was cancelled in 2007 . = = Education = = = = = Colleges and universities = = = Established in 1891 with one building and fewer than 50 students , today the University of Texas Medical Branch ( UTMB ) campus has grown to more than 70 buildings and an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus includes schools of medicine , nursing , allied health professions , and a graduate school of biomedical sciences , as well as three institutes for advanced studies & medical humanities , a major medical library , seven hospitals , a network of clinics that provide a full range of primary and specialized medical care , and numerous research facilities . Galveston is home to two post @-@ secondary institutions offering traditional degrees in higher education . Galveston College , a junior college that opened in 1967 , and Texas A & M University at Galveston , an ocean @-@ oriented branch campus of Texas A & M University . = = = Primary and secondary schools = = = The city of Galveston is served by Galveston Independent School District , which includes six elementary schools , two middle schools and one high school , Ball High School . There is also one magnet middle school , Austin Middle School , serving grades 5 through 8 . Galveston has several state @-@ funded charter schools not affiliated with local school districts , including kindergarten through 8th grade Ambassadors Preparatory Academy and pre @-@ kindergarten through 8th Grade Odyssey Academy . In addition KIPP : the Knowledge Is Power Program opened KIPP Coastal Village in Galveston under the auspices of GISD . Several private schools exist in Galveston . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston operates two Roman Catholic private schools , including Holy Family Catholic School ( K through 8th ) and O 'Connell College Preparatory School ( 9 @-@ 12 ) . Other private schools include Satori Elementary School , Trinity Episcopal School , Seaside Christian Academy , and Heritage Christian Academy . = = Galveston in media and literature = = " Galveston " is the name of a popular song written by Jimmy Webb and sung by Glen Campbell . Sheldon Cooper , one of the main characters from the TV series The Big Bang Theory , grew up in Galveston . The theater film , The Man from Galveston ( 1963 ) , was the original pilot episode of the proposed NBC western television series Temple Houston , with Jeffrey Hunter cast as Temple Lea Houston , a lawyer and the youngest son of the legendary Sam Houston . For a time the real Temple Houston was the county attorney of Brazoria County , Texas . The Temple Houston series lasted for only twenty @-@ six episodes in the 1963 @-@ 1964 television season . Donald Barthelme 's 1974 short story " I bought a little city " is about an unnamed man who invests his fortune in buying Galveston , only to sell it thereafter . Galveston is the setting of Sean Stewart 's 2000 fantasy novel Galveston , in which a Flood of Magic takes over the island city , resulting in strange and carnivalesque adventures . It tied in 2001 with Declare , by Tim Powers , for the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel . It also won the 2001 Sunburst Award and was a preliminary nominee for the Nebula Award for Best Novel . The Drowning House , a novel by Elizabeth Black ( 2013 ) , is an exploration of the island of Galveston , Texas , and the intertwined histories of two families who reside there . Stephenie Meyer has mentioned Galveston island in her third book of the Twilight series , Eclipse . Galveston ( 2010 ) is the first novel by Nic Pizzolatto , the creator of the HBO series True Detective . = = Sister cities = = Galveston has five sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International : Armavir , Armenia Thiruvananthapuram , India Veracruz , Mexico Stavanger , Norway Niigata , Japan

= Sarnia = Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario , Canada , and had a 2011 population of 72 @,@ 366 . It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County . Sarnia is located on the eastern bank of the junction between the Upper and Lower Great Lakes where Lake Huron flows into the St. Clair River , which forms the Canada @-@ United States border , directly across from Port Huron , Michigan . The city 's natural harbour first attracted the French explorer La Salle , who named the site " The Rapids " when he had horses and men pull his 45 tonnes ( 50 short tons ; 44 long tons ) barque " Le Griffon " up the almost four @-@ knot current of the St. Clair River on 23 August 1679 . This was the first time anything other than a canoe or other oar @-@ powered vessel had sailed into Lake Huron , and La Salle 's voyage was thus germinal in the development of commercial shipping on the Great Lakes . Located in the natural harbour , the Sarnia port remains an important centre for lake freighters and oceangoing ships carrying cargoes of grain and petroleum products . The natural port and the salt caverns that exist in the surrounding areas , together with the oil discovered in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 led to the massive growth of the petroleum industry in this area . Because Oil Springs was the first place in Canada and North America to drill commercially for oil , the knowledge that was acquired there led to oil drillers from Sarnia travelling the world teaching other nations how to drill for oil . The complex of refining and chemical companies is called Chemical Valley and located south of downtown Sarnia . The city has the highest level of particulates air pollution of any Canadian city because of its reliance on the petrochemical industry . About 60 percent of the particulate matter , however , comes from the neighboring United States . Lake Huron is cooler than the air in summer and warmer than the air in winter ; therefore , it moderates Sarnia 's humid continental climate , which makes temperature extremes of hot and cold very rare . In the winter , Sarnia experiences lake @-@ effect snow because Arctic air blows across the warmer waters of Lake Huron and condenses to form snow squalls once over land . Culturally , Sarnia is a large part of the artistic presence in Southern Ontario . The city 's International Symphony Orchestra is renowned in the area and has won the Outstanding Community Orchestra Award given by the Detroit Music Awards in 2011 . Michael Learned graced the stage of the Imperial Theatre for a 2010 production of Driving Miss Daisy . The largest event that happens in Sarnia is Sarnia Bayfest , which is a popular music festival that takes place during the summer . In 2013 , organizers cancelled the event because of money troubles but look forward in 2015 to combining with the International Powerboat Festival and presenting a joint event . = = Name = = The name " Sarnia " is Latin for Guernsey , which is a British Channel Island . In 1829 Sir John Colborne , a former governor of Guernsey , was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada . In this capacity , he visited two small settlements in 1835 that had been laid out on the shores of Lake Huron . One of these , named " The Rapids , " consisted then of 44 taxpayers , nine frame houses , four log houses , two brick dwellings , two taverns and three stores . The villagers wished to change its name but were unable to agree on an alternative . The English settlers favoured the name " Buenos Aires " and the Scottish " New Glasgow " . Sir John Colborne suggested Port Sarnia . On 4 January 1836 , the name was formally adopted by a vote of 26 to 16 , and Colborne also named the nearby village Moore after British military hero Sir John Moore . Sarnia adopted the nickname " The Imperial City " on 7 May 1914 because of the visit of Canada 's Governor General , H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught , and his daughter Princess Patricia . = = History = = First Nations peoples have lived , hunted , and traveled across the area for at least 10 @,@ 000 years , as shown by archaeological evidence on Walpole Island . These peoples were drawn from an amalgamation of Ojibwa , Odawa , and Potowatami clans , which formed the Three Fires Confederacy , also called the Council of Three Fires , in A.D.796. These clans came together through common links in both language and culture , developing a self @-@ sufficient society where tasks and responsibilities were equally shared among all members . During the 1600s and 1700s , The Three Fires Confederacy controlled much of the area known as the hub of the Great Lakes , which included the Canadian shore where Sarnia is now located . During this time , it maintained relations with many of the First Nations , including Huron , Sioux , and Iroquois , as well as the countries of Great Britain and France . In fact , their trading partners , the Huron , welcomed La Salle and the Griffon in 1679 after he sailed into Lake Huron . The Ontario Heritage Trust erected a sign under the Blue Water Bridge in commemoration of the voyage , as shown by the photo of the sign . Because of this beginning of the incursion of Europeans into the area , the members of the Confederacy helped shape the development of North America throughout the 18th Century , becoming a center of trade and culture . Great Britain supported this strengthening of the tribes in the area as a set of allies against the French and the Iroqouis . The people of the Three Fires Confederacy , however , sided with the French during the Seven Years ' War and only made peace with Great Britain after the Treaty of Fort Niagara in 1764 . It also fought on the side of the British during the War of 1812 . The Three Fires Confederacy also broke several treaties with the United States prior to 1815 , but finally signed the Treaty of Springwells in September of that year and ceased all hostilities directed at the United States . The Grand Council survived intact until the middle to late 19th century , when more modern political systems began to evolve . After the War of 1812 , the first Europeans in the area were French settlers loyal to the British Crown who moved north from Detroit . They successfully traded with the Three Fires Confederacy , which contributed to the growth of the area . After its foundation , Port Sarnia expanded throughout the 19th Century ; on 19 June 1856 , the residents passed the Act to Incorporate the Town of Sarnia and the name Port Sarnia was officially changed to Sarnia effective 1 January 1857 . The Act mentioned 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants in three wards . The wealth of adjoining stands of timber , the discovery of oil in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 by James Miller Williams , and the arrival of the Great Western Railway in 1858 and the Grand Trunk Railway in 1859 all stimulated Sarnia 's growth . The rail lines were later linked directly to the United States by the opening of the St. Clair Tunnel under the St. Clair River at Sarnia in 1890 , by the Grand Trunk Railway , which was the first railroad tunnel ever constructed under a river . The tunnel was an engineering marvel in its day , achieved through the development of original techniques for excavating in a compressed air environment . Canada Steamship Lines formed in 1913 from many previous companies that plied the waters of the St. Clair River . One of these companies was Northwest Transportation Company of Sarnia , which was founded in 1870 . By 20 April 1914 , when the residents passed Act to Incorporate the City of Sarnia , the population had grown to 10 @,@ 985 in six wards . Sarnia officially became a city as of 7 May 1914 . Sarnia 's grain elevator , which is the sixth largest currently operating in Canada , was built after the dredging of Sarnia Harbour in 1927 . Two short years later , grain shipments had become an important part of Sarnia 's economy . The grain elevator rises above the harbour , and next to it is the slip for the numerous bulk carriers and other ships that are part of the shipping industry that includes vessels from all over the world . The waterway between Detroit and Sarnia is one of the world 's busiest , as indicated by the average of 78 @,@ 943 @,@ 900 tonnes ( 87 @,@ 020 @,@ 800 short tons ; 77 @,@ 697 @,@ 100 long tons ) of shipping that annually travelled the river going in both directions during the period 1993 – 2002 . Lake freighters and oceangoing ships , which are known as " salties , " pass up and down the river at the rate of about one every seven minutes during the shipping season . During this same period , The Paul M. Tellier Tunnel , which was named after the retired president of CN in 2004 , was bored and began operation in 1995 . It accommodates double @-@ stacked rail cars and is located next to the original tunnel , which has been sealed . While there had been a petroleum industry in the Sarnia area since 1858 , the establishment of Polymer Corporation in 1942 to manufacture synthetic rubber during World War II was a great success and began Sarnia 's rise as a major petrochemical centre . Because of Sarnia 's importance in this industry , it appeared on a United States Government list of possible Soviet targets as part of its Anti @-@ Energy nuclear strike strategy during the Cold War . On 1 January 1991 , Sarnia and the neighbouring town of Clearwater were amalgamated as the new city of Sarnia @-@ Clearwater . The amalgamation was originally slated to include the village of Point Edward , although that village 's residents resisted and were eventually permitted to remain independent of the city . On 1 January 1992 , the city reverted to the name Sarnia . Sarnia 's population experienced a continual growth from 1961 to 1991 , with a 1991 population of 74 @,@ 376 . In 2001 the population had declined by approximately 3 @,@ 000 . Since 2001 Sarnia 's population has been growing slowly , with a 2011 population count of 72 @,@ 366 . Despite these modest gains , an April 2010 report " Sarnia @-@ Lambton 's Labour Market " states : " Large petrochemical companies are the community 's main economic drivers . Over the recent past , several plants have shutdown , and of those still in operation , increased automation and outsourcing has led to significantly fewer workers . " . These shutdowns and the resulting loss of jobs , and therefore population as workers search for employment elsewhere , will contribute to a general decline shown by one August 2011 study , which shows that the population will decline by 17 % over the next twenty @-@ five years . The Monteith @-@ Brown study cited outlines a plan for restructuring the city based on hybrid zoning areas , which will bring work opportunities closer to the neighborhoods where people live . The City of Sarnia and Lambton County are also implementing an economic development plan with an emphasis on bioindustries and renewable energy . = = Geography = = Sarnia is located on the eastern shore of Lake Huron at its extreme southern point where it flows into the St. Clair River . Most of the surrounding area is flat , and the elevation ranges from 169 metres ( 554 ft ) and 281 metres ( 922 ft ) above sea level . The soil mostly comprises clay . Despite this high percentage of clay , the soil is remarkably rich for cultivation . Prior to the Ice Age , glaciers covered most of the area , as can be seen not only by the existence of the Great Lakes themselves but also of alluvial sand deposits , terminal moraines , and rich oil reserves . The entire area was submerged and plant and animal matter formed many layers of sediment as they settled after the waters receded . Sarnia is not part of the Canadian Shield and is located just beyond its southernmost reaches , 290 kilometres ( 180 mi ) West of Toronto and 106 kilometres ( 66 mi ) North of Detroit . = = = Neighbourhoods = = = Wiltshire Park , Woodland , Oak Acres , Wees Beach , Oakwood Corners , Woodrow Shores , and Blackwell , are part of the North End of Sarnia , which begins immediately north of Ontario Highway 402 and terminates at the shore of Lake Huron . Coronation Park , Heritage Park , College Park , The Tree Streets , and Sherwood Village are some of the neighbourhoods south of the highway . The village of Blue Water was built to house workers and their families in Chemical Valley during the construction of Polymer Corporation and at one point had nearly 3 @,@ 000 residents . In 1961 , all the residents were relocated , mostly to the North End , to make way for expansion of the chemical industry . The village was demolished , and all that remains now is an historical marker at the corner of Vidal Street and Huron Avenue . This neighbourhood was largely forgotten until historian Lorraine Williams penned two books about it and was instrumental in the dedication of the plaque . = = = Climate = = = Sarnia has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) . Winters are cold with a few short @-@ lasting Arctic air masses that dip far enough south and bring with them daily high temperatures lower than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) . Sarnia , while not quite located in the southwestern Ontario snowbelt , sometimes receives large quantities of lake @-@ effect snow . Sarnia averages 112 @.@ 0 cm ( 44 @.@ 1 in ) of snow per year , while London averages 194 @.@ 3 cm ( 76 @.@ 5 in ) . The lake creates a seasonal lag , and compared to the rest of Canada and inland Ontario , Sarnia has a noticeably longer warm period following summer . However , cooler temperatures tend to prevail for longer after winter . Lake Huron can also create large temperature differences within the city in spring and early summer , particularly on hot days in late May , early June . Finally , extreme temperatures , particularly lows , are rarely ever seen . Daily lows less than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) are seen an average of 30 days a year , and less than − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) two days a year . Summers are warm to hot and usually humid . Humidex readings can be very high at times from late May to late September . In fact , Sarnia has the second greatest number of high humidex days at or above 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) ( with 23 @.@ 16 days on average per year ) and humidex days at or above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) ( with 61 @.@ 20 days on average per year ) in Canada , both after Windsor , Ontario . Thunderstorms can become quite severe from April to September . Destructive weather is very rare in the area but has occurred , such as the tornado event of 1953 . = = Demographics = = In the 2011 Census , the City of Sarnia had a population of 72 @,@ 366 , an increase of 1 @.@ 3 % from the 2006 Census . With a land area of 164 @.@ 71 km2 ( 63 @.@ 59 sq mi ) , it had a population density of 439 @.@ 354 / km2 ( 1 @,@ 137 @.@ 92 / sq mi ) in 2011 . In 2011 , Sarnia had an overwhelmingly white population ; only 8 @.@ 54 % were visible minorities . Of those , 63 @.@ 77 % were aboriginal representing the largest group . In 2011 , 89 @.@ 31 % of Sarnians called English their mother tongue , 2 @.@ 46 % listed French , 0 @.@ 87 % stated both of those languages , and 7 @.@ 37 % said another language was their mother tongue . The median age in Sarnia is 44 @.@ 5 which is older than the Canadian median of 40 @.@ 95 , indicative of Sarnia 's aging population . According to the 2011 Census , Sarnia is predominately Christian as 28 @.@ 46 % of the population were Catholic , 12 @.@ 4 % were members of the United Church of Canada , 7 @.@ 3 % were Anglican , and 20 @.@ 06 % were of other Christian faiths , Muslim , or Jewish ; 28 @.@ 38 % professed no religious preference or were atheists . The median income counting all persons 15 years old or older in Sarnia in 2010 was $ 29 @,@ 196 , while median family income was $ 76 @,@ 523 , both of which were slightly lower than Ontario 's , at $ 30 @,@ 526 and $ 80 @,@ 987 , respectively . The cost of living in Sarnia , however , is significantly lower than it is in Ontario as a whole . The median value of a dwelling , for instance , is $ 179 @,@ 266 , compared to the $ 300 @,@ 862 of Ontario as a whole . = = Economy and infrastructure = = The Sarnia @-@ Lambton Workforce Development Board states in its March 2011 Labour Market Report that : " Even though employment in both the petrochemical and agricultural industries has declined significantly in recent years , these two industries remain central drivers of the Sarnia Lambton economy . " When World War II threatened tropical sources of natural latex for rubber , Sarnia was selected as the site to spearhead development of synthetic petroleum @-@ based rubbers for war materials , and Polymer Corporation was built by Dow Chemical at the request of the Government of Canada . Large pipelines bring Alberta oil to Sarnia , where oil refining and petrochemical production have become mainstays of the city 's economy . Shell Canada , Imperial Oil , and Suncor Energy ( Sunoco ) operate refineries in Sarnia . Large salt beds found under the city became a source of chlorine and other significant ingredients which contributed to the success of Chemical Valley . Chemical companies operating in Sarnia include NOVA Chemicals , Bayer ( Lanxess and H.C. Starck ) , Cabot Corporation and Ethyl Corporation . Dow ceased operations at its Sarnia site in 2009 . The plant was decommissioned , and the land has been sold to neighbouring TransAlta Energy Corporation . TransAlta produces power and steam for industry , and is the largest natural gas co @-@ generation plant in Canada . It has created the Bluewater Energy Park on the former Dow site . Lanxess produces more than 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 170 @,@ 000 short tons ; 150 @,@ 000 long tons ) of butyl rubber annually at its Sarnia location , and is the sole producer of regulatory @-@ approved , food @-@ grade butyl rubber , used in the manufacture of chewing gum . Within the boundaries of its Sarnia plant Lanxess has also created the Bio @-@ industrial Park Sarnia . Chemical Valley and the surrounding area are home to 62 facilities and refineries . These industrial complexes are the heart of Sarnia 's infrastructure and economy . They directly employ nearly 8 @,@ 000 , and contribute to almost 45 @,@ 000 additional jobs in the area . In 1971 , the Canadian government deemed this area so important to the economic development of the country that it printed an image of a Sarnia Oil Refinery on the reverse of the Canadian $ 10 note . The huge industrial area is the cause of significant air and water pollution . The Canada Wide Daily Standard for airborne particulate matter and ozone pollution , regulation PM2.5 , is 30 micrograms per cubic metre . Forty @-@ five percent of this particulate air pollution in Sarnia comes from Chemical Valley , and the rest drifts over the St. Clair River from the neighbouring United States in the form of what is known as " Transboundary Air Pollution . " Sarnia is the location of Enbridge 's Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant . The facility went into full commercial operation in December 2009 , with 20 MW of power . As of September 2010 , the plant was the largest photovoltaic ( PV ) solar power generation facility in the world , putting out 97 MW . The 80 @-@ acre Western University Research Park , Sarnia @-@ Lambton Campus was established in 2003 by the University of Western Ontario as a joint initiative with the County of Lambton and the City of Sarnia . The park is also the location of the Bioindustrial Innovation Centre , Canada 's centre for the commercialization of industrial biotechnology . In 2012 BioAmber began construction of North America 's first biosuccinic acid plant at the Bio @-@ Industrial Park . The company has since announced that it plans to double the original size of this $ 80 million plant . Solutions4C02 is developing a 50 @,@ 000 square foot demonstration facility at the Bluewater Energy Park . This company captures waste gas / water streams to process into value @-@ added co @-@ products . PlantForm Corporation , a Canadian biotech startup company producing ultra @-@ low @-@ cost therapeutic antibody drugs , opened an office at the Western University Research Park in 2011 , and the KmX Corporation began work on a pilot plant at the park in Summer 2012 , for the production of biobutanol . = = = Retail and hospitality = = = Sarnia has two large malls : Lambton Mall with 72 stores , and the Bayside Centre with 9 stores , and several government and medical services . These large malls combine with several smaller shopping centres , discount stores , dollar stores , convenience stores , and a collection of antique and specialty stores to form the crux of Sarnia 's retail business . Travellers can choose from eight branded and many family @-@ owned hotels and motels . = = = Transportation = = = The Blue Water Bridge links Sarnia and its neighbouring village of Point Edward to the city of Port Huron in the United States . It spans the St. Clair River , which connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair . The bridge 's original three @-@ lane span , opened in 1938 , was twinned on 22 July 1997 , making the bridge the fourth busiest border crossing in Ontario . The Blue Water Bridge border crossing makes use of both the NEXUS ( frequent traveler program ) and the Free and Secure Trade ( FAST ) program . Linking Highway 402 with the American Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 69 , the bridge forms part of the NAFTA Superhighway , and is one of the most important gateways on the north – south truck routes . Public transportation within the City of Sarnia , including conventional bus transit , transportation of people with disabilities , transportation support for major events , and charter services , is provided by Sarnia Transit . From the city 's local airport , Sarnia Chris Hadfield Airport , Air Georgian operates services to and from Toronto Pearson International Airport on behalf of Air Canada Express . For rail travel , Sarnia is one of the two western termini , along with Windsor , of the Via Rail Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , over which a service departs Sarnia station in the morning and arrives in the evening . = = = Health care = = = Sarnia is served by Bluewater Health , a hospital with 188 acute care beds , 70 complex continuing care beds and 27 rehabilitation beds . The hospital opened in 2010 , following the amalgamation of several smaller facilities . Bluewater Health was recently recognized by Healthcare Insurance Reciprocal of Canada , one of the country 's largest hospital insurers , for its continued improvement in patient safety and care quality . = = Culture = = = = = Music , theatre , and arts = = = Sarnia 's musical and theatrical presence in Southern Ontario is significant . The International Symphony Orchestra plays at the Imperial Theatre for an annual season lasting from September to April . In addition to symphonic concerts , the Imperial Theatre offers year @-@ round dramatic productions ; Michael Learned played the lead in Driving Miss Daisy at the theatre in 2010 . Former Max Webster frontman Kim Mitchell has returned to his hometown on occasion to play a concert , including his visit in 2008 for Sarnia 's popular Ribfest , a competition where local amateur chefs share their recipes for barbecued ribs and compete against each other . Canadian composer and music educator Raymond Murray Schafer was born in Sarnia and developed his radical schizophonia techniques there . Musicians and groups such as Aerosmith , KISS , Keith Urban , John Bon Jovi and Rascal Flatts have played at Sarnia Bayfest in the past . The Sarnia Bayfest , which was preceded by the " Festival by the Bay , " is an annual concert festival that features big @-@ name rock and country bands , typically during the second or third weekend of July . 2013 would have marked the fifteenth anniversary of the annual festival , but financial problems caused the event 's cancellation . Prior to December 2013 , organizers stated that it is " not the end " and that they planned on coming back on solid financial footing sometime in the future . As of December 2013 , however , Bayfest organizers indicated they planned on merging with the International Powerboat Festival for a joint event in 2015 . Besides the single museum in Sarnia proper , six other museums in the local area document Sarnia 's history , including its legacy as the home of the North American Oil Industry . Gallery Lambton offers 12 annual art exhibitions . In 2012 the Judith and Norman Alex Art Gallery opened . It is an international Category A art gallery . During the Christmas season , the city of Sarnia presents the annual " Celebration of Lights " in Centennial Park . The event was created in 1984 by Dr. Wills Rawana and a committee funded by the retail chain Hudson 's Bay , and the national telecommunications company Telus . From modest beginnings the event has garnered numerous awards as it has grown , including second place in the 2002 Canadian Government 's Canada WinterLights competition . The Celebration , was incorporated in its national prizewinning year and is now run by a voluntary Board of Directors . = = Attractions = = There are over 100 parks in Sarnia , the largest being Canatara Park , which covers over 200 acres along the shore of Lake Huron . Canatara is an Ojibwe word that means Blue Water . The park was opened 24 May 1933 . Within the park is Lake Chipican , a haven for 280 different species of birds on their migration routes . The park also maintains a Children 's Animal Farm as part of Sarnia 's commitment to wildlife . The annual " Christmas on the Farm " weekend event held at the Farm in early December is a popular community event enjoyed by families . Canatara Park is one of the first parks in southern Ontario to feature an outdoor fitness equipment installation . The largest recreational park in Sarnia is Germain Park , which incorporates five baseball diamonds , four soccer fields , an outdoor pool , and the Community Gardens . As a memorial to Canadian aviators who gave their lives in World War II , one of the remaining Canadair Sabres in Canada is on display in the park , Centennial Park was opened on Dominion Day in 1967 , as part of Canada 's centenary celebrations . The City of Sarnia decided in 2013 to close much of Centennial Park , after the discovery of toxic lead and asbestos in the soil . Sarnia has one remaining museum within its city limits : " Stones ' N Bones " , which houses over 6 @,@ 000 exhibits . The collection includes rocks , artifacts , fossils , and bones from all over the world . A previous museum , the Discovery House Museum , has been converted into to a hospice . This historic house , built between 1869 and 1875 , is recognised as a testament to Victorian Era construction . The city 's sandy fresh water beaches are a popular tourist attraction , while the sheltered harbour houses marinas for recreational sailing . Since 1925 , the 400 km ( 250 mi ) Mackinac race from Sarnia / Port Huron to Mackinac Island at the north end of the lake has been the highlight of the sailing season , drawing more than 3 @,@ 000 sailors each year . Sarnia 's fresh @-@ cut fries are another popular tourist attraction , and thousands of visitors annually visit the chip trucks parked under the Blue Water Bridge . Niagara @-@ based cookbook author and food e @-@ magazine publisher Lynn Ogryzlo visited the chip trucks in August 2012 and stated " I was blown away by Sarnia , " not only by the city 's waterfront , where the chip trucks are located , but also by the chip trucks themselves . She also published an article in her e @-@ magazine , The Ontario Table , recognizing the outstanding quality of the fresh @-@ cut fries . Guelph @-@ based travel writer Pat Brennan also recognized the quality of Sarnia 's fries in his 2007 piece " Sarnia Boasts Best Fries in the World . " In 2012 , Sarnia officials even created a special detour to reach the chip trucks during a period of construction . Realizing the popularity of Sarnia 's chip trucks , the Ontario Medical Association includes them in a campaign to have fries and other junk food labelled for being dangerous in the same manner as cigarettes . = = Sports = = Sarnia is home to the Sarnia Sting , a junior ice hockey team in the Ontario Hockey League . Dino Ciccarelli , a former NHL player , was a part owner of the team . Former Sting player Steven Stamkos was selected first overall in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft by the Tampa Bay Lightning , and was followed by Nail Yakupov in 2012 . Sarnia is also home to the Sarnia Legionnaires ice hockey team , which plays in the Greater Ontario Junior Hockey League . The team is successor to the Sarnia Legionnaires ( 1954 – 1970 ) , who won five Western Jr . ' B ' championships and four Sutherland Cups during 16 seasons in the Ontario Hockey Association . Sarnia has a successful tradition in Canadian football . As members of the Ontario Rugby Football Union , the local team Sarnia Imperials twice won the Grey Cup , in 1934 and 1936 . The modern Sarnia Imperials are a semi @-@ professional team playing in the Northern Football Conference . The Sarnia @-@ born world champion curler Steve Bice played as alternate for the Glenn Howard rink in the 2007 Tim Hortons Brier and 2007 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship , winning both times . = = Government = = Sarnia City Council consists of nine elected members : the Mayor , four members from the city , and four members from the county . The Mayor and all Council members are elected to four @-@ year terms . The four Lambton County Council members serve both County and City Council . The current mayor , Mike Bradley , has held the position since December 1988 and is currently the second longest @-@ serving mayor in the province of Ontario behind Milton 's Gord Krantz . Past mayors of the city have included Andy Brandt , Marceil Saddy , Paul Blundy , Thomas George Johnston , and Alexander Mackenzie , the second Prime Minister of Canada . At the provincial level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton provincial electoral district , represented in 2013 by Bob Bailey , a member of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario . At the federal level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton federal electoral district which in 2013 was represented by Patricia Davidson of the Conservative Party of Canada . Over the past 50 years , Sarnia 's voters have been moderate , and the party affiliation of its Members of Parliament , both provincial and federal , has swung back and forth largely between the Liberal and Progressive Conservative parties ( a New Democrat was elected in their 1990 provincial wave ) . = = Education = = The Lambton Kent District School Board is responsible for the 13 elementary and four secondary public schools ( Northern Collegiate Institute and Vocational School , Alexander MacKenzie Secondary School , Sarnia Collegiate Institute & Technical School , and St. Clair Secondary School ) located within Sarnia 's boundaries . The St. Clair Catholic District School Board is responsible for the city 's seven elementary and two secondary Catholic schools ( St. Christopher 's and St. Patrick 's ) . In 2014 , St. Patrick 's and St. Christopher 's merged , under the St. Patrick 's name , on St. Christopher 's North Sarnia site . The Conseil scolaire catholique de Providence ( CSC Providence ) represents the two French Catholic schools in the city , Saint @-@ François @-@ Xavier and Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ d 'Aquin , while the Conseil scolaire Viamonde operates two French public schools , the elementary École Les Rapides and the secondary École Secondaire Franco @-@ Jeunesse . There are also two independent Christian elementary schools in Sarnia — Sarnia Christian School and Temple Christian Academy . Lambton College , which offers two @-@ year programs and diplomas , is one of Ontario 's 21 colleges of applied arts and technology . It has a full @-@ time enrolment of 3 @,@ 500 and a part @-@ time enrolment of about 8 @,@ 000 . It is the city 's only post @-@ secondary school . = = Media = = There are four radio stations that originate from Sarnia , although other stations rebroadcast their signal there , notably CKTI @-@ FM , a First Nations produced station from Kettle Point , and CBEG @-@ FM and CBEF @-@ 3 @-@ FM , simulcasts of CBC Radio One and Ici Radio @-@ Canada Première , respectively , from Windsor , Ontario . CHOK , country / news / sports CFGX @-@ FM The Fox , adult contemporary CHOK @-@ 1 @-@ FM ( rebroadcaster of CHOK AM ) CHKS @-@ FM , active rock Sarnia does not have a network television station of its own , although it has a community channel on Cogeco , which is the cable television provider in Sarnia . Cable systems pipe in stations from Kitchener and Toronto . The city 's main daily newspaper is the Sarnia Observer , owned by Postmedia , which purchased Sun Media in 2014 for $ 316 million . A weekly newspaper called the Sarnia Journal began distribution in March 2014 . It is distributed to 30 @,@ 000 households in Sarnia , Bright ’ s Grove , Point Edward and Corunna . The community publications Sarnia This Week , Lambton County Smart Shopper and Business Trends are owned by Bowes Publishing . The monthly business oriented newspaper First Monday is owned by Huron Web Printing and Graphics . Lambton Shield Publishing has been in operation since November 2010 and runs an on @-@ line only news website , lambtonshield.com , delivering local news and services to the Sarnia @-@ Lambton area . There are two magazines currently published in Sarnia , Business Trends and Report on Industry . Business Trends is distributed through City Hall and Report on Industry is sent to executives in surrounding businesses . Report on Industry articles are available online . = = Notable people = = Among Sarnia 's distinguished residents are retired Canadian Space Agency astronaut Chris Hadfield , who flew on two NASA Space Shuttle missions and served as the first Canadian commander of the International Space Station during Expedition 35 . The Nobel laureate George Andrew Olah moved to Sarnia from his native Hungary to join Dow Chemical in 1957 . James Doohan , the well @-@ known Star Trek actor , attended high school in Sarnia . Harmonica virtuoso Mike Stevens still lives in Sarnia and tours all over the world ; he is also notable for his extensive work with aboriginal youth . Many notable Sarnians are athletes and others associated with sports , such as NHL Hall of Famer Dino Ciccarelli , former NHL star Pat Verbeek , retired NHL referee Kerry Fraser , current NHL star Steven Stamkos , champion curler Steve Bice , and golfer Mike Weir , who was the 2003 Masters Champion . Dominique Pegg , a Sarnia gymnast , won a bronze medal in Floor Exercise , at the World Cup event in Cottbus in March 2012 . The Honourable Alexander Mackenzie , second Prime Minister of Canada , was buried at Lakeview Cemetery , Sarnia , where a monument has been erected . The 1910s – 1930s actress Marie Prevost was also born there . Katherine Ryan , comedian , writer , presenter and actress , was born in Sarnia in 1983 she now resides in London , England .

= French cruiser Sully = The French cruiser Sully was an armored cruiser of the Gloire class that was built for the French Navy in the early 1900s . She was named in honor of Maximilien de Béthune , Duke of Sully , trusted minister of King Henry IV . The ship struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay , French Indochina in 1905 , only eight months after she was completed , and was a total loss . = = Design and description = = The Gloire @-@ class ships were designed as enlarged and improved versions of the Gueydon @-@ class armored cruisers by Emile Bertin . Her crew numbered 612 officers and men . The ship measured 139 @.@ 8 meters ( 458 ft 8 in ) overall , with a beam of 20 @.@ 2 meters ( 66 ft 3 in ) . Sully had a draft of 7 @.@ 7 meters ( 25 ft 3 in ) and displaced 10 @,@ 014 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 856 long tons ) . Sully had three propeller shafts , each powered by one vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engine , which were rated at a total of 20 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 300 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her engines . She had a designed speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 590 long tons ( 1 @,@ 620 t ) of coal and could steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Sully 's main armament consisted of two 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in single gun turrets fore and aft . Her intermediate armament was eight 45 @-@ caliber Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns . Four of these were in single gun turrets on the sides of the ship and the other four were in casemates . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried six 45 @-@ caliber 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in casemates and eighteen 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with five 450 @-@ millimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes ; two of these were submerged and the others were above water . The waterline armored belt of the Gloire @-@ class ships was 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 106 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) towards the bow and stern . Above the main belt was another belt , 127 millimeters ( 5 in ) thick that also tapered to 106 mm at the ends of the ship . The conning tower had armored sides 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The main gun turrets were protected by 173 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) of armor and the intermediate turrets by 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The flat part of the lower armored deck was 45 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) , but increased to 64 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) as it sloped down to the sides of the ship . = = Service = = Sully was laid down at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne on 24 May 1899 and launched on 4 June 1901 . The ship was completed in June 1904 and sent to French Indochina for her first commission . On 7 February 1905 Sully struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay ; her crew was not injured . Her guns and equipment were salvaged , but the ship broke in two and was abandoned as a total loss .

= Norman Finkelstein = Norman Gary Finkelstein ( born December 8 , 1953 ) is an American political scientist , activist , professor , and author . His primary fields of research are the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and the politics of the Holocaust , an interest motivated by the experiences of his parents who were Jewish Holocaust survivors . He is a graduate of Binghamton University and received his Ph.D in political science at Princeton University . He has held faculty positions at Brooklyn College , Rutgers University , Hunter College , New York University , and DePaul University where he was an assistant professor from 2001 to 2007 . In 2007 , after a highly publicized feud between Finkelstein and an academic opponent , Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein 's tenure bid at DePaul was denied . Finkelstein was placed on administrative leave for the 2007 – 2008 academic year , and on September 5 , 2007 , he announced his resignation after coming to a settlement with the university on generally undisclosed terms . An official statement from DePaul strongly defended the decision to deny Finkelstein tenure , stated that outside influence played no role in the decision . In 2008 , he was banned from entering Israel for 10 years . Finkelstein taught at Sakarya University Middle East Institute in Turkey between 2014 and 2015 . = = Personal background and education = = Finkelstein has written of his Jewish parents ' experiences during World War II . His mother , Maryla Husyt , grew up in Warsaw , survived the Warsaw Ghetto , the Majdanek concentration camp , and two slave labor camps . Her first husband died in the war . She considered the day of her liberation as the most horrible day of her life , as she realized that she was alone , her parents and siblings gone . Norman 's father , Zacharias Finkelstein , active in Hashomer Hatzair , was a survivor of both the Warsaw Ghetto and the Auschwitz concentration camp . After the war they met in a displaced persons camp in Linz , Austria , and then emigrated to the United States , where his father became a factory worker and his mother a homemaker and later a bookkeeper . Finkelstein 's mother was an ardent pacifist . Both his parents died in 1995 . Of his parents , Finkelstein has recalled that " they saw the world through the prism of the Nazi Holocaust . They were eternally indebted to the Soviet Union ( to whom they attributed the defeat of the Nazis ) , and so anyone who was anti @-@ Soviet they were extremely harsh on " . They supported the Soviet Union 's approval of the creation of the State of Israel , as enunciated by Gromyko , who stated that the Jews had earned the right to a state , but thought that Israel had sold its soul to the West and " refused to have any truck with it " . Finkelstein grew up in Borough Park , then Mill Basin , both in Brooklyn , New York , where he attended James Madison High School . In his memoir , Finkelstein recalls his strong youthful identification with the outrage that his mother , witness to the genocidal atrocities of World War II , felt at the carnage wrought by the United States in Vietnam . One childhood friend recalls his mother 's " emotional investment in left @-@ wing humanitarian causes as bordering on hysteria " . He had " internalized [ her ] indignation " , a trait which he admits rendered him " insufferable " when talking of the Vietnam War , and which imbued him with a " holier @-@ than @-@ thou " attitude at the time which he now regrets . But Finkelstein regards his absorption of his mother 's outlook — the refusal to put aside a sense of moral outrage in order to get on with one 's life — as a virtue . Subsequently , his reading of Noam Chomsky played an important role in tailoring the passion bequeathed to him by his mother to the necessity of maintaining intellectual rigor . Finkelstein completed his undergraduate studies at Binghamton University in New York in 1974 , after which he studied at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris . A deep admirer of Paul Sweezy , he was an ardent Maoist and was devastated by the news of the trial of the Gang of Four , an event which " totally devastated " him , and led him to abandon Marxism – Leninism . Finkelstein received his Master 's degree in political science in 1980 , and later his PhD in political studies , from Princeton . His doctoral thesis was on Zionism . Before gaining academic employment , Finkelstein was a part @-@ time social worker with teenage dropouts in New York . He then taught successively at Rutgers University , New York University , Brooklyn College , and Hunter College and at DePaul University in Chicago . During the First Intifada , he spent every summer from 1988 in the West Bank , a guest of Palestinian families in Hebron and Beit Sahour . According to The New York Times , Finkelstein left Hunter College in 2001 , " after his teaching load and salary were reduced " by the college administration . In his own recollection , he enjoyed teaching at Hunter ( 1992 – 2000 ) and was ' unceremoniously kicked out of ' the school after begging them to keep him on with just two courses a semester ( $ 12 @,@ 000 a year ) . Hunter set conditions that would have required him to spend four days a week , which he thought unacceptable . Beginning with his doctoral thesis at Princeton , Finkelstein 's career has been marked by controversy . A self @-@ described " forensic scholar " , he has written sharply critical academic reviews of several prominent writers and scholars whom he accuses of misrepresenting the documentary record in order to defend Israel 's policies and practices . His writings have dealt with politically charged topics such as Zionism , the demographic history of Palestine and his allegations of the existence of a " Holocaust Industry " that exploits the memory of the Holocaust to further Israeli and financial interests . Citing linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky as an example , Finkelstein notes that it is " possible to unite exacting scholarly rigor with scathing moral outrage , " and supporters and detractors alike have remarked on the polemical style of Finkelstein 's work . Its content has been praised by eminent historians such as Raul Hilberg and Avi Shlaim , as well as Chomsky . Finkelstein has described himself as " an old @-@ fashioned communist , " in the sense that he " see [ s ] no value whatsoever in states . " = = Academic career = = = = = On From Time Immemorial = = = In Finkelstein 's doctoral thesis , he examined the claims made in Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial , a best @-@ selling book at the time . Peters 's " history and defense " of Israel deals with the demographic history of Palestine . Demographic studies had tended to assert that the Arab population of Ottoman @-@ controlled Palestine , a 94 % majority at the turn of the century , had dwindled towards parity due to massive Zionist immigration . Peters radically challenged this picture by arguing that a substantial part of the Palestinian people were descended from immigrants from other Arab countries from the early 19th century onwards . It followed , for Peters and many of her readers , that the picture of a native Palestinian population overwhelmed by Jewish immigration was little more than propaganda , and that in actuality two almost simultaneous waves of immigration met in what had been a relatively unpopulated land . From Time Immemorial had been praised by figures as varied as Barbara Tuchman , Theodore H. White , Elie Wiesel , and Lucy Dawidowicz . Saul Bellow , for one , wrote in a jacket endorsement that : " Millions of people the world over , smothered by false history and propaganda , will be grateful for this clear account of the origins of the Palestinians . " Finkelstein asserted that the book was a " monumental hoax " . He later opined that , while Peters 's book received widespread interest and approval in the United States , a scholarly demonstration of its fraudulence and unreliability aroused little attention : " By the end of 1984 , From Time Immemorial had ... received some two hundred [ favorable ] notices ... in the United States . The only ' false ' notes in this crescendoing chorus of praise were the Journal of Palestine Studies , which ran a highly critical review by Bill Farrell ; the small Chicago @-@ based newsweekly In These Times , which published a condensed version of this writer 's findings ; and Alexander Cockburn , who devoted a series of columns in The Nation exposing the hoax . ... The periodicals in which From Time Immemorial had already been favorably reviewed refused to run any critical correspondence ( e.g. The New Republic , The Atlantic Monthly , Commentary ) . Periodicals that had yet to review the book rejected a manuscript on the subject as of little or no consequence ( e.g. The Village Voice , Dissent , The New York Review of Books ) . Not a single national newspaper or columnist contacted found newsworthy that a best @-@ selling , effusively praised ' study ' of the Middle East conflict was a threadbare hoax . " Noam Chomsky later reminisced : " I warned him , if you follow this , you 're going to get in trouble — because you 're going to expose the American intellectual community as a gang of frauds , and they are not going to like it , and they 're going to destroy you . " In 1986 , the New York Review of Books published Yehoshua Porath 's review and an exchange with critics of the review in which he criticized the assumptions and evidence on which Peters 's thesis relied , thus lending independent support from an expert in Palestinian demographics to Finkelstein 's doctoral critique . In the house journal of the American Council on Foreign Relations , Foreign Affairs , William B. Quandt , the Edward Stettinius professor of Politics at the University of Virginia and authority on Middle Eastern politics , later described Finkelstein 's critique of From Time Immemorial as a " landmark essay " and a " victory to his credit " , in its " demonstration " of the " shoddy scholarship " of Peters ' book . Israeli historian Avi Shlaim later praised Finkelstein 's thesis , saying that it had established his credentials when he was still a doctoral student . In Shlaim 's view , Finkelstein had produced an " unanswerable case " with " irrefutable evidence " , proving that Peters ' book was both " preposterous and worthless " . According to Noam Chomsky , the controversy that surrounded Finkelstein 's research caused a delay in his earning his Ph.D. at Princeton University . Chomsky wrote in Understanding Power that Finkelstein " literally could not get the faculty to read [ his dissertation ] " and that Princeton eventually granted Finkelstein his doctorate only " out of embarrassment [ for Princeton ] " but refused to give him any further professional backing . Finkelstein published portions of his thesis in the following publications : " Disinformation and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial " , Chapter 2 of Blaming the Victims : Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question ( 1988 ) ; and " A Land Without a People ( Joan Peters ' " Wilderness " Image ) " , Chapter 2 of Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict ( 1995 ) . = = = The Holocaust Industry = = = The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering was published in 2000 . Here , Finkelstein argues that Elie Wiesel and others exploit the memory of the Holocaust as an " ideological weapon . " The purpose , writes Finkelstein , is to enable the State of Israel , " one of the world 's most formidable military powers , with a horrendous human rights record , [ to ] cast itself as a victim state ; " that is , to provide Israel " immunity to criticism . " He alleges what he calls a " double shakedown " by " a repellent gang of plutocrats , hoodlums and hucksters " seeking enormous legal damages and financial settlements from Germany and Switzerland , moneys which then go to the lawyers and institutional actors involved in procuring them , rather than actual Holocaust survivors . The book received a hostile reception in some quarters , with critics charging that it was poorly researched and / or allowed others to exploit it for antisemitic purposes . The German historian Hans Mommsen disparaged the first edition as " a most trivial book , which appeals to easily aroused anti @-@ Semitic prejudices " . Israeli Holocaust historian Israel Gutman called the book " a lampoon " , stating " this is not research ; it isn 't even political literature ... I don 't even think it should be reviewed or critiqued as a legitimate book . " The book was also harshly criticized by Brown University Professor Omer Bartov and University of Chicago Professor Peter Novick . However , preeminent Holocaust scholar Raul Hilberg said the book expressed views Hilberg himself subscribed to in substance , in that he too found the exploitation of the Holocaust , as Finkelstein describes , " detestable " . Asked on another occasion if Finkelstein 's analysis might play into the hands of neo @-@ Nazis for antisemitic purposes , Hilberg replied : " Well , even if they do use it in that fashion , I 'm afraid that when it comes to the truth , it has to be said openly , without regard to any consequences that would be undesirable , embarrassing " . Other critics claim Finkelstein 's evidence is highly selective and / or dubious and that his arguments would be based on a misinterpretation of history and a questionable use of sources . The historian David Cesarani wrote that while Finkelstein absolves Swiss banks of serious misconduct towards Holocaust survivors and depicts them as victims of a Jewish terror based on a sentence from an important report annex , he had ignored the report body which describes deceitful actions by Swiss banks , inappropriate closing of accounts , failure to keep adequate records , and so on . = = = Criticism of Alan Dershowitz 's The Case for Israel = = = Shortly after the publication of the book The Case for Israel by Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein derided it as " a collection of fraud , falsification , plagiarism , and nonsense " . During a debate on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein asserted that Dershowitz lacked knowledge about specific contents of his own book . He also claimed that Dershowitz did not write the book , and may not have even read it . Finkelstein noted 20 instances , in as many pages , where Dershowitz 's book cites the same sources and passages used by Joan Peters in her book , in largely the same sequence , with ellipses in the same places . In two instances , Dershowitz reproduces Peters 's errors ( see below ) . From this Finkelstein concluded that Dershowitz had not checked the original sources himself , contrary to the latter 's claims . Finkelstein suggests that this copying of quotations amounts to copying ideas . Examining a copy of a proof of Dershowitz 's book he managed to obtain , he found evidence that Dershowitz had his secretarial assistant , Holly Beth Billington , check in the Harvard library the sources he had read in Peters 's book . Dershowitz answered the charge in a letter to the University of California 's Press Director Lynne Withey , arguing that Finkelstein had made up the smoking gun quotation , in that he had changed its wording ( from ' cite ' to ' copy ' ) in his book . In public debate he has stated that if " somebody borrowed the quote without going to check back on whether Mark Twain had said that , obviously that would be a serious charge " ; however , he insisted emphatically that he himself did not do that , that he had indeed checked the original source by Twain . Dershowitz threatened libel action over the charges in Finkelstein 's book , as a consequence of which , the publisher deleted the word " plagiarism " from the text before publication . Finkelstein agreed to remove the suggestion that Dershowitz was not the true author of The Case for Israel because , as the publisher said , " he couldn 't document that " . Asserting that he did consult the original sources , Dershowitz said Finkelstein is simply accusing him of good scholarly practice : citing references he learned of initially from Peters 's book . Dershowitz denies that he used any of Peters 's ideas without citation . " Plagiarism is taking someone else 's words and claiming they 're your own . There are no borrowed words from anybody . There are no borrowed ideas from anybody because I fundamentally disagree with the conclusions of Peters 's book . " In a footnote in The Case for Israel which cites Peters 's book , Dershowitz explicitly denies that he " relies " on Peters for " conclusions or data " . In their joint interview on Democracy Now , however , Finkelstein cited specific passages in Dershowitz 's book in which a phrase that he says Peters coined was incorrectly attributed to George Orwell : " [ Peters ] coins the phrase , ' turnspeak ' , she says she 's using it as a play off of George Orwell which as all listeners know used the phrase ' Newspeak . ' She coined her own phrase , ' turnspeak ' . You go to Mr. Dershowitz 's book , he got so confused in his massive borrowings from Joan Peters that on two occasions , I 'll cite them for those who have a copy of the book , on page 57 and on page 153 he uses the phrase , quote , George Orwell 's ' turnspeak ' . ' Turnspeak ' is not Orwell , Mr. Dershowitz , you 're the Felix Frankfurter chair at Harvard , you must know that Orwell would never use such a clunky phrase as ' turnspeak ' " . James O. Freedman , the former president of Dartmouth College , the University of Iowa , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , has defended Dershowitz : I do not understand [ Finkelstein 's ] charge of plagiarism against Alan Dershowitz . There is no claim that Dershowitz used the words of others without attribution . When he uses the words of others , he quotes them properly and generally cites them to the original sources ( Mark Twain , Palestine Royal Commission , etc . ) [ Finkelstein 's ] complaint is that instead he should have cited them to the secondary source , in which Dershowitz may have come upon them . But as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : ' Importance of attribution . With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This not only bolsters the claims of fair use , it also helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism . ' This is precisely what Dershowitz did . Responding to an article in The Nation by Alexander Cockburn , Dershowitz also cited The Chicago Manual of Style : Cockburn 's claim is that some of the quotes should not have been cited to their original sources but rather to a secondary source , where he believes I stumbled upon them . Even if he were correct that I found all these quotations in Peters 's book , the preferred method of citation is to the original source , as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : " With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This ... helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism ... To cite a source from a secondary source ( ' quoted in ... ' ) is generally to be discouraged .... " ... to which Cockburn responded : Quoting The Chicago Manual of Style , Dershowitz artfully implies that he followed the rules by citing " the original " as opposed to the secondary source , Peters . He misrepresents Chicago here , where " the original " means merely the origin of the borrowed material , which is , in this instance , Peters . Now look at the second bit of the quote from Chicago , chastely separated from the preceding sentence by a demure three @-@ point ellipsis . As my associate Kate Levin has discovered , this passage ( " To cite a source from a secondary source ... " ) occurs on page 727 , which is no less than 590 pages later than the material before the ellipsis , in a section titled " Citations Taken from Secondary Sources . " Here 's the full quote , with what Dershowitz left out set in bold : " ' Quoted in ' . To cite a source from a secondary source ( " quoted in " ) is generally to be discouraged , since authors are expected to have examined the works they cite . If an original source is unavailable , however , both the original and the secondary source must be listed . " So Chicago is clearly insisting that unless Dershowitz went to the originals , he was obliged to cite Peters . Finkelstein has conclusively demonstrated that he didn 't go to the originals . Plagiarism , QED , plus added time for willful distortion of the language of Chicago 's guidelines , cobbling together two separate discussions . On behalf of Dershowitz , Harvard Law School dean Elena Kagan asked former Harvard president Derek Bok to investigate the assertion of plagiarism ; Bok exonerated Dershowitz of the charge . In an April 3 , 2007 interview with the Harvard Crimson , " Dershowitz confirmed that he had sent a letter last September to DePaul faculty members lobbying against Finkelstein 's tenure . " In April 2007 , Dr. Frank Menetrez , a former Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of the UCLA Law Review , published an analysis of the charges made against Finkelstein by Dershowitz , finding no merit in any single charge and concluding that Dershowitz had misrepresented matters . In a follow @-@ up analysis he concluded that he could find ' no way of avoiding the inference that Dershowitz copied the quotation from Twain from Peters 's From Time Immemorial , and not from the original source ' , as Dershowitz claimed . In an interview given for the film American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein in 2009 , Dershowitz said of Finkelstein : " I don 't think he is a Jew . He 's Jewish only on his parents ' side . " = = Controversies = = = = = Tenure denial and resignation = = = In September 2006 , Dershowitz sent members of DePaul 's law and political science faculties what he described as " a dossier of Norman Finkelstein 's most egregious academic sins , and especially his outright lies , misquotations , and distortions " and lobbied professors , alumni and administrators to deny Finkelstein tenure . De Paul 's political science committee investigated his accusations against Finkelstein and concluded that they were not based on legitimate criticism . The department subsequently invited John Mearsheimer and Ian Lustick , two independent academics with known expertise on the Israel – Palestine conflict , to evaluate the academic merit of Finkelstein 's work ; they came to the same conclusion . Also in 2006 , the Washington Post noted " the ADL repeatedly accused " Norman Finkelstein of being a " Holocaust denier " and that " These charges have proved baseless . " Finkelstein 's mother survived the Majdanek concentration camp , his father survived the Auschwitz concentration camp , and most of his family died in the Holocaust In early 2007 , the DePaul Political Science Department voted nine to three , and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Personnel Committee five to zero , in favor of giving Finkelstein tenure . The three opposing faculty members subsequently filed a minority report opposing tenure , supported by the Dean of the College , Chuck Suchar . Suchar stated he opposed tenure because Finkelstein 's " personal and reputation demeaning attacks on Dershowitz , Benny Morris , and the holocaust authors Elie Wiesel and Jerzy Kosinski " were inconsistent with DePaul 's " Vincentian " values ; as examples of the latter , Suchar argued that Finkelstein lacked respect for " the dignity of the individual " and for " the rights of others to hold and express different intellectual positions " . Amidst considerable public debate , Dershowitz actively campaigned to block Finkelstein 's tenure bid . In June 2007 , a 4 – 3 vote by DePaul University 's Board on Promotion and Tenure ( a faculty board ) , affirmed by the university 's president , the Rev. Dennis Holtschneider , denied Finkelstein tenure . The university denied that Dershowitz , who had been criticized for his campaign against Finkelstein 's tenure , played any part in this decision . At the same time , the university denied tenure to international studies assistant professor Mehrene Larudee , a strong supporter of Finkelstein , despite unanimous support from her department , the Personnel Committee and the dean . Finkelstein stated that he would engage in civil disobedience if attempts were made to bar him from teaching his students . The Faculty Council later affirmed the right of Professors Finkelstein and Larudee to appeal , which a university lawyer said was not possible . Council President Anne Bartlett said she was " ' terribly concerned ' correct procedure was not followed " . DePaul 's faculty association considered taking no @-@ confidence votes on administrators , including the president , because of the tenure denials . In a statement issued upon Finkelstein 's resignation , DePaul called him " a prolific scholar and an outstanding teacher " . Dershowitz expressed outrage at the compromise and this statement in particular , saying that the university had " traded truth for peace " . In June 2007 , after two weeks of protests , some DePaul students staged a sit @-@ in and hunger strike in support of both professors denied tenure . The Illinois Conference of the American Association of University Professors also sent a letter to the university 's president stating : " It is entirely illegitimate for a university to deny tenure to a professor out of fear that his published research ... might hurt a college 's reputation " and that the association has " explicitly rejected collegiality as an appropriate criterion for evaluating faculty members " . In a 2014 interview , professor Matthew Abraham , author of Out of Bounds : Academic Freedom and the Question of Palestine , described the Finkelstein tenure case as " one of the most significant academic freedom cases in the last fifty years " , claiming the case demonstrated " the substantial pressure outside parties can place on a mid @-@ tier religious institution when the perspectives advanced by a controversial scholar threaten dominant interests " . = = = Denied entry to Israel in 2008 = = = On May 23 , 2008 , Finkelstein was denied entry to Israel , according to unnamed Shin Bet security officials , because " of suspicions involving hostile elements in Lebanon " and that he " did not give a full accounting to interrogators with regard to these suspicions . " Finkelstein had previously visited south Lebanon and met with Lebanese families during the 2006 Lebanon War . He was banned from entering Israel for 10 years . Finkelstein was questioned after his arrival at Ben Gurion Airport near Tel Aviv and detained for 24 hours in a holding cell . After speaking to Israeli attorney Michael Sfard he was placed on a flight back to Amsterdam , his point of origin . In an interview with Haaretz , Finkelstein stated " I did my best to provide absolutely candid and comprehensive answers to all the questions put to me . I am confident that I have nothing to hide ... no suicide missions or secret rendezvous with terrorist organizations . " He had been travelling to visit friends in the West Bank and stated he had no interest in visiting Israel . Sfard said banning Finkelstein from entering the country " recalls the behavior of the Soviet bloc countries " . = = Reception = = Finkelstein 's books are an attempt to examine the works of mainstream scholarship . The authors whose work he has thus targeted , including Daniel Jonah Goldhagen and Dershowitz , along with others such as Benny Morris whose work Finkelstein has also cited in his scholarship , have in turn accused Finkelstein of grossly misrepresenting their work , and selectively quoting from their books . According to Raul Hilberg , Finkelstein displays " academic courage to speak the truth when no one else is out there to support him ... I would say that his place in the whole history of writing history is assured , and that those who in the end are proven right triumph , and he will be among those who will have triumphed , albeit , it so seems , at great cost . " In a peer review for Beyond Chutzpah , Avi Shlaim said that Finkelstein " has a most impressive track record in exposing spurious American @-@ Jewish scholarship on the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict . " He praised Finkelstein for " all the sterling qualities for which he has become famous : erudition , originality , spark , meticulous attention to detail , intellectual integrity , courage , and formidable forensic skills . " Sara Roy stated that her shared experience with Finkelstein as a child of Holocaust survivors engaged in research on the Palestinian @-@ Israeli conflict gave her a unique position to comment . According to Roy , Finkelstein 's scholarship is , " exceptional both for its brilliance and rigor . In the fields of Middle Eastern studies and political science his work is considered seminal and there is no doubt that both disciplines would be intellectually weaker without it . Norman 's power and value , however , do not emanate only from his scholarship but from his character . His life ’ s work , shaped largely but not entirely by his experience as a child of survivors has been and continues to be informed by a profound concern with human dignity and the danger of dehumanization . " The Israeli newspaper , Haaretz , stated that " [ i ] t is difficult to sympathize with Finkelstein 's opinions and preferences , especially since he decided to support Hezbollah , meet with its fighters and visit the graves of some of its slain operatives . " Still , it continued to say that he should not be banned from entering Israel , because " meetings with Hezbollah operatives do not in themselves constitute a security risk " . = = = 2009 film about Finkelstein = = = American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein is an award @-@ winning documentary film about the life and career of Norman Finkelstein , released in 2009 and directed by David Ridgen and Nicolas Rossier . It has been screened in Amsterdam IDFA , in Toronto Hot Docs and in more than 40 other national and international venues , it received a freshness rating of 100 % on film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes . The same year Finkelstein appeared in Defamation ( Hebrew : השמצה ; translit . Hashmatsa ) a documentary film by award @-@ winning Israeli filmmaker Yoav Shamir . = = = Criticism = = = Criticism has been leveled against Finkelstein from several angles . The first sources are responses from those whose work Finkelstein has discussed . Daniel Goldhagen , whose book Hitler 's Willing Executioners Finkelstein criticized , claimed his scholarship has " everything to do with his burning political agenda " . Alan Dershowitz has written that Peter Novick , Professor of History at the University of Chicago and a noted Holocaust historian whose work Finkelstein says inspired The Holocaust Industry , has strongly criticized the latter 's work , describing it as " trash " . Similarly , Dershowitz , whose book The Case for Israel and Finkelstein 's response Beyond Chutzpah sparked an ongoing feud between the two , has claimed Finkelstein 's complicity in a conspiracy against pro @-@ Israel scholars : " The mode of attack is consistent . Chomsky selects the target and directs Finkelstein to probe the writings in minute detail and conclude that the writer didn 't actually write the work , that it is plagiarized , that it is a hoax and a fraud , " arguing that Finkelstein has leveled charges against many academics , calling at least 10 " distinguished Jews ' hucksters ' , ' hoaxters ' ( sic ) , ' thieves ' , ' extortionists ' , and worse . " Although the back and forth between Finkelstein and Dershowitz received the most attention and attracted significant controversy , Finkelstein has maintained that " the real issue is Israel 's human rights record . " Israeli historian Omer Bartov , writing for The New York Times Book Review , judged The Holocaust Industry to be marred by the same errors he denounces in those who exploit the Holocaust for profit or politics : It is filled with precisely the kind of shrill hyperbole that Finkelstein rightly deplores in much of the current media hype over the Holocaust ; it is brimming with the same indifference to historical facts , inner contradictions , strident politics and dubious contextualizations ; and it oozes with the same smug sense of moral and intellectual superiority ... Like any conspiracy theory , it contains several grains of truth ; and like any such theory , it is both irrational and insidious . Finkelstein has accused journalist Jeffrey Goldberg of " torturing " or " being an accessory to torture of " Palestinian prisoners during his IDF service in the First Intifada , based on statements made in Goldberg 's book Prisoners . Finkelstein says that Goldberg admits to personally sending prisoners to the zinzana , which he says has been repeatedly condemned as torture in human rights reports . Goldberg referred to the allegation as " ridiculous " and he had " never laid a hand on anybody . " Goldberg said his " principal role " was " making sure prisoners had fresh fruit . " He characterized Finkelstein as a " ridiculous figure " and accused him of " lying and purposely misreading my book . " = = Statements on Israel = = Finkelstein is a sharp critic of the state of Israel . Discussing Finkelstein 's book Beyond Chutzpah , Israeli historian Avi Shlaim stated that Finkelstein 's critique of Israel " is based on an amazing amount of research . He seems to have read everything . He has gone through the reports of Israeli groups , of human rights groups , Human Rights Watch and Peace Now and B 'Tselem , all of the reports of Amnesty International . And he deploys all this evidence from Israeli and other sources in order to sustain his critique of Israeli practices , Israeli violations of human rights of the Palestinians , Israeli house demolitions , the targeted assassinations of Palestinian militants , the cutting down of trees , the building of the wall — the security barrier on the West Bank , which is illegal — the restrictions imposed on the Palestinians in the West Bank , and so on and so forth . I find his critique extremely detailed , well @-@ documented and accurate . " In a telephone interview with Today 's Zaman , in 2009 , Finkelstein stated : I think Israel , as a number of commentators pointed out , is becoming an insane state . And we have to be honest about that . While the rest of the world wants peace , Europe wants peace , the US wants peace , but this state wants war , war and war . In the first week of the massacres , there were reports in the Israeli press that Israel did not want to put all its ground forces in Gaza because it was preparing attacks on Iran . Then there were reports it was planning attacks on Lebanon . It is a lunatic state . When asked how he , as the son of Holocaust survivors , felt about Israel ’ s operation in Gaza , Finkelstein replied : It has been a long time since I felt any emotional connection with the state of Israel , which relentlessly and brutally and inhumanly keeps these vicious , murderous wars . It is a vandal state . There is a Russian writer who once described vandal states as Genghis Khan with a telegraph . Israel is Genghis Khan with a computer . I feel no emotion of affinity with that state . I have some good friends and their families there , and of course I would not want any of them to be hurt . That said , sometimes I feel that Israel has come out of the boils ( sic ) of the hell , a satanic state . The Anti @-@ Defamation League has described Finkelstein as an " obsessive anti @-@ Zionist " filled with " vitriolic hatred of Zionism and Israel . " On being called an anti @-@ Zionist Finkelstein has said : " It 's a superficial term . I am opposed to any state with an ethnic character , not only to Israel . " Finkelstein is an advocate of a two @-@ state solution to the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict . = = = Hezbollah and Hamas = = = Finkelstein has expressed solidarity with Hezbollah and Hamas with respect to defensive actions , alleging that Israel had invaded Lebanon as a signal of rejection when Hamas was seeking a diplomatic settlement with Israel . He also condemned what he said was Israel 's refusal " to abide by international law [ and ] to abide by the opinion of the international community " to settle the conflict . " I was of course happy to meet the Hizbullah people , because it is a point of view that is rarely heard in the United States . I have no problem saying that I do want to express solidarity with them , and I am not going to be a coward of ( sic ) a hypocrite about it . I don 't care about Hizbullah as a political organization . I don 't know much about their politics , and anyhow , it 's irrelevant . I don 't live in Lebanon . It 's a choice that the Lebanese have to make : Who they want to be their leaders , who they want to represent them . But there is a fundamental principle . People have the right to defend their country from foreign occupiers , and people have the right to defend their country from invaders who are destroying their country . That to me is a very basic , elementary and uncomplicated question . " While condemning the targeting of civilians to achieve a political goal , Finkelstein has stated he believes Hezbollah has the right to target Israeli civilians as long as " Israel persists in targeting [ Lebanese ] civilians until Israel ceases its terrorist acts . " Finkelstein claims that an equivalence exists between Hamas and the state of Israel in regards to the military policy of targeted killings during the Second Intifada . According to Finkelstein " the record shows that Israel has routinely targeted civilians for killing " and " Israel indiscriminately kills civilians " . He concludes that " the argument , among human rights organizations at any rate is that ... in effect , there ’ s no difference between indiscriminately killing civilians and targeting civilians . " Finkelstein argued one of Israel 's primary motivations for launching the 2008 offensive in Gaza was that Hamas was " signaling that it wanted a diplomatic settlement of the conflict along the June 1967 border . " Finkelstein believes Hamas had joined the international community in " seeking a diplomatic settlement " and describes Hamas 's stance towards Israel prior to the war as a " peace offensive . " = = Statements on the BDS movement = = Finkelstein had made many criticisms of the Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions Movement . Finkelstein stated that " I think the solidarity movement has the right tactics . I support the BDS . But I said it will never reach a broad public until and unless they are explicit on their goal . And their goal has to include recognition of Israel , otherwise it 's a nonstarter . " Elsewhere , he has stated that he supports a " lowercase " BDS , making the same point about tactics and goals . In February 2012 , The Jewish Chronicle in England stated that Finkelstein " launched a blistering attack " on the BDS movement , saying it was a " hypocritical , dishonest cult " , " [ l ] ike the Munchkin cult in Oz , " that tries to cleverly pose as human rights activists while in reality their goal is to destroy Israel . Finkelstein stated that the BDS movement has had very few successes , and that just like a cult , the leaders pretend that they are hugely successful when in reality the general public rejects their extreme views . In June 2012 , in an appearance on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein elaborated on his criticisms of the BDS movement : The problem as I see it with the BDS movement is not the tactic . Who could not support Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions ? Of course you should . And most of the human rights organizations , church organizations have moved in that direction . The problem is the goal . . . The official BDS movement , they claim to be agnostic , neutral — whatever term you want to use — on the question of Israel . You can ’ t reach a broad public if you are agnostic on the question of Israel . The broad public wants to know , where do you stand ? And if you claim not to have a stand , you lose them . The BDS movement , it always says , and I ’ m using their language , " We are a rights @-@ based organization . We are based in international law . " I agree with that . That ’ s where you have to go : rights @-@ based international law . But the international law is clear . You read the last sentence of the 2004 International Court of Justice opinion on the wall that Israel has been building in the West Bank , and the last sentence says , " We look forward to two states : a Palestinian state alongside Israel and at peace with its neighbors . " That 's the law . And if you want to go past that law or ignore the Israel part , you ’ ll never reach a broad public . And then it 's a cult . Then it ’ s pointless , in my opinion . We 're wasting time . And it 's only a wasting of time . It becomes — and I know it 's a strong word , and I hope I won 't be faulted for it , but it becomes historically criminal , because there was a time where whatever we said , it made no difference . Nobody was listening . You could shout whatever you want — who cares ? But now , actually , we can reach people . There is a possibility . I ’ m not saying a certainty . I 'm not even saying a probability . But there is a possibility that we can reach a broad public . And so , we have to be very careful about the words we use , and we have to be very careful about the political strategy we map out . Otherwise , we 're going to squander a real opportunity . And I don 't want to squander it . = = = Books = = = 2014 : Method and Madness : The Hidden Story of Israel 's Assaults on Gaza , OR Books , New York ( 2014 ) 2014 : Old Wine , Broken Bottle : Ari Shavit 's Promised Land , OR Books , New York ( 2014 ) 2012 : Knowing Too Much : Why the American Jewish Romance with Israel is Coming to an End , OR Books , New York ( 2012 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 77 @-@ 5 2012 : What Gandhi Says About Nonviolence , Resistance and Courage , OR Books , New York : 2012 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 79 @-@ 9 2011 : " Goldstone Recants . Richard Goldstone renews Israel 's license to kill " , OR Books , New York ( 2011 ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 51 @-@ 5 2010 : This Time We Went Too Far : Truth and Consequences of the Gaza Invasion . OR Books , New York : 2010 . [ 2 ] ; ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 43 @-@ 0 2005 : Beyond Chutzpah : On the Misuse of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History . University of California Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24598 @-@ 9 . 2nd updated Ed . , University of California Press . June 2008 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24989 @-@ 5 , contains an appendix written by Frank J. Menetrez , Dershowitz vs Finkelstein . Who 's Right and Who 's Wrong ? , pp. 363 – 94 @,@ 2000 : The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85984 @-@ 488 @-@ X. 1998 : A Nation on Trial : The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth ( co @-@ written with Ruth Bettina Birn ) , Henry Holt and Co . ; ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 5872 @-@ 9 . 1996 : The Rise and Fall of Palestine : A Personal Account of the Intifada Years . Minneapolis : U of Minnesota P , ISBN 0 @-@ 8166 @-@ 2859 @-@ 9 . 1995 : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85984 @-@ 442 @-@ 1 1987 : From the Jewish Question to the Jewish State : An Essay on the Theory of Zionism ( thesis ) , Princeton University . = = = Articles and chapters = = = " Disinformation and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peter 's ' From Time Immemorial . ' " in Blaming the Victims : Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question . Ed . Edward W. Said and Christopher Hitchens . Verso Press , 1988 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 86091 @-@ 887 @-@ 4 . Chapter Two , Part One : " Peace process or peace panic ? - The scourge of Palestinian moderation " , Middle East Report , 19 ( 1989 ) 3 / 158 , pp. 25 – 26 @,@ 28 @-@ 30 @,@ 42 " Zionist orientations " , Scandinavian Journal of Development Alternatives 9 ( March 1990 ) 1 @.@ p . 41 @-@ 69 " Bayt Sahur in year II of the intifada . - A personal account " , Journal of Palestine Studies 19 ( Winter 1990 ) 2 / 74 , pp. 62 – 74 " Israel and Iraq . - A double standard " , Journal of Palestine Studies 20 ( 1991 ) 2 / 78 @.@ pp. 43 – 56 " Reflections on Palestinian attitudes during the Gulf war " , Journal of Palestine Studies , 21 ( 1992 ) 3 / 83 , pp. 54 – 70 " Réflexions sur la responsabilité de l ´ État et du citoyen dans le conflit arabo @-@ israélien " ( Reflections on the responsibility of state and citizen in the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict ) , in L ' homme et la société , L 'Harmattan 1994 , 114 , S. 37 @-@ 50 " Whither the `peace process ' ? " , New Left Review , ( 1996 ) 218 , p . 138 " Securing occupation : The real meaning of the Wye River Memorandum " , New Left Review , ( 1998 ) 232 , pp. 128 – 39 Contributor to The Politics of Anti @-@ Semitism . Ed . Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair . AK Press , 2001 ; ISBN 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 77 @-@ 4 . " Lessons of Holocaust compensation " , in Palestinian Refugees : The Right of Return . Ed . Naseer Aruri . Pluto Press , 2001 , S. 272 @-@ 275 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 7453 @-@ 1776 @-@ 6 . " Abba Eban with Footnotes " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol 32 . ( 2003 ) , pp. 74 – 89 " Prospects for Ending the Occupation " , Antipode , 35 ( 2003 ) 5 , pp. 839 – 45 Contributor to Radicals , Rabbis and Peacemakers : Conversations with Jewish Critics of Israel , by Seth Farber . Common Courage Press , 2005 . ISBN 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 326 @-@ 3 . " The Camp David II negotiations . - how Dennis Ross proved the Palestinians aborted the peace process " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol . 36 ( 2007 ) , pp. 39 – 53 " Dennis Ross and the peace process : subordinating Palestinian rights to Israeli ' needs ' " , Institute for Palestine Studies , 2007 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 88728 @-@ 308 @-@ X = = Others on Finkelstein and his works = = = = = Academic reviews of books by Finkelstein = = = Massad , Joseph . " Deconstructing Holocaust Consciousness " , Review Essay , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 32 , No. 1 . ( Autumn , 2002 ) , pp. 78 – 89 . Cole , Tim . " Representing the Holocaust in America : Mixed Motives or Abuse ? " , The Public Historian , Vol . 24 , No. 4 . ( Fall , 2002 ) , pp. 127 – 31 Hooglund , Eric . Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 33 , No. 3 , Special Issue in Honor of Edward W. Said . ( Spring , 2004 ) , pp. 123 – 124 . Pelham , Nicolas . Reviewed Work : Image and Reality in the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict. by Norman G. Finkelstein , International Affairs , Vol . 72 , No. 3 , Ethnicity and International Relations . ( July 1996 ) , pp. 627 – 28 . Pappe , Ilan . " Valuable New Perspectives , " Reviewed Work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict. by Norman G. Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 26 , No. 4 . ( Summer , 1997 ) , pp. 113 – 15 . Beinin , Joel . " The Palestinian @-@ Israeli Conflict after Oslo " , Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman G. Finkelstein . Middle East Report , No. 201 , Israel and Palestine : Two States , Bantustans or Binationalism ? . ( Oct @-@ Dec 1996 ) , pp. 45 – 47 . = = = Reviews of books by Finkelstein = = = Blokker , Bas ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , NRC Handelsblad , February 24 , 2006 . Pappe , Ilan ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , BOOKFORUM ( February / March 2006 ) De Zayas , Alfred . Review of Beyond Chutzpah in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung ( February 3 , 2006 ) Merkley , Paul Charles . These Pigs on the Face of the Earth : Israel 's most relentless critic ( review of Beyond Chutzpah , in Christianity Today ( January / February 2006 ) Marqusee , Mike . " Israel , fraud and chutzpah " ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ; January 2006 ) Prashad , Vijay . Z magazine reviews Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah . Z Magazine November 2005 Volume 18 , Number 11 Gordon , Neve . Neve Gordon : Review of Norman Finkelstein 's , Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah : On the Misuse of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History , by Norman G. Finkelstein . History News Network , October 12 , 2005 Bogdanor , Paul . The Finkelstein Phenomenon ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , Judaism ( Fall 2002 ) Abse , Tobias . Finkelstein 's Follies : The Dangers of Vulgar Anti @-@ Zionism ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , whatnextjournal.co.uk ; accessed November 1 , 2015 Bartov , Omer . " A Tale of Two Holocausts " ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , New York Times Book Review , August 6 , 2000 = = = Profiles of Finkelstein = = = Garner , Mandy . " The Good Jewish Boys Go into Battle . " Times Higher Education Supplement 16 December 2005 . Naparstek , Ben . " His Own Worst Enemy . " The Jerusalem Post 12 December 2005 . Rayner , Jay . " Finkelstein 's List . " The Observer 16 July 2000 . Sheleg , Yair . " The Finkelstein Polemic . " Ha 'aretz 30 March 2001 . = = = Critics of Finkelstein and replies = = = Daniel Goldhagen , The New Discourse of Avoidance at the Wayback Machine ( archived December 4 , 2002 ) Norman Finkelstein , Response to Goldhagen William Rubinstein et al . , Uses of Holocaust , letters to the London Review of Books David Friedman , Anti @-@ Defamation League letter at the Wayback Machine , calling Finkelstein a " Holocaust denier " The Washington Post Publishes a Retraction : Marc Fisher , a Washington Post columnist , publishes a retraction of his charge of " Holocaust revisionism " , archive.org ; accessed November 1 , 2015 . = = = Video = = = Norman Finkelstein at the Internet Movie Database Eight Interviews with Finkelstein ( two sets of four ) , December 2014 and January 2015 , and Three More Interviews with Finkelstein , May 2015 , The Real News American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein - broadcast of the documentary in two parts Resolving the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict : University of British Columbia , Vancouver , Jan 21 , 2009 . Interview broadcast on Lebanese TV January 20 , 2008 VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - Israel and Palestine : Roots of Conflict , Prospects for Peace , presentation in Seattle , Washington , May 8 , 2008 . VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - The Coming Breakup of American Zionism , presentation in Olympia , Washington , May 8 , 2008 . VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein at Brown University on YouTube , April 15 , 2008 Doha Debate at the Oxford Union Video of debate on whether the " pro @-@ Israeli lobby has successfully stifled Western debate about Israel 's actions " with Andrew Cockburn , Martin Indyk , and David Aaronovitch , May 1 , 2007 Debate with Shlomo Ben @-@ Ami on Democracy Now ! , February 14 , 2006 Finkelstein Responds to Clinton , Netanyahu AIPAC Comments March 23 , 2010 Israel vs Palestine - featuring Norman Finkelstein ( April 2014 ) , Juice Rap News

= Mutinus elegans = Mutinus elegans , commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn , the dog stinkhorn , the headless stinkhorn , or the devil 's dipstick , is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae family . A saprobic species , it is typically found growing on the ground singly or in small groups on woody debris or leaf litter , during summer and autumn in Japan , Europe , and eastern North America . The fruit body begins its development in an " egg " form , resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground . As the fungus matures , a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip . The stalk is covered with a foul @-@ smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length . Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores , assisting in their dispersal . Due to their repellent odor , mature specimens are not generally considered edible , although there are reports of the immature " eggs " being consumed . In the laboratory , Mutinus elegans has been shown to inhibit the growth of several microorganisms that can be pathogenic to humans . = = Taxonomy = = Mutinus elegans was first described by British missionary John Banister in 1679 who chronicled the natural history of Virginia ; this early report is thought to be the first account of a fungus in North America . It was first characterized scientifically by French scientist Jean Pierre François Camille Montagne in 1856 , who called it Corynites elegans . The genus name Mutinus refers to a phallic deity , Mutinus Mutunus , one of the Roman di indigetes placated by Roman brides . The species is commonly known variously as the " elegant stinkhorn " , the " headless stinkhorn " , the " dog stinkhorn " , or the " devil 's dipstick " . The specific epithet elegans is derived from the Latin word meaning " graceful " or " elegant " . = = Description = = The young fruiting bodies are initially white and spherical or egg @-@ shaped , partially submerged in the ground , with dimensions of 2 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) by 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) . As the fruit body matures , the egg ruptures and the spongy spore @-@ bearing stalk emerges ; fully grown , it may be from 1 to 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The stalk is hollow and strongly wrinkled overall ; its shape is cylindrical below , but it gradually tapers to a narrow apex with a small opening at the tip . The upper half of the stalk is bright red to reddish orange , and the color gradually loses intensity transforming into pinkish white below . The stalk may be straight , or slightly curved . A gelatinous greenish @-@ brown gleba covers the upper third of the stalk in newly emerged specimens . The remains of the " egg " forms a volva around the base of the stalk . The odor of the gleba is foul ; one author describes it as " sickly sweet or metallic " . The spores are a greenish @-@ brown color . Fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by whitish rhizomorphs that resemble plant roots . American mycologist Smith noted that the eggs are often slow to open , sometimes taking up to two weeks before the stalk expands . The spores are 4 – 7 by 2 – 3 µm , oblong @-@ elliptical , smooth , and embedded in the gleba . A 1982 study revealed that spores of species in the Phallaceae family , including Mutinus elegans , have a hilar scar ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 µm diameter ) that is observable with scanning electron microscopy . The hilar scar is a circular indentation at one end of the spore , and it most likely results during the separation of the attachment of the spore to the sterigma of the basidium . = = = Edibility = = = The immature egg @-@ forms of Mutinus elegans are edible , but " not recommended " . One field guides notes that the eggs of the stinkhorn fungi " taste like the seasonings that are added to them . " The fetid odor of mature specimens would probably be repellent to most , although they are not considered poisonous . = = = Similar species = = = The " dog stinkhorn " ( Mutinus caninus ) is smaller , has a distinct oval or spindle @-@ shaped tip on a slender stem and lacks the bright coloring of M. elegans ; it has less of the stalk covered by gleba . The portion of the stalk below the spore mass is pitted in M. caninus , compared to " pebbly " in M. elegans . M. caninus is also less common than M. elegans . Mutinus bambusinus is similar in size and shape , except it does not have a distinct color demarcation between the upper and lower parts of the stalk ; instead , the entire stem shows red pigments . The stalk of M. ravenelii is less tapered than M. elegans , and it has a clearly differentiated swollen head . = = Habitat and distribution = = Mutinus elegans is saprobic — deriving nutrients by breaking down dead or dying organic matter . It is commonly found in gardens and farm areas enriched with manure , near well @-@ decayed stumps and logs , and in wood chips . A Japanese publication mentioned its occurrence in Takatsuki and Osaka @-@ fu , where it fruited in November and December on the ground along paths or in open spaces , under or near bamboo ( Phyllostachys bambusoides ) and hardwoods such as the Sawtooth Oak , the Japanese Zelkova , and the Camphor tree . This common species has been collected in eastern North America , in the area extending from Quebec to Florida and west to the Great Lakes , Iowa , and Texas . In Europe , it has been reported from Netherlands and in Asia , it has been collected in Japan . = = Antibiotic activity = = A study of 32 basidiomycete mushrooms showed that Mutinus elegans was the only species to show antibiotic ( both antibacterial and antifungal ) activity against all six microorganisms tested , namely , the human pathogenic bacteris Bacillus cereus , Bacillus subtilis , Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhimurium and the yeast Candida albicans .

= The Boat Race 1900 = The 57th Boat Race took place on 31 March 1900 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge won by twenty lengths in a record @-@ equalling time of 18 minutes 45 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 32 – 24 in Oxford 's favour . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1899 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , while Oxford led overall with 32 victories to Cambridge 's 23 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Leading up to the race , Oxford suffered a variety of misfortune : M. C. McThornhill was ordered by his doctor not to row , H. J. Hale was injured and president Felix Warre contracted scarlet fever . Cambridge were coached by James Brookes Close , who had rowed for the Light Blues three times between 1872 and 1874 , and Stanley Muttlebury , five @-@ time Blue for Cambridge between 1886 and 1890 . Oxford 's coaches were Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president the previous year and four @-@ time Blue ) and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . The umpire for the race for the eleventh year in a row was Frank Willan who had won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races . = = Crews = = The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 4 @.@ 625 lb ( 78 @.@ 1 kg ) , 0 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three members with Boat Race experience : C. E. Johnston , C. W. Tomlkinson and cox G. S. Maclagan . Cambridge saw six of their 1899 crew return , including William Dudley Ward and Raymond Broadly Etherington @-@ Smith , both of whom were rowing in their third race . Eight of the nine Light Blues were students at Trinity College . Oxford 's stroke H. H. Dutton , a native of South Australia , was the only non @-@ British participant registered in the race . Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater suggested that this year 's Cambridge crew , along with the Oxford crew which rowed in the 1897 race , " stand in a class by themselves among University crews . " He also described the Oxford crew as " one of the poorest that ever came from the Isis " . = = Race = = Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In good conditions , umpire Willan got the race under way at 2 : 00 p.m. whereupon Cambridge took the lead immediately . By Craven Steps they were three lengths ahead and continued to draw away from the Dark Blues , to win by 20 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 45 seconds . It was the fastest winning time in the history of the event , equalling that set by Oxford in the 1893 race . Although it was the Light Blues ' second consecutive victory , it followed a run of nine consecutive wins for Oxford – overall the Dark Blues led 32 – 24 .

= Ten Commandments in Catholic theology = The Ten Commandments are a series of religious and moral imperatives that are recognized as a moral foundation in several of the Abrahamic religions , including Catholicism . As described in the Old Testament books Exodus and Deuteronomy , the Commandments form part of a covenant offered by God to the Israelites to free them from the spiritual slavery of sin . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official exposition of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs — the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth , and serve as the basis for Catholic social justice . A review of the Commandments is one of the most common types of examination of conscience used by Catholics before receiving the sacrament of Penance . The Commandments appear in the earliest Church writings ; the Catechism states that they have " occupied a predominant place " in teaching the faith since the time of Augustine of Hippo ( AD 354 – 430 ) . The Church had no official standards for religious instruction until the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 ; evidence suggests the Commandments were used in Christian education in the early Church and throughout the Middle Ages , but with inconsistent emphasis . The lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers . Afterward , the first Church @-@ wide catechism in 1566 provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " , but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments . The most recent Catechism devotes a large section to interpret each of the commandments . Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers . In the New Testament , Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further , demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees . Summarized by Jesus into two " Great Commandments " that teach love of God and love of neighbor , they instruct individuals on their relationships with both . The first three commandments demand respect for God 's name , observation of the Lord 's Day and prohibit the worship of other gods . The others deal with the relationships between individuals , such as that between parent and child ; they include prohibitions against lying , stealing , murdering , adultery and covetousness . = = Numbering = = The Old Testament refers to ten individual commandments , even though there are more than ten imperative sentences in the two relevant texts : Exodus 20 : 1 – 17 and Deuteronomy 5 : 6 – 21 . The Old Testament does not make clear how the texts should be divided to arrive at ten commandments . The division traditionally used by the Catholic and Lutheran churches was first derived by the Latin Church Father Augustine of Hippo ( 354 – 430 ) in his book Questions on Exodus . Other Christian churches , such as the Eastern Orthodox and some Protestant churches , use a form established by the Greek Fathers . The two forms have slightly different numbering , but maintain exactly the same substance despite Protestant accusations to the contrary . Jewish numbering differs from Christian denominations in that it considers what many Christians call a prologue to be the entire first commandment . = = History = = The Ten Commandments are recognized as a moral foundation by Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . They first appear in the Book of Exodus , according to which Moses , acting under the orders of God , freed the Israelites from physical slavery in Egypt . According to Church teaching , God offered a covenant — which included the Ten Commandments — to also free them from the " spiritual slavery " of sin . Some historians have described this as " the central event in the history of ancient Israel " . The coming of Jesus is seen by the Catholic Church as the fulfillment of the destiny of the Jews , who were chosen , according to Peter Kreeft , to " show the true God to the world " . Jesus acknowledged the Commandments and instructed his followers to go further , requiring , in Kreeft 's words , " more , not less : a ' righteousness ( which ) exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees ' " . Explaining Church teaching , Kreeft states , " The Commandments are to the moral order what the creation story in Genesis 1 is to the natural order . They are God 's order conquering chaos . They are not man 's ideas about God , but God 's ideas about man . " The Church teaches that Jesus freed people from keeping " the burdensome Jewish law ( Torah or Mosaic Law ) with its 613 distinct regulations [ but ] not from the obligation to keep the Ten Commandments " , because the Ten " were written ' with the finger of God ' , unlike [ those ] written by Moses " . This teaching was reaffirmed at the Council of Trent ( 1545 – 1563 ) and at the Second Vatican Council ( 1962 – 1965 ) . Although it is uncertain what role the Ten Commandments played in early Christian worship , evidence suggests they were recited during some services and used in Christian education . For example , the Commandments are included in one of the earliest Christian writings , known as the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles or the Didache . Scholars contend that the Commandments were highly regarded by the early Church as a summary of God 's law . The Protestant scholar Klaus Bockmuehl believes that the Church replaced the Commandments with lists of virtues and vices , such as the seven deadly sins , from 400 – 1200 . Other scholars contend that throughout Church history the Commandments have been used as an examination of conscience and that many theologians have written about them . While evidence exists that the Commandments were part of catechesis in monasteries and other venues , there was no official Church position to promote specific methods of religious instruction during the Middle Ages . The Fourth Lateran Council ( 1215 ) was the first attempt to remedy this problem . Surviving evidence reveals that some bishops ' efforts to implement the Council 's resolutions included special emphasis on teaching the Commandments in their respective dioceses . Centuries later , the lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers . Catechisms produced in specific dioceses from the mid @-@ fourteenth century emphasized the Commandments and laid the foundation for the first official Church @-@ wide catechism , the 1566 Roman Catechism . Commissioned by the Council of Trent , it provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments to emphasize the Catholic belief that Christian life was dependent upon the grace solely obtained through the sacramental life provided by the Catholic Church . This emphasis conflicted with Protestant beliefs , which held the Commandments as the source of divine grace . While more recent papal encyclicals offer interpretations of Church teaching on individual commandments , throughout history official Church teachings on the Commandments are based on their mentions in the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers Origen , Irenaeus and Augustine . Later , theologians Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure offered notable commentaries on the Commandments . Aquinas , a Doctor of the Church , considered them to be the " primary precepts of justice and all law , and natural reason gives immediate assent to them as being plainly evident principles . " The most recent Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official summary of Church beliefs — devotes a large section to the Commandments , which serve as the basis for Catholic social teaching . According to the Catechism , the Church has given them a predominant place in teaching the faith since the fifth century . Kreeft explains that the Church regards them as " a path of life " , and a " path to freedom " just as a schoolyard fence protects children from " life @-@ threatening dangers " . = = First commandment = = The first commandment , according to Church teaching , " means that [ followers ] must worship and adore God alone because God is alone . " The Catechism explains that this prohibits idolatry , providing examples of forbidden practices such as the worship of any creature , and of " ' demons ... power , pleasure , race , ancestors , the state [ and ] money ' " . Augustine interpreted this commandment as " Love God and then do what you will " . Explaining this sentiment , Kreeft states that all sin " serves some other god , obeys another commander : the world or the flesh or the devil " , if God truly be loved then one will do what God wills . The Catechism associates this commandment with the three theological virtues . The first virtue , faith , instructs Catholics to believe in God and avoid heresy , apostasy , and schism . The second virtue , hope , cautions Catholics against despair and presumption . According to the Catechism , the last virtue , charity , can be met only if Catholics refrain from indifference or ingratitude toward God , and avoid spiritual laziness and a hatred of God stemming from pride . The Catechism enumerates specific violations of this commandment , including superstition , polytheism , sacrilege , atheism , and all practices of magic and sorcery . It further prohibits astrology , palm reading , and consulting horoscopes or mediums . The Catechism attributes the latter actions to a " desire for power over time , history , and in the last analysis , other human beings as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers " . = = = Graven images = = = While Catholics are sometimes accused of worshiping images , in violation of the first commandment , the Church says this is a misunderstanding . In the Church 's opinion , " the honor paid to sacred images is a ' respectful veneration ' , not the adoration due to God alone " . In the 8th century , heated arguments arose over whether religious icons ( in this context paintings ) were prohibited by the first commandment . The dispute was almost entirely restricted to the Eastern church ; the iconoclasts wished to prohibit icons , while the iconodules supported their veneration , a position consistently backed by the Western Church . At the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 , the ecumenical council determined that the veneration of icons and statues was not in violation of the commandment and stated " whoever venerates an image venerates the person portrayed in it . " At around the time of the controversy over Iconoclasm , the Western church began to use monumental sculpture , which by the Romanesque period became a major feature of Western Christian art , that has remained part of the Catholic tradition , in contrast to Eastern Christianity , which avoids large religious sculpture . The Catechism , using very traditional arguments , posits that God gave permission for images that symbolize Christian salvation by leaving symbols such as the bronze serpent , and the cherubim on the Ark of the Covenant . It states that " by becoming incarnate , the Son of God introduced a new economy of images " . The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops ( USCCB ) explain the Catechism in their book entitled United States Catechism for Adults , published in 2006 . Regarding graven images , they expound that this command addresses idolatry that in ancient times expressed itself in the worship of such things as the " sun , moon , stars , trees , bulls , eagles , and serpents " as well as " emperors and kings " . They explain that today , idolatry expresses itself in the worship of other things , and list some as " power , money , materialism and sports . " = = Second commandment = = The second commandment prohibits the use of God 's name in vain . Many ancient cultures believed that names were sacred ; some had prohibitions on when a person 's name could be spoken . The Gospel of John relates an incident where a group of Jews attempted to stone Jesus after he used a sacred name of God to refer to himself . They interpreted his statement as a claim of divinity . Since they did not believe that he was God , they considered this blasphemy , which under Mosaic law carries a death penalty . Kreeft writes that all of the names by which God is known are holy , and thus all of those names are protected by the second commandment . The Catechism states , " Respect for his name is an expression of the respect owed to the mystery of God himself and to the whole sacred reality it evokes . " The Catechism also requires respect for the names of people out of respect for the dignity of that person . The sentiment behind this commandment is further codified in the Lord 's Prayer , which begins , " Our Father who art in heaven , hallowed be thy name " . According to Pope Benedict XVI , when God revealed his name to Moses he established a relationship with mankind ; Benedict states that the Incarnation was the culmination of a process that " had begun with the giving of the divine name . " Benedict elaborates that this means the divine name could be misused and that Jesus ' inclusion of " hallowed be thy name " is a plea for the sanctification of God 's name , to " protect the wonderful mystery of his accessibility to us , and constantly assert his true identity as opposed to our distortion of it " . According to Catholic teaching , this commandment does not preclude the use of God 's name in taking solemn oaths administered by legitimate authority . However , lying under oath , invoking God 's name for magical purposes , or voicing words of hatred or defiance against God are considered sins of blasphemy . = = Third commandment = = Quoting the Jewish rabbi and scholar Jacob Neusner , Pope Benedict XVI explains that to Israel , keeping this commandment was more than ritual ; it was a way to imitate God , who rested on the seventh day after the creation . It also constituted the core of the social order . Although a few Christian denominations follow the Judaic practice of observing the Sabbath on Saturday , Catholics , along with most Christians , observe Sunday as a special day , which they call the " Lord 's Day " . This practice dates to the first century , arising from their belief that Jesus rose from the dead on the first day of the week . The Didache calls on Christians to come together on the Lord 's Day to break bread and give thanks . Tertullian is the first to mention Sunday rest : " We , however ( just as tradition has taught us ) , on the day of the Lord 's Resurrection ought to guard not only against kneeling , but every posture and office of solicitude , deferring even our businesses lest we give any place to the devil " ( " De orat . " , xxiii ; cf . " Ad nation . " , I , xiii ; " Apolog . " , xvi ) . In the sixth century , Caesarius of Arles taught that the whole glory of the Jewish Sabbath had been transferred to Sunday and that Christians must keep Sunday in the same way as the Jews were commanded to keep the Sabbath . The Council of Orléans in 538 reprobated this tendency , to apply the law of the Jewish Sabbath to the observance of the Christian Sunday , as Jewish and non @-@ Christian . The Church leaders of later centuries inscribed Sunday rest into official Church teaching , and Christian governments have attempted to enforce the Sunday rest throughout history . For Catholics , Jesus ' teaching that " the sabbath was made for man , not man for the sabbath " means that good works " when the needs of others demand it " can be part of the day of rest . The Catechism offers guidelines on how to observe the Lord 's Day , which include attending Mass on Sundays and holy days of obligation . On these days , Catholics may not work or do activities that " hinder the worship due to God " , but " performance of the works of mercy , and appropriate relaxation in a spirit of joy " are permitted . According to the USCCB , this commandment " has been concretized for Catholics " as one of the Church precepts . The organization cites the papal encyclical Dies Domini : Because the faithful are obliged to attend Mass unless there is a grave impediment , pastors have the corresponding duty to offer everyone the real possibility of fulfilling the precept . ... Yet more than a precept , the observance should be seen as a need rising from the depths of Christian life . It is crucially important that all the faithful should be convinced that they cannot live their faith or share fully in the life of the Christian community unless they take part regularly in the Sunday Eucharistic assembly . = = Fourth commandment = = Pope Benedict XVI states that Rabbi Neusner " rightly sees this commandment as anchoring the heart of the social order " . It strengthens generational relationships , makes explicit the connection between family order and societal stability , and reveals that the family is " both willed and protected by God . " Because parents ' unconditional love for their children mirrors God 's love , and because they have a duty to pass the faith on to their children , the Catechism calls the family " a domestic church " , " a privileged community " and the " original cell of social life " . The Catechism says this commandment requires duties of children to parents that include : Respect toward parents that also flows to brothers and sisters . Gratitude , as expressed in a quote from Sirach : " Remember that through your parents you were born ; what can you give back to them that equals their gift to you ? " Obedience to parents for as long as the child lives at home " when it is for his good or the good of the family " , except when obedience would require the child to do something morally wrong . Support that requires grown children to offer material and moral support for their aging parents , particularly at times of " illness , loneliness , or distress " . Keeping this commandment , according to the Catechism , also requires duties of parents to children which include : " Moral education , spiritual formation and evangelization " of their children . Respect for their children as children of God and human persons . Proper discipline for children while being careful not to provoke them . " Avoiding pressure to choose a certain profession or spouse " , which does not preclude parents from giving " judicious advice " . " Being a good example " to their children . " Acknowledging their own failings " to their children to guide and correct them . = = = Jesus ' expansion = = = The Gospel of Matthew relates that when told his mother and brothers were waiting to see him , Jesus replied , " Who is my mother and who are my brothers ? " Stretching his hand over his disciples he said , " Here are my mother and my brothers ! For whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my brother , and my sister , and mother . " Pope Benedict XVI stated that this dictum of Jesus brought the fourth commandment to a new and higher level . By doing God 's will , any person can become part of the universal family of Jesus . Thus , the fourth commandment 's responsibilities extend to the greater society and requires respect for " legitimate social authorities " . The Catechism specifies " duties of citizens and nations " , which Kreeft summarizes as : " Obedience and honor " to " all who for our good have received authority in society from God " . " Payment of taxes , exercising the right to vote and defending one 's country " . " An obligation to be vigilant and critical " , which requires citizens to criticize that which harms human dignity and the community . " A duty to disobey " civil authorities and directives that are contrary to the moral order . " To practice charity " , which is a " necessity for any working family or society " ; it is the " greatest social commandment " and requires people to love God and neighbor . " To welcome the foreigner " who is in need of security and livelihood that cannot be found in his own country . " An obligation for rich nations to help poor nations " , especially in times of " immediate need " . " An expectation for families to help other families " . = = Fifth commandment = = This commandment demands respect for human life and is more accurately translated as " thou shalt not murder . " Indeed , killing may , under limited circumstances , be justified within Catholicism . Jesus expanded it to prohibit unjust anger , hatred and vengeance , and to require Christians to love their enemies . The basis of all Catholic teaching about the fifth commandment is the sanctity of life ethic , which Kreeft argues is philosophically opposed to the quality of life ethic , a philosophy which he characterizes as introduced by a book entitled Die Freigabe der Vernichtung des Lebensunwerten Lebens ( The Permission to Destroy Life Unworthy of Life ) ( see Life unworthy of life ) and which he asserts was the " first to win public acceptance ... by German doctors before World War II — the basis and beginning of Nazi medical practices . " This interpretation is supported by modern medical journals that discuss the dilemma posed by these opposing philosophies to physicians who must make life or death decisions . Some bioethicists characterize the use of the " Nazi analogy " as inappropriate when applied to quality of life decisions ; Arthur Caplan called this rhetoric " odiously wrong " . The Church is actively involved in the public debates over abortion , capital punishment and euthanasia , and encourages believers to support legislation and politicians it describes as pro @-@ life . = = = Abortion = = = The Catechism states : " Human life is sacred because from its beginning it involves the creative action of God and it remains forever in a special relationship with the Creator , who is its sole end . ... no one can under any circumstance claim for himself the right directly to destroy an innocent human being . " Direct and intentional killing of an innocent human is considered a mortal sin . Considered by the Church to be of an even greater gravity is the murder of family members , including " infanticide , fratricide , parricide , the murder of a spouse and procured abortion . " The Catechism states that the embryo " must be treated from conception as a person " . The Latin original of as is tamquam , meaning " like " or " just as " . " Although the Church has not determined officially when human life actually begins , it has taken the course of maintaining that human life is present from the moment of conception or fertilization " ; respect for life at all stages , even potential life , is generally the context of church documents . Abortion has been specifically and persistently condemned by the Church since the first century . " Formal cooperation " in abortion incurs the penalty of excommunication " by the very commission of the offense " ( Lat. latae sententiae , " sentence [ already , i.e. automatically ] passed " ) . The Catechism emphasizes that this penalty is not meant to restrict mercy , but that it makes clear the gravity of the crime and the irreparable harm done to the child , its parents and society . " Formal cooperation " in abortion extends not just to the mother who freely submits , but also to the doctor , nurses and anyone who directly aids in the act . The Church has ministries of reconciliation , such as Project Rachel , for those who sincerely repent of their sin of formal cooperation in abortion . Official Church teaching allows for medical procedures and treatments intended to protect or restore the mother 's health if she would be in mortal danger without them , even when such procedures carry some risk of death to the fetus . Examples include the removal of a fallopian tube in the case of an ectopic pregnancy , removal of a pregnant cancerous uterus , or an appendectomy . = = = = Use of embryos for research or fertilization = = = = The United States Catechism for Adults devotes a section to in vitro fertilization , stem @-@ cell research and cloning in its explanation of the fifth commandment , because these often involve the destruction of human embryos , considered to be a gravely sinful form of murder . Embryonic stem cell research is called " an immoral means to a good end " and " morally unacceptable . " Citing the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 's Instruction on Respect for Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation , the US Bishops quote : " No objective , even though noble in itself , such as a foreseeable advantage to science , to other human beings , or to society , can in any way justify experimentation on living human embryos or fetuses , whether viable or not , either inside or outside the mother 's body . " The Bishops note that adult stem cell research , using cells obtained with informed consent , is a promising field of research that is morally acceptable . = = = Suicide , euthanasia = = = The fifth commandment forbids suicide and the mercy killing of those who are dying , even to eliminate suffering . The ordinary care of those facing an imminent death may not morally be withheld , according to the Church . " Ordinary care " refers to food , water and pain relief , and does not include " extraordinary care " , which refers to the use of respirators or feeding tubes that are considered discretionary . Allowing a terminally ill person to die , using painkillers that may shorten their life , or refusing extraordinary treatment to the terminally ill such as chemotherapy or radiation , are considered morally acceptable and not a violation of the fifth commandment , in accordance with the principle of double effect . = = = Capital punishment = = = For the first two hundred years , Christians " refused to kill in the military , in self @-@ defense , or in the judicial system " , but there was no official Church position on the death penalty . When the Church was first officially recognized as a public institution in 313 , its attitude toward capital punishment became one of toleration but not outright acceptance . The death penalty had support from early Catholic theologians , though some of them such as Saint Ambrose encouraged members of the clergy not to pronounce or carry out capital punishment . Saint Augustine answered objections to capital punishment rooted in the first commandment in The City of God . Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus argued that civil authority to carry out capital punishment was supported by scripture . Pope Innocent III required Peter Waldo and the Waldensians to accept that " secular power can , without mortal sin , exercise judgement of blood , provided that it punishes with justice , not out of hatred , with prudence , not precipitation " as a prerequisite for reconciliation with the church . Paul Suris states that official Church teachings have neither absolutely condemned nor promoted capital punishment , but toleration of it has fluctuated throughout the ages . The Inquisitions provide the most memorable instance of Church support for capital punishment , although some historians considered these more lenient than the secular courts of the period . The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the death penalty is permissible in cases of extreme gravity . It is allowed if the " guilty party 's identity and responsibility have been fully determined " and if the death penalty is the only way to defend others against the guilty party . However , if there are other means available to defend people from the " unjust aggressor " , these are preferred because they are considered to be more respectful of the dignity of the person and in keeping with the common good . Because modern societies have effective means for preventing crime without execution , the Catechism declares , " the cases in which execution of the offender is an absolute necessity ' are very rare , if practically nonexistent . ' " Pope John Paul II discussed and affirmed this in Evangelium Vitae , published in 1995 . = = = Personal health , dead bodies , burial = = = According to Church teaching , respect for human life requires respect for one 's own body , precluding unhealthy behavior , the abuse of food , alcohol , medicines , illegal drugs , tattoos and piercings . The Church also warns against the opposite behavior of " excessive preoccupation with the health and welfare of the body that ' idolizes ' physical perfection , fitness , and success at sports . " Kidnapping , terrorism , and torture are forbidden , as well as sterilizations , amputations , mutilations that are not for therapeutic medical reasons . According to the Catechism , societies have a moral obligation to strive to provide healthy living conditions for all people . Church belief in the resurrection of the body led to a prohibition against cremation that was pastorally modified at the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s under limited circumstances , but those conditions have been largely ignored even by the clergy . According to the Catechism , burial of the dead is a corporal work of mercy that must treat the body with respect and love ( e.g. scattering of cremated remains , burial in an unmarked grave , etc. are forbidden in the Catholic Church ) . Organ donation after death and organ transplants under certain terms , also autopsies for legal and scientific reasons are permitted . = = = War and self @-@ defense = = = In the Sermon on the Mount , Jesus recalls the commandment , " You shall not kill " and then adds to it the proscriptions against anger , hatred and vengeance . Going further , Christ asks his disciples to love their enemies . The Catechism asserts that " it is legitimate to insist on respect for one 's own right to life . " Kreeft says , " self @-@ defense is legitimate for the same reason suicide is not : because one 's own life is a gift from God , a treasure we are responsible for preserving and defending . " The Catechism teaches that " someone who defends his life is not guilty of murder even if he is forced to deal his aggressor a lethal blow . " Legitimate defense can be not only a right but a grave duty for one who is responsible for the lives of others . The defense of the common good requires that an unjust aggressor be rendered unable to cause harm . For this reason , those who legitimately hold authority also have the right to use arms to repel aggressors against the civil community entrusted to their responsibility . The Church requires all to pray and work to prevent unjust wars , but allows for just wars if certain conditions are met : The reasons for going to war are defensive . " The damage inflicted by the aggressor ... must be lasting , grave , and certain . " It is a last resort taken only after all other means of putting an end to the " grave damage " have been ineffective . The ultimate aim is peace and there is a serious chance of success . No graver evils are produced that overshadow the evil to be eliminated . This forbids the use of arms to eliminate whole cities and areas with their inhabitants . Respect and care is required for non @-@ combatants , wounded soldiers and prisoners . Soldiers are required to disobey commands to commit genocide and ones that violate universal principles . = = = Scandal = = = The Catechism classifies scandal under the fifth commandment and defines it as " an attitude or behavior which leads another to do evil " . In the Gospel of Matthew , Jesus stated , " Whoever causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin , it would be better for him to have a great millstone fastened round his neck and to be drowned in the depth of the sea . " The Church considers it a serious crime to cause another 's faith , hope and love to be weakened , especially if it is done to young people and the perpetrator is a person of authority such as a parent , teacher or priest . = = Sixth commandment = = According to the Church , humans are sexual beings whose sexual identity should be accepted in the unity of body and soul . The sexes are meant by divine design to be different and complementary , each having equal dignity and made in the image of God . Sexual acts are sacred within the context of the marital relationship that reflects a " complete and lifelong mutual gift of a man and a woman . " Sexual sins thus violate not just the body but the person 's whole being . In his 1995 book Crossing the Threshold of Hope , John Paul II reflected on this concept : After all , young people are always searching for the beauty in love . They want their love to be beautiful . If they give in to weakness , following the models of behavior that can rightly be considered a ' scandal in the contemporary world ' ( and these are , unfortunately , widely diffused models ) , in the depths of their hearts they still desire a beautiful and pure love . This is as true of boys as it is of girls . Ultimately , they know that only God can give them this love . As a result , they are willing to follow Christ , without caring about the sacrifices this may entail . Like Orthodox Judaism and Islam , the Catholic Church considers all sexual acts outside of marriage to be grave sins . The gravity of the sin " ' excludes one from sacramental communion ' until repented of and forgiven in sacramental confession . " = = = Vocation to chastity = = = Church teaching on the sixth commandment includes a discussion on chastity . The Catechism describes chastity as a " moral virtue ... a gift from God , a grace , a fruit of spiritual effort . " The Church sees sex as more than a physical act ; it also affects body and soul , so the Church teaches that chastity is a virtue all people are called to acquire . It is defined as the inner unity of a person 's " bodily and spiritual being " that successfully integrates a person 's sexuality with his or her " entire human nature . " To acquire this virtue , followers are encouraged to enter into the " long and exacting work " of self @-@ mastery that is helped by friendships , God 's grace , maturity and education " that respects the moral and spiritual dimensions of human life . " The Catechism categorizes violations of the sixth commandment into two categories : " offenses against chastity " and " offenses against the dignity of marriage " . = = = = Offenses against chastity = = = = The Catechism lists the following " offenses against chastity " in increasing order of gravity : Lust : the Church teaches that sexual pleasure is good and created by God , who meant for spouses to " experience pleasure and enjoyment of body and spirit " . Kreeft says , " Lust does not mean sexual pleasure as such , nor the delight in it , nor the desire for it in its right context . " Lust is the desire for sexual pleasure alone , outside its intended purpose of procreation and the uniting of man and woman , body and soul , in mutual self @-@ donation . Masturbation is considered sinful for the same reasons as lust , but is a step above lust in that it involves a physical act instead of a mental one . Fornication is the sexual union of an unmarried man and an unmarried woman . This is considered contrary to " the dignity of persons and of human sexuality " because it is not ordered to the " good of spouses " or the " generation and education of children . " Pornography ranks higher because it is considered a perversion of the sexual act that is intended for distribution to third parties for viewing . Prostitution is considered sinful for both the prostitute and the customer ; it reduces a person to an instrument of sexual pleasure , violating human dignity and harming society . The gravity of the sinfulness is less for prostitutes who are forced into the act by destitution , blackmail or social pressure . Rape is an intrinsically evil act that can cause grave damage to the victim for life . Incest , or " rape of children by parents or other adult relatives " or " those responsible for the education of the children entrusted to them " is considered the most heinous of sexual sins . = = = = Homosexuality = = = = The Catechism devotes a separate section to homosexuality within its explanation of the sixth commandment . Like heterosexual acts outside of marriage , homosexual acts are considered sins . The Church distinguishes between homosexual attractions , which are not considered sinful , and homosexual acts , which are . The Catechism states that they " violate natural law , cannot bring forth life , and do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity . Under no circumstances can they be approved . " The Church teaches that a homosexual inclination is " objectively disordered " and can be a great trial for the person , who the Church teaches must be " accepted with respect , compassion and sensitivity ... unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided . " Homosexuals are , according to the Church , " called to chastity " . They are instructed to practice the virtues of " self @-@ mastery " that teaches " inner freedom " using the support of friends , prayer and grace found in the sacraments of the Church . These tools are meant to help homosexuals " gradually and resolutely approach Christian perfection " , which is a state to which all Christians are called . ( Two lay movements represent opposing philosophies regarding homosexuality : DignityUSA seeks to change the Church 's teachings to justify homosexual acts ; Courage International is an organization of homosexuals who " support each other in the sincere effort to live in chastity and in fidelity to Christ and his Church " . ) = = = Love of husband and wife = = = According to Church teaching , spousal love is intended to form an unbroken , two @-@ fold end : the union of husband and wife and the transmission of life . The unitive aspect includes the transference of each partner 's being " so that they are no longer two but one flesh . " The sacrament of matrimony is viewed as God 's sealing the consent which binds the partners together . Church teaching on the marital state requires spousal acceptance of each other 's failures and faults , and the recognition that the " call to holiness in marriage " is one that requires a process of spiritual growth and conversion that can last throughout life . = = = = Fecundity of marriage , sexual pleasure , birth control = = = = The Church position on sexual activity can be summarized as : " sexual activity belongs only in marriage as an expression of total self @-@ giving and union , and always open to the possibility of new life . " Sexual acts in marriage are considered " noble and honorable " and are meant to be enjoyed with " joy and gratitude . " Sexuality is to be reserved to marriage : " by its very nature conjugal love requires the inviolable fidelity of the spouses . This is the consequence of the gift of themselves which they make to each other . Love seeks to be definitive ; it cannot be an arrangement ' until further notice . ' " The " intimate union of marriage , as a mutual giving of two persons , and the good of the children , demand total fidelity from the spouses and require an unbreakable union between them . " ( Gaudium et spes ) " . Artificial birth control predates Christianity ; the Catholic Church has condemned these methods throughout its history . In response to the Church of England accepting the practice of artificial contraception in 1930 , the Catholic Church issued the papal encyclical Casti connubii on 31 December 1930 . The 1968 papal encyclical Humanae vitae is a reaffirmation of the Catholic Church 's traditional view of marriage and marital relations , and a continued condemnation of artificial birth control . The Church seeing large families as a sign of God 's blessing . " By its very nature the institution of marriage and married love is ordered to the procreation and education of the offspring and it is in them that it finds its crowning glory . " ( Gaudium et spes ) Children are the supreme gift of marriage and contribute greatly to the good of the parents themselves . ( ... ) true married love and the whole structure of family life which results from it , without diminishment of the other ends of marriage , are directed to disposing the spouses to cooperate valiantly with the love of the Creator and Savior , who through them will increase and enrich his family from day to day . ( Gaudium et spes ) . " It recognizes that responsible parenthood sometimes calls for reasonable spacing or limiting of births and considers natural family planning as morally acceptable , but rejects all methods of artificial contraception . The Church rejects all forms of artificial insemination and fertilization because the techniques divorce the sexual act from the creation of a child . The Catechism states , " A child is not something owed to one , but is a gift ... ' the supreme gift of marriage . ' " Many Western Catholics and non @-@ Catholics have voiced disagreement on the Church 's support for natural family planning , and contend it contributes to overpopulation and poverty . The Church 's rejection of condom use is widely criticized , in particular with regard to countries where the incidence of AIDS and HIV has reached epidemic proportions . In its defense , Catholics cite countries such as Kenya and Uganda , where behavioral changes are encouraged instead of condom use , and where greater progress in controlling the disease has been made than in countries that promote condom use alone . = = = = Offenses against the dignity of marriage = = = = According to the Church , adultery and divorce are considered offenses against the dignity of marriage and are defined as follows : Adultery is the sexual union of a man and woman where at least one is married to someone else . It is for this reason that the Church considers it a greater sin than fornication . Kreeft states , " The adulterer sins against his spouse , his society , and his children as well as his own body and soul . " Divorce : According to the Catholic New American Bible translation , Jesus taught , " whoever divorces his wife ( unless the marriage is unlawful ) causes her to commit adultery , and whoever marries a divorced woman commits adultery . " Explaining Church interpretation of this teaching , Kreeft says Jesus considered divorce to be an accommodation that had slipped into Jewish law . The Church teaches that marriage was created by God and was meant to be indissoluble : like the creation of a child that cannot be " un @-@ created " , neither can the " one flesh " of the marriage bond . The Catechism states , " Divorce is a grave offense against the natural law . It claims to break the contract , to which the spouses freely consented , to live with each other till death . " By marrying another , the divorced person adds to the gravity of the offense as the remarried spouse is considered to be in a state of " public and permanent adultery " . The Compendium of the Catechism 502 lists other offenses against the dignity of marriage : " polygamy , incest , free unions ( cohabitation , concubinage ) , and sexual acts before or outside of marriage " . = = = = Separation , civil divorce , annulments = = = = According to the Church , there are situations that do not equate to divorce : In extreme situations , such as domestic violence , separation is allowed . This is not considered a divorce and may be justified . Civil divorce is not a divorce according to the Church . If it is deemed to be the only way of ensuring legal rights , care of children , or protection of inheritance , the Church considers it morally acceptable . Annulment is not a divorce ; it is a ruling by the Church that the marriage was never valid . The marriage is deemed invalid if it lacks one of five integral elements : it should be " complete " , " lifelong " , " mutual " , a " free gift " and of " man and woman " . According to Pope John Paul II 's Address to the Roman Rota on 22 January 1996 , couples do not have a right to an annulment , but do have a right to make their case for nullity or validity before " the competent Church authority and to request a decision in the matter . " According to the Catholic Diocese of Arlington : ... signs that might indicate reasons to investigate for an annulment are : marriage that excluded at the time of the wedding the right to children , or to a permanent marriage , or to an exclusive commitment . In addition , there are youthful marriages ; marriages of very short duration ; marriages marked by serious emotional , physical , or substance abuse ; deviant sexual practices ; profound and consistent irresponsibility and lack of commitment ; conditional consent to a marriage ; fraud or deceit to elicit spousal consent ; serious mental illness ; or a previous bond of marriage . The determination of the ground should be made after extensive consultation with the parish priest or deacons , and based upon the proofs that are available . = = Seventh commandment = = The Catechism explains that this commandment regulates worldly goods , and forbids unjustly taking , using or damaging those that belong to someone else . It places requirements upon those who possess worldly goods to use them responsibly , taking into consideration the good of society . The Catechism addresses the concept of human stewardship of God 's creation in its explanation of the seventh commandment and forbids abuse of animals and the environment . = = = Private property = = = According to the Church , people have a right to private property . However , ownership makes that person " a steward " who is expected to make it " fruitful " or profitable in a way that benefits others after that person has first taken care of their family . Private property and the common good are seen as complementary elements that exist for the purpose of strengthening society . The taking of another 's private property " in obvious and urgent necessity " as " the only way to provide for immediate , essential needs ( food , shelter , clothing ) " is not considered by the Church to be stealing . The concept of slavery as private property is condemned by the Church , which classifies it as the stealing of a person 's human rights . = = = Theft = = = According to the Catechism , theft or stealing means " usurping another 's property against the reasonable will of the owner " though exclusion exists for someone in great need to survive . " Unjustly taking and keeping the property of others " considered as theft , even if the act is outside the scope of civil law . Cardinal Christoph Schönborn gave example from the story of Saint Augustine , written in his Confessions , who took pears from neighbor 's garden when he was young . Schönborn says that Augustine still has " pangs of conscience over a childish theft " even when he became grown person , indicating that human conscience is very aware of theft though the act perhaps not an offense against civil law . Following acts are also considered as violation of the seventh commandment : price manipulation to get advantage on the harm of others , corruption , appropriation of the public goods for personal interests , work poorly carried out , tax avoidance , counterfeiting of checks or any means of payment , any forms of copyright infringement and piracy , and extravagance . = = = Social justice = = = The papal encyclical Rerum novarum discusses the relationships and mutual duties between labor and capital , as well as government and its citizens . Of primary concern was the need for some amelioration for " the misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class " . The encyclical supported the right to form unions , rejected socialism , communism and unrestricted capitalism , and affirmed the right to private property . Church interpretation of the seventh commandment teaches that business owners should balance a desire for profits that will ensure the future of the business with a responsibility toward the " good of persons " . Business owners are required to pay their workers a reasonable wage , honor contracts , and abstain from dishonest activity , including bribery of government officials . Workers are required to do their jobs conscientiously , as they have been hired to do them , and to avoid dishonesty in the workplace , such as using office goods for personal use without permission ( embezzlement ) . The Church teaches that a balance should exist between government regulation and the laws of the marketplace . It deems that sole reliance on the marketplace ( pure capitalism ) insufficiently addresses many human needs , while sole reliance on government regulation ( pure socialism ) " perverts the basis of social bonds " . The Church warns about the danger of either capitalism or socialism , as these systems tend to use excessive extremes that result in injustice to persons . Wealthier nations , like wealthier individuals , have a moral obligation to help poorer nations and individuals , and work to reform financial institutions and economic factors to benefit all . = = Eighth commandment = = The Catechism explains that bearing false witness or " speaking a falsehood with the intention of deceiving " encompasses all violations of truth . These violations have degrees of gravity depending on the " intentions of the one who lies and the harms suffered by its victims . " Listed as follows , these are : False witness and perjury : statements made publicly in court which obstruct justice by condemning the innocent or exonerating the guilty , or which may increase the punishment of the accused . Rash judgement : believing , without sufficient evidence , that a person has done moral faults . Detraction : the disclosure of another 's faults without a valid reason . Calumny : lying to harm a person 's reputation and providing opportunity to others to make false judgements concerning them . Flattery : " speech to deceive others for our benefit . " Bragging , boasting , or mocking : speech which either only honors oneself or dishonors others . The Church requires those who have damaged the reputation of another to " make reparation for the untruth they have communicated . " However , it does not require a person to reveal a truth to someone who does not have a right to know , and teaches respect for a right to privacy . Priests are prohibited from violating the seal of confession no matter how grave the sin or its impact on society . Included in the Church teachings of this commandment is the requirement for Christians to bear witness to their faith " without equivocation " in situations that require it . The use of modern media in spreading untruths , by individuals , businesses or governments , is condemned . = = Ninth commandment = = The ninth and tenth commandments deal with coveting , which is an interior disposition not a physical act . The Catechism distinguishes between covetousness of the flesh ( improper sexual desire ) and covetousness for another 's worldly goods . The ninth commandment deals with the former and the tenth the latter . Jesus emphasized the need for pure thoughts as well as actions , and stated , " Everyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart " ( Matthew 5 : 28 ) . The Catechism states that , with the help of God 's grace , men and women are required to overcome lust and bodily desires " for sinful relationships with another person 's spouse . " In Theology of the Body , a series of lectures given by Pope John Paul II , Jesus ' statement in Matthew 5 : 28 is interpreted that one can commit adultery in the heart not only with another 's spouse , but also with his / her own spouse if one looks at him / her lustfully or treats him / her " only as an object to satisfy instinct " . Purity of heart is suggested as the necessary quality needed to accomplish this task ; common Catholic prayers and hymns include a request for this virtue . The Church identifies gifts of God that help a person maintain purity : Chastity , which enables people to love others with upright and undivided hearts . Purity of intention , which seeks to fulfill God 's will in everything , knowing that it alone will lead to the true end of man . Purity of vision , " external and internal " , disciplining the thoughts and imagination to reject those that are impure . Prayer that recognizes the power of God to grant a person the ability to overcome sexual desires . Modesty , of the feelings as well as the body is discreet in choice of words and clothing . Jesus stated , " Blessed are the clean of heart , for they shall see God . " This purity of heart , which the ninth commandment introduces , is the " precondition of the vision of God " and allows the person to see situations and people as God sees . The Catechism teaches that " there is a connection between purity of heart , of body and of faith . " = = Tenth commandment = = Detachment from riches is the goal of the tenth commandment and the first Beatitude ( " blessed are the poor in spirit " ) because , according to the Catechism , this precept is necessary for entrance into the Kingdom of heaven . Covetousness is prohibited by the tenth commandment because it is considered to be the first step toward commission of theft , robbery and fraud ; these lead to violence and injustice . The Church defines covetousness as a " disordered desire " that can take different forms : Greed is the desire for too much of what one does not need . Envy is the desire for what belongs to another . The US Bishops define it as " an attitude that fills us with sadness at the sight of another 's prosperity . " Explaining Church teaching of this commandment , Kreeft cites Saint Thomas Aquinas , who wrote , " An evil desire can only be overcome by a stronger good desire . " The US Bishops suggest that this can be achieved through cultivation of goodwill , humility and gratitude for one 's own and others ' blessings , while trusting in God 's grace . Kreeft explains that Saint Paul the Apostle illustrated the concept in his letter to the Philippians when he listed his worldly credentials as a respected Jew and stated , " I count everything as loss because of the surpassing worth of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord . " As Jesus stated , " What shall it profit a man if he shall gain the whole world , and lose his own soul ? " Church teaching on the tenth commandment is directed toward this same attitude toward worldly goods , termed " poverty of spirit " .

= Yamaha NS @-@ 10 = The Yamaha NS @-@ 10 is a loudspeaker that became a standard nearfield studio monitor in the music industry among rock and pop recording engineers . Launched in 1978 , the NS @-@ 10 started life as a bookshelf speaker destined for the domestic environment . It was poorly received but eventually became a valuable tool with which to mix rock recordings . The speaker has a characteristic white @-@ coloured mid – bass drive unit . Technically , it is known as a speaker that easily reveals poor quality in recordings . Recording engineers sought to dull its treble response by hanging tissue paper in front of it , resulting in what became known as the " tissue paper effect " , a type of comb filtering . The NS @-@ 10 has been used to monitor a large number of successful recordings by numerous artists , leading Gizmodo to refer to it as " the most important loudspeaker you never heard of " . Yamaha discontinued the product in 2001 . = = History = = Originally conceived as a domestic hi @-@ fi speaker , the NS @-@ 10 was designed by Akira Nakamura and launched in 1978 . It was sold at the $ 400 price point . The speaker was poorly received and its commercial life was short . However , it took five years for its popularity to be established with professional users . As recording engineers came to rely on the NS @-@ 10 as a benchmark , it dominated the mixing of pop and rock music throughout the world for at least 20 years . The NS @-@ 10 displaced the Auratone 5C Sound Cube as the nearfield monitor of choice in the 1980s and was recognised for its ability to reveal shortcomings in recordings . It probably first reached American shores through a recording engineer 's visit to Japan . The engineer , likely to have been Greg Ladanyi , monitored a recording session through the speaker in a Japanese studio and brought a pair back on his return to the US . Ladanyi then began using the speakers in a Los Angeles studio . Other engineers heard the NS @-@ 10 for the first time and were impressed by its sound . Its use spread to New York where the NS @-@ 10 was adopted at The Power Station and other studios . Early use of the NS @-@ 10 among engineers include Bob Clearmountain , Rhett Davies , and Bill Scheniman in the US , and Nigel Jopson in the UK . Clearmountain , then a rising star in record production , is often credited for the popularity of the NS @-@ 10 ; Phil Ward , writing in Sound on Sound , suggested that Clearmountain was probably not the earliest , but was certainly the most influential early adopter . It became a legend that Clearmountain had chosen it because it was the worst speaker he could find . He was one of a new breed of creative freelance recording engineers and producers who would travel from studio to studio equipped with their own gear that included microphones , and a pair of Yamaha NS @-@ 10 , as a reference . Recording studios around the world , particularly those specialising in rock and pop music , adopted the speaker as the standard . In excess of 200 @,@ 000 pairs were sold throughout the world . Gizmodo referred to it as " the most important loudspeaker you never heard of " . Yamaha stopped manufacturing the speaker in 2001 , citing problems sourcing the wood pulp for the drivers . Even years after it was discontinued , the speaker continued to be found in studios everywhere . Mix reported in 2008 that variants of the NS @-@ 10 were still commercially available in the Japanese consumer market . = = Design and construction = = The NS @-@ 10 is an 8 @-@ ohm two @-@ way loudspeaker with a 10 @.@ 4 @-@ litre Sealed cabinet measuring 382 × 215 × 199 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 0 × 8 @.@ 5 × 7 @.@ 8 in ) and weighing 6 kilograms ( 13 @.@ 2 lb ) . Its 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) particle @-@ board cabinet has a wood veneer skin with seven black finishing layers . The domestic version of the speaker was vertically orientated , and came factory fitted with a grille . Its two drivers are a 180 mm paper woofer and a 35 mm soft @-@ domed tweeter . The woofer 's diaphragm , weighing 3 @.@ 7 g , is manufactured from a flat sheet of pressed pulp paper . Unconventionally , it is formed into conical shape not through moulding or pressure , but by curling and then gluing the two ends together . Against the black finish of the cabinet , the white bass / mid driver cone is a distinctive and iconic feature of the product . The network is second @-@ order passive , crossing over at 2 kHz . The frequency range is quoted from 60 Hz to 20 kHz , and rated power handling is 25 – 50 W. The early version of the speaker has press @-@ down type output terminals ; later models had screw terminals . = = Signature sound = = In simplistic terms , the NS @-@ 10 possesses sonic characteristics that allow record producers to assume that if a recording sounds good on these monitors , then it should sound good on most playback systems . Whilst it can reveal any shortcomings in the recording mix as well as the monitoring chain , it may lead to listener fatigue with prolonged use in the domestic setting . The NS @-@ 10 does not have a perfectly flat frequency response . The sound of the NS @-@ 10 is slightly heavy in the midrange , and like other sealed @-@ box speakers of similar size its bass extension is limited . It has a + 5 dB boost in the midrange at around 2 kHz , and the bottom end starts rolling off at 200 Hz . The midrange response is so open that it exposes the frequencies that are the most problematic and worst @-@ sounding to the human ear . On a practical level for the music professional , the speaker is analytic and clinical @-@ sounding . Gizmodo likened the NS @-@ 10 to music editors who reveal the weaknesses of recordings , so that engineers would be forced to either make necessary compensation in the mix or otherwise rework them . A 2001 report by Newell et al. at Southampton University undertaken for Studio Sound in 2001 found that the NS @-@ 10 had excellent time @-@ domain response at low frequencies – its ability to start and stop in response to signal input was found to be superior to that of most other nearfield monitors . Part of this was related to its closed @-@ box design . The researchers held that the extremely fast decay time of the speaker in the low frequencies ensures that the bass instruments ( guitar and drums ) are correctly balanced in the mix . = = Product revisions = = There were many other versions of the NS @-@ 10 , the best known of which were the " NS @-@ 10M Studio " and the " NS @-@ 10M Pro " , both introduced in 1987 . Technically identical to the " Studio " , the " Pro " comes fitted with a speaker grille and is meant to be used in a vertical orientation . The " professional " version launched some nine years after its first introduction on the back of the popularity of the NS @-@ 10 among engineers . The revised version , with everything including the logo and connection panel orientated horizontally , was badged " NS @-@ 10M Studio " . Improvements included a new tweeter and crossover to address the problem in the treble , better connection terminals , and a sturdier cabinet that no longer accommodates grilles . The Studio reincarnation also has improved power handling – 60 – 120 W. In excess of 200 @,@ 000 pairs of " Studio " alone were sold throughout the world . Also in the product line @-@ up were NS @-@ 10T , NS @-@ 10M X , NS @-@ 10MC , NS @-@ 10MT . The NS @-@ 10M X is a " Studio " with magnetic shielding and a different tweeter . In the 1990s Yamaha introduced the NS @-@ 10MT , a bass @-@ reflex version of the 10M X with a different tweeter and grille . Designed for home cinema , it has bass response down to 43 Hz , nominal impedance of 6 ohm and maximum power handling rated at 180 W. A miniature version named Natural Sound Surround Speaker NS10MM was launched in 1997 or 1998 . = = Reception = = The sound quality of the NS @-@ 10 has polarised opinions , characterised as " love them or hate them " . Many professionals find it indispensable , even though they may not particularly enjoy listening to it ; others refuse to give it space in their studio but will happily admit that it is an effective professional tool . The reliance on the NS @-@ 10 by top independent producers became a viral phenomenon ; thousands of studios equipped themselves with NS @-@ 10s to attract big named producers , making the speakers an industry standard . = = Tissue paper effect = = Clearmountain was said to have been one of the first recording engineers to hang tissue paper over the tweeters of the NS @-@ 10 to tame the over @-@ bright treble . Covering the tweeters with tissue paper was said to produce treble @-@ deficient mixes when replayed on normal domestic hi @-@ fi . The phenomenon became the subject of hot debate . Recording engineer Bob Hodas investigated the alleged sonic effects of tissue paper . He found inconsistent results with different paper , but said that tissue paper generally demonstrated an undesirable effect known as comb filtering , where the high frequencies are reflected back into the tweeter instead of being absorbed . Hodas derided the tissue practice as " aberrant behaviour " , saying that engineers usually fear comb filtering and its associated cancellation effects . He also suggested that more controllable and less random electronic filtering would be preferable . Newell et al. noted that had the speakers ' grilles been used in studios , where they are routinely removed , they would have had the same effect on the treble output as the improvised tissue paper filter . = = Influence = = The speaker came to be relied on by independent engineers , who worked in different studios and needed equipment they were familiar with as a reference point . Throughout the 1980s , engineers and producers worked widely with the speaker to monitor " [ almost ] any album you love from the 80s or 90s " – from Born in the U.S.A. ( Bruce Springsteen ) , Avalon ( Roxy Music ) Let 's Dance ( David Bowie ) , to Big Bam Boom ( Hall and Oates ) . The NS @-@ 10 , and the Auratone before it , are two of the most influential nearfield monitors used in the professional mixing of sound recordings . In 2008 , the NS @-@ 10 was inducted into the Mix magazine TECnology Hall of Fame . Also reflecting its influence , the speaker won a Technical Grammy for Yamaha in 2007 . In 2008 , the speaker was found " in almost every studio " .

= Utah State Route 61 = State Route 61 ( SR @-@ 61 ) is a nearly 7 @.@ 3 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 7 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Utah , connecting SR @-@ 23 in Cornish , Cache County to U.S. Route 91 ( US @-@ 91 ) near Richmond via Lewiston , in the extreme northern part of the state . The highway has existed since at least 1914 , as SR @-@ 61 since at least 1937 , and between 735 and 2 @,@ 180 vehicles travel along the highway on an average day in 2012 . = = Route description = = At the intersection of SR @-@ 23 ( 4800 West ) and 13400 North in the center of Cornish , SR @-@ 61 departs east on 13400 North due east , crossing over a single track belonging to the Union Pacific Railroad ( UP ) . Exiting Cornish , the highway crosses the Bear River and continues east through rural Cache County . Just shy of the western city limits of Lewiston , the highway intersects SR @-@ 200 ( 800 West ) , a connector road to Preston , Idaho . From the western terminus to SR @-@ 200 , the shoulder is up to four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide , suitable for bicycling , however the remainder of the route has much narrower shoulders , between less than or equal to one and nine @-@ tenths feet ( 0 @.@ 58 m ) wide . The highway 's name changes from 13400 South to Center Street through Lewiston . Passing the Lewiston Cemetery , SR @-@ 61 crosses over the Cub River and a second single track belonging to UP , and then a third UP single track just before the highway 's eastern terminus at US @-@ 91 north of Richmond . All of the rail lines that SR @-@ 61 crosses originally belonged to the Oregon Short Line Railway . Aside from the segment through Lewiston , the highway is surrounded by farmland for its entire journey across northern Utah . Every year , UDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , UDOT calculated that as few as 735 vehicles used the highway on an average day at its western terminus in Cornish , and as many as 2 @,@ 180 vehicles used the highway at its junction with SR @-@ 200 . Thirty @-@ five percent of this was truck traffic . = = History = = A roadway linking Cornish to the east has existed since at least 1914 . The roadway that serves as the eastern terminus was numbered SR @-@ 1 by 1927 , and the highway officially was designated SR @-@ 61 since at least 1937 . The 53 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) bridge that carries SR @-@ 61 over the Cub River today was constructed in 1952 , while the 182 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 55 @.@ 5 m ) bridge over the Bear River was built in 1961 . The original river crossings were slightly further south than their current locations . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Cache County .

= Hemmema = A hemmema ( from Finnish " Hämeenmaa " , Tavastia ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet and the Russian Baltic navy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The hemmema was initially developed for use against the Russian Navy in the Archipelago Sea and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland . It was designed by the prolific and innovative Swedish naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman ( 1721 – 1808 ) in collaboration with Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 1772 ) , an artillery officer and later commander of the Swedish archipelago fleet . The hemmema was a specialized vessel for use in the shallow waters and narrow passages that surround the thousands of islands and islets extending from the Swedish capital of Stockholm into the Gulf of Finland . The hemmema replaced the galleys that had made up the core of the Swedish archipelago fleets until the mid @-@ 18th century . Compared to galleys , the hemmema had a deeper draft and was slower under oars , but offered superior accommodation for the crew , carried more stores , was more seaworthy and had roughly ten times as many heavy guns . It could be propelled by either sails or oars but was still smaller and more maneuverable than most sailing warships , which made it suitable for operations in confined waters . Between 1764 and 1809 , Sweden built six hemmemas . The hemmema became the largest and most heavily armed vessel in the archipelago fleet and served in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . Oden , the first hemmema , was relatively small and very similar to a turuma , a different type of " archipelago frigate " . Russia built six hemmemas based on the Swedish design between 1808 and 1823 after capturing three of the Swedish vessels at the surrender of Sveaborg in 1808 . The later versions , both Swedish and Russian , were much larger and much more heavily armed than Oden . = = Background = = Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and powerful naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . Russian naval power in the Baltic grew to challenge the interests of Sweden , the other leading power in the Baltic . Swedish holdings at that time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion depending on , and connected by , the Baltic Sea trade routes . During the Great Northern War ( 1700 – 1721 ) , Sweden lost all its territories in the Baltic states and suffered Russian raids in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos stretching from the Gulf of Finland to Stockholm . The Swedes began to deploy inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels , beginning with smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean galleys . Most of these new vessels were more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war with Russia ( 1741 – 43 ) and the minor involvement against Prussia in the Seven Years ' War ( 1757 – 62 ) showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels . Galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically carry only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . The galleys also lacked decks and adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , many of whom succumbed to illness as a result of exposure during the war of 1741 – 43 . = = = Archipelago fleet = = = After the Russian victory against Sweden in 1743 , the Swedes established a commission to identify weaknesses in the eastern defenses . In 1747 , the commission concluded that the fortifications in southeastern Finland needed to be improved and expanded , and that Sweden needed to build a strong coastal navy . Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 72 ) , an artillery officer , was the driving force behind these changes . The committee based many of its conclusions and decisions on his ideas . In 1756 , Sweden established the archipelago fleet with the official name arméns flotta ( " fleet of the army " ) under the command of the army department , Krigskollegium , with Ehrensvärd as supreme commander . For two decades , the struggle for power between the Hats and the Caps , the dominant political factions at the time , and rivalries between army and navy brought about changes to the archipelago fleet . The parliamentary victory of the Hats in the Riksdag in 1769 – 70 and the coup d 'ètat by King Gustav III in 1772 secured the archipelago fleet 's status as an independent branch of the army . Starting in 1770 , the archipelago fleet merged with the Finnish Squadron ( Finska eskadern ) based at Sveaborg . In 1777 , it incorporated the Swedish Squadron ( Svenska eskadern ) , the galley fleet based at Stockholm . The Swedish armed forces invested considerable resources in the new army branch and made it a professional , independent organization . The archipelago fleet attracted members of the social and cultural elite who enjoyed the protection and patronage of King Gustav III , who had established himself as an absolute monarch in the 1772 coup . After the poor performance of galleys in Russo – Swedish war of 1741 – 43 and the Pomeranian War ( 1757 – 62 ) , development of replacements became prioritized . During the Pomeranian War , trials had been made with " gun prams " ( skottpråmar ) , heavily armed , oar @-@ driven , flat @-@ bottomed barges with a shallow draft that carried guns in broadside arrangements . The prams carried more guns than the galleys , but proved far too slow to be effective . Augustin Ehrensvärd argued for new archipelago vessels that combined firepower , maneuverability , seaworthiness , and decent crew accommodations . He began a successful collaboration with shipwright Fredrik Henrik Chapman ( ennobled " af Chapman " in 1772 ) , and together they developed five new vessels : a gunboat with a 12 @-@ pounder gun and a schooner rigging , as well as four types of " archipelago frigates " ( skärgårdsfregatter ) : the smaller udema and pojama , and the larger turuma and hemmema . All four types have been called skärgårdsfregatter ( archipelago frigates ) in Swedish and English historical literature , though some authors have called the udema and pojama " archipelago corvettes " . Chapman specifically designed the archipelago frigates for service off the south coast of Finland and named them after the Finnish provinces of Uusimaa , Pohjanmaa ( Österbotten ) , Turunmaa ( Åboland ) , and Hämeenmaa ( Tavastia ) . = = Development = = The concept of small sailing frigates with a complementary set of oars ( or " sweeps " ) was not new . The English Tudor navy had used small " galleasses " in the mid @-@ 16th century . In the 1660s its successor , the Royal Navy , equipped the equivalent of sixth @-@ rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck . During the 18th century the Russian Navy introduced " shebecks " , Baltic variants on the Mediterranean xebecs , for inshore duties . The xebecs were good sailers , could be rowed if necessary and had more guns and greater stores than galleys ; they were also less expensive to maintain . The Russian designs influenced Chapman and the Swedish naval commanders . Consequently , Chapman 's designs for new ships were elaborations on those principles , but with adaptations to archipelago warfare . Chapman 's archipelago frigates provided better protection for their crew than the galleys they replaced , and up to three times the capacity for stores and provisions . They could operate in the narrow , shallow waters around skerries in all weathers and in open water in all but the worst storms . They had a deeper draft than galleys , but considerably shallower draft than traditional sailing warships . The new ship types also increased the archipelago fleet 's firepower , provided it with better defensive capabilities , and made possible more efficient fire support in amphibious operations . = = Design and construction = = Of the new designs , turumas and hemmemas best fit the description of " archipelago frigate " because of their similarities to small ocean @-@ going frigates . The first hemmema , the Oden , was completed in 1764 . It was c . 33 m ( 108 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 2 m ( 26 @.@ 8 ft ) wide with a draft of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 25 ft ) . It had a low hull with no forecastle , only a low quarterdeck , and no poop deck . It had three masts that were initially rigged with lateen sails , like a galley . The navy later replaced the lateen rigs with a more conventional square @-@ sail frigate rig . The early design provided for 14 pairs of oars with four men per oar . The rowers plied their oars from the gun deck through oar ports positioned between the gunports , close to the waterline , which gave the rowers better leverage . The oars were also placed on a rectangular outrigger , designed to further improve the leverage . Even so , hemmemas performed poorly when rowed and were difficult in contrary winds . They were slower than ordinary sailing ships , but sailed better than galleys . During the Russian war of 1788 – 1790 , Sweden built three hemmemas of a new design . They were considerably larger , 44 @.@ 5 by 11 m ( 146 by 36 ft ) , and the number of oars were increased to 20 pairs . They also had some of the heaviest broadsides , even when compared with the much larger frigates of the high seas navy . The artillery officer Carl Fredrik Aschling had cooperated with Chapman to increase the main armament to twenty @-@ two 36 @-@ pounders and two 12 @-@ pounders , which increased the draft by about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) . The addition of diagonal bracers to reinforce the hull allowed the later hemmemas to carry guns more powerful even than those on the largest sailing frigates of the high seas navy . Due to their considerable firepower and relative size , naval historian Jan Glete has described the hemmemas as " super archipelago frigates " . The hemmema 's design was very similar to that of the turuma . The primary difference was that the turuma 's oarsmen sat on the weather deck above the guns , whereas the hemmema 's oarsmen sat on the gundeck . The later hemmemas were considerably larger , more heavily armed , and of a more robust construction . Glete has described them as variations on the same type , especially when considering the pre @-@ war designs . = = Service = = Hemmemas served in the Finnish squadrons during the war of 1788 – 1790 . They supported amphibious operations and conducted raids on the Russian archipelago fleet , while at the same time acting as sea @-@ borne flank support for the Swedish army on the Finnish mainland . Hemmemas fought in the first and second battles of Svensksund . During the first battle in 1789 , one hemmema complemented the similar turumas , and in the second battle in July 1790 , two hemmemas made up the defensive center and provided a considerable percentage of the firepower . The Swedes were building three additional hemmemas at the shipyards within the fortress of Sveaborg when it was surrendered to the Russians in 1808 , and all three were incorporated in the Russian Navy . Shortly afterward , the Russian Navy built its own 32 @-@ gun versions , with the final vessel launched as late as 1823 . Two more were built in Sweden in 1809 , Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll . Birger Jarl sank in an accident in 1813 and Erik Segersäll was planned for conversion as a paddlewheel steam battery for coastal defense , though the idea was eventually abandoned and the ship scrapped in 1826 . Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the hemmema had specific strengths and weaknesses . Although it had superior firepower relative to galleys , its sailing qualities were somewhat mediocre and while highly manoeuvrable under oars , it was still difficult to propel while rowed . A hemmema had the potential to be an effective weapon against galleys , matching their forward firepower and severely outgunning them with its broadside armament . Inside an enemy galley formation , it could wreak considerable havoc , but such a maneuver was never achieved in an actual battle , leaving that tactical role untested . = = Ships = = A total of twelve hemmemas were built , six of them for the Swedish archipelago fleet and six for the Russian Navy . Details of individual vessels are listed below . The Swedish hemmemas were all built to the same specifications , except for the early design Oden , and Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll carried heavier armament than the others . Tredrea and Sozaev list Oden as a turuma rebuilt as a hemmema in 1784 , though Oscar Nikula and Lars @-@ Otto Berg do not . The Russian vessels were built between 1808 and 1823 and have been described by Tredea and Sozaev as Bodryi @-@ class " rowing frigates " . Under the Finnish form " Hämeenmaa " , the name of the ship type was later carried on to several vessels of the 20th century Finnish Navy .

= Edward Creutz = Edward Creutz ( January 23 , 1913 – June 27 , 2009 ) was an American physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project at the Metallurgical Laboratory and the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II . After the war he became a professor of physics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology . He was Vice President of Research at General Atomics from 1955 to 1970 . He published over 65 papers on botany , physics , mathematics , metallurgy and science policy , and held 18 patents relating to nuclear energy . A graduate of the University of Wisconsin – Madison , Creutz helped Princeton University build its first cyclotron . During World War II he worked on nuclear reactor design under Eugene Wigner at the Metallurgical Laboratory , designing the cooling system for the first water @-@ cooled reactors . He led a group that studied the metallurgy of uranium and other elements used in reactor designs . In October 1944 , he moved to the Los Alamos Laboratory , where he became a group leader . After the war ended , Creutz accepted an offer to come to the Carnegie Institute of Technology , where he became the head of its Physics Department and its Nuclear Research Center in 1948 . In 1955 he returned to Los Alamos to evaluate its thermonuclear fusion program for the Atomic Energy Commission . While there he accepted an offer to become Vice President for Research and Development and the Director of its John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science at General Atomics . Under his leadership , General Atomics developed TRIGA , a nuclear reactor for universities and laboratories . Creutz served as an assistant director of the National Science Foundation from 1970 to 1977 , and then as Director of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu , where he took particular interest in the museum 's preparation of a Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii ' . = = Early life = = Edward Chester Creutz was born on January 23 , 1913 , in Beaver Dam , Wisconsin , the son of Lester Creutz , a high school history teacher , and Grace Smith Creutz , a general science teacher . He had two older brothers , John and Jim , and a younger sister , Edith . The family moved to Eau Claire , Wisconsin , in 1916 , Monroe , Wisconsin , in 1920 , and to Janesville , Wisconsin , in 1927 . He played a number of musical instruments , including the mandolin , ukulele and trombone . He played in the school bands at Janesville High School and Monroe High School . At Janesville he played tenor banjo in a dance orchestra called Rosie 's Ragadors , and timpani with the school orchestra at Monroe . He also played left guard on the American football teams at Janesville and Monroe . He expressed an interest in chemistry , biology , geology and photography . After graduating from Janesville High School in 1929 , he took a job as a bookkeeper at a local bank . In 1932 , his brother John , who had graduated from the University of Wisconsin – Madison with a degree in electrical engineering , persuaded him to go to college as well . John suggested that " if you aren ’ t sure what part of science you want , take physics , because that 's basic to all of them . " Creutz later recalled that this was the best advice he ever got . He entered the University of Wisconsin and studied mathematics and physics . Money was scarce during the Great Depression , especially after his father died in 1935 . To pay his bills , Creutz worked as a dishwasher and short order cook , and took a job taking care of the physics laboratory equipment . In 1936 , his senior year , he taught physics laboratory classes . Creutz encountered several members of the faculty at the University of Wisconsin , including Julian Mack , Ragnar Rollefson , Raymond Herb , Eugene Wigner and Gregory Breit . Mack gave Creutz a research project to do in his junior year . Creutz remained at Wisconsin as a graduate student after receiving his Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) degree in 1936 , working for Herb upgrading the departmental Van de Graaff generator from 300 to 600 keV . With this done , the question became what to do with it , and Breit suggested that it had previously been observed that high @-@ energy gamma rays were produced when lithium was bombarded with protons at 440 keV . Creutz therefore wrote his 1939 Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) thesis on Resonance Scattering of Protons by Lithium , under Breit 's supervision . Creutz married Lela Rollefson , a mathematics student at Wisconsin , and the sister of Ragnar Rollefson , on September 13 , 1937 . The couple had three children , two sons , Michael and Carl , and a daughter , Ann Jo . Wigner moved to Princeton University in 1938 , and soon after Creutz received an offer as well . Princeton had been given a 36 @-@ inch ( 910 mm ) magnet by the University of California , which had been used to build an 8 MeV cyclotron . They wanted Creutz to help get it operational . He later recalled : On my third day in Princeton I was invited to give a short report on my thesis work . There were usually two or three speakers at these " Journal Club " meetings . This time the speakers were Niels Bohr , Albert Einstein , and Ed Creutz . To be on the same program with these two giants of scientific accomplishments was breathtaking . Just before the meeting began , my sponsor , Delsasso , asked me , " Say , Creutz , have you met Einstein yet ? " I had not . Delsasso took me over to where Einstein was sitting in sweatshirt and tennis shoes , and said , " Professor Einstein , this is Creutz who has come to work on our cyclotron . " The great man held out his hand , which seemed as big as a dinner plate , and said in an accented voice , " I ’ m glad to meet you , Dr. Creutz . " I managed to wheeze out , " I ’ m glad to meet you , too , Dr. Einstein . " But it was Bohr who electrified the audience with his news from Europe of the discovery by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch of nuclear fission . Physicists rushed to confirm the results . Creutz built an ionization chamber and a linear amplifier out of radio vacuum tubes , coffee cans and motorcycle batteries , and with this apparatus the physicists at Princeton were able to confirm the results . = = World War II = = In the early years of World War II between 1939 and 1941 , Wigner led the Princeton group in a series of experiments involving uranium and two tons of graphite as a neutron moderator . In early 1942 , Arthur Compton concentrated the Manhattan Project 's various teams working on plutonium and nuclear reactor design , including Wigner 's team from Princeton , at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago . The name was a codename ; Creutz was the first to conduct actual metallurgy research , and he hired its first metallurgist to work with him . Wigner led the Theoretical Group that included Creutz , Leo Ohlinger , Alvin M. Weinberg , Katharine Way and Gale Young . The group 's task was to design the reactors that would convert uranium into plutonium . At the time , reactors existed only on paper , and no reactor had yet gone critical . In July 1942 , Wigner chose a conservative 100 MW design , with a graphite neutron moderator and water cooling . The choice of water as a coolant was controversial at the time because water was known to absorb neutrons , thereby reducing the efficiency of the reactor ; but Wigner was confident that his group 's calculations were correct and that water would work , while the technical difficulties involved in using helium or liquid metal as a coolant would delay the project . Working seven days a week , the group designed the reactors between September 1942 and January 1943 . Creutz studied the corrosion of metals in a water @-@ cooled system , and designed the cooling system . In 1959 a patent for the reactor design would be issued in the name of Creutz , Ohlinger , Weinberg , Wigner , and Young . As a group leader at the Metallurgical Laboratory , Creutz conducted studies of uranium and how it could be extruded into rods . His group looked into the process of corrosion in metals in contact with fast @-@ flowing liquids , the processes for fabricating aluminium and jacketing uranium with it . It also investigated the forging of beryllium , and the preparation of thorium . Frederick Seitz and Alvin Weinberg later reckoned that the activities of Creutz and his group may have reduced the time taken to produce plutonium by up to two years . The discovery of spontaneous fission in reactor @-@ bred plutonium due to contamination by plutonium @-@ 240 led Wigner to propose switching to breeding uranium @-@ 233 from thorium , but the challenge was met by the Los Alamos Laboratory developing an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon design . In October 1944 , Creutz moved to Los Alamos , where he became a group leader responsible for explosive lens design verification and preliminary testing . Difficulties encountered in testing the lenses led to the construction of a special test area in Pajarito Canyon , and Creutz became responsible for testing there . As part of the preparation for the Trinity nuclear test , Creutz conducted a test detonation at Pajarito Canyon without nuclear material . This test brought bad news ; it seemed to indicate that the Trinity test would fail . Hans Bethe worked through the night to assess the results , and was able to report that the results were consistent with a perfect explosion . = = Later life = = After the war ended in 1945 , Creutz accepted an offer from Seitz to come to the Carnegie Institute of Technology as an associate professor , and help create a nuclear physics group there . Creutz in turn recruited a number of young physicists who had worked with him at Princeton and on the Manhattan Project in Chicago and Los Alamos , including Martyn Foss , Jack Fox , Roger Sutton and Sergio DeBenedetti . Together , with funding from the Office of Naval Research they built a 450 MeV synchrotron at the Nuclear Research Center near Saxonburg , Pennsylvania . For a time , This put them at the forefront of research into nuclear physics , allowing physicists there to study the recently discovered pi meson and mu meson . A visiting scholar , Gilberto Bernardini , created the first photographic emulsion of a meson . Creutz became a professor , the head of the Physics Department , and the head of Nuclear Research Center at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1948 . He was also a member of the Executive Board at the Argonne National Laboratory from 1946 to 1958 , and a consultant at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory from 1946 to 1958 . In addition to his work on nuclear physics , he cultivated flowers and orchids at his home . He published eight papers on floral species , and named three varieties of violets after his children . One 1966 paper , published in the New York Botanical Garden Journal was on Apetahia raiateensis , a rare flower found only on the island of Raiatea in French Polynesia . He travelled to Polynesia many times , and translated Grammar of the Tahitian language from French into English . His family served as hosts for a time to two young people from Tahiti and Samoa . In 1955 and 1956 , Creutz spent a year at Los Alamos evaluating its thermonuclear fusion program for the Atomic Energy Commission . While there he was approached by Frederic de Hoffmann , who recruited him to join the General Atomics division of General Dynamics . He moved to La Jolla , California , as its Vice President for Research and Development , and was concurrently the Director of its John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science from 1955 to 1967 . He was also a member of the Advisory Panel on General Science at the Department of Defense from 1959 to 1963 . Under his leadership , General Atomics developed TRIGA , a small reactor for universities and laboratories . TRIGA used uranium zirconium hydride ( UZrH ) fuel , which has a large , prompt negative fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity . As the temperature of the core increases , the reactivity rapidly decreases . It is thus highly unlikely , though not completely impossible , for a nuclear meltdown to occur . Due to its safety and reliability , which allows it to be installed in densely populated areas , and its ability to still generate high energy for brief periods , which is particularly useful for research , it became the world 's most popular research reactor , and General Atomics sold 66 TRIGAs in 24 countries . The high @-@ temperature gas @-@ cooled reactor ( HTGR ) was less successful , and only two HTGR power reactors were built , both in the United States . A 40 MW demonstration unit at the Peach Bottom Nuclear Generating Station in Pennsylvania operated successfully , but a larger 300 MW unit at the Fort St. Vrain Generating Station in Colorado encountered technical problems . General Atomics also conducted research into thermonuclear energy , including means of magnetically confining plasma . Between 1962 and 1974 Creutz published six papers on the subject . In 1970 President Richard Nixon appointed Creutz as Assistant Director for Research of the National Science Foundation . He became Assistant Director for Mathematical and Physicals Sciences in 1975 , and was acting Deputy Director from 1976 to 1977 . The 1970s energy crisis raised the national profile of energy issues , and Creutz served on a panel that produced a study called The Nation 's Energy Future . His wife Lela died of cancer in 1972 . In 1974 he married Elisabeth Cordle , who worked for the National Science Board . The two of them enjoyed locating and photographing rare orchids . His appointment at the National Science Foundation ended in 1977 , and Creutz became director of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu . He took particular interest in the museum 's work preparing a two @-@ volume Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii , which was published in 1999 . He expanded programs for education and outreach , and secured funding for two new buildings . He retired in 1987 and returned to his home in Rancho Santa Fe , California , and died there on June 27 , 2009 . = = Documentaries = = To Mars by A @-@ Bomb : The Secret History of Project Orion

= Leanne Del Toso = Leanne Del Toso ( born 12 August 1980 ) is a 3 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player who represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a silver medal . Diagnosed with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy at the age of nineteen , Del Toso started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . Playing in the local Victorian competition , she was named the league 's most valuable player in 2007 . That year started playing for the Knox Ford Raiders in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) . The following year , she was named the team 's Players ' Player and Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) . Del Toso has played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL since 2008 . In the semifinal between her Dandenong Rangers and the Goudkamp Gladiators in 2009 , she scored 31 points while pulling down 19 rebounds that saw the Rangers win 81 – 42 . The Dandenong Rangers won back to back titles in 2011 and 2012 . Del Toso made her debut with the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , at the 2009 Osaka Cup in Japan . Since winning a silver medal in London , she has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 . = = Personal = = Nicknamed Dori , Del Toso was born on 12 August 1980 . At the age of nineteen , she was diagnosed with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy ( CIDP ) , a heredity condition that involves damage to the nerves . Del Toso has two siblings ; her younger brother Daniel also developed the disease . Prior to her diagnosis , she played regular basketball . Del Toso has worked as a receptionist , and as a participation assistant for Basketball Victoria . As of 2013 , she lives in Watsonia , Victoria . = = Wheelchair basketball = = Del Toso was a 4 point wheelchair basketball player . Due to the progress of her disease , she was reclassified as a 3 @.@ 5 point player in 2013 . As of 2012 , she has a scholarship with the Victorian Institute of Sport , and in financial year 2012 / 13 , she received a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant from the Australian Sports Commission as part of its Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program . She received $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2011 / 12 and 2010 / 11 , $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 and $ 5 @,@ 200 in 2008 / 09 . In 2012 , she trained in Dandenong , Kew , Box Hill and Knox . = = = Club = = = Del Toso started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . An Australian Paralympic Committee flyer on the wall at her local gym asking " Are you the next Paralympian ? " prompted Del Toso to respond . She was advised to take up wheelchair basketball . Playing in the local Victorian competition in 2007 , she was named the league 's most valuable player . That year , she made her debut in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) with the Knox Ford Raiders . At the end of the season , she was named the most improved player . She played for the Rangers ( now known as Victoria ) since 2008 . In the second round of the 2008 season , the Dandenong Rangers defeated the Western Stars 53 – 47 . She scored 20 points in her team 's victory . In the second round of the 2008 season , playing for the Dandenong Rangers in a 38 – 72 loss to the Hills Hornets , she scored 12 points . That season , she was named the team 's Players Player and Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) . In 2009 , Del Toso played in the WNWBL finals . In the semifinal between the Dandenong Rangers and the Goudkamp Gladiators , she scored 31 points while pulling down 19 rebounds that saw the Rangers win 81 – 42 . In 2010 , she was named the Dandenong Rangers 's Most Valuable Player . The Rangers won the WNWBL title in 2011 . In a round four game in 2012 , against Sydney Uni Flames that the Rangers won 55 – 44 , she scored 14 rebounds . The Rangers won the league championship again that year . = = = National = = = In 2008 , Del Toso was named as a reserve for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , for the 2008 Summer Paralympics . She made her national team debut at the 2009 Osaka Cup the following year , when her team finished first . That year , she also participated in the Four Nations in Canada and the Japan Friendly Series , one of six players who played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 . In July 2010 , she played in a three @-@ game test series against Germany . She was member of the Australian team at the 2010 World Championships that finished fourth . She also played in the 2010 Osaka Cup where her team finished first . She played in four games in the 2012 Gliders World Challenge . Del Toso was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in wheelchair basketball . The London Games were her first . In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal . Since the games , Del Toso has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 . = = Statistics = =

= No. 79 Wing RAAF = No. 79 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing of World War II . It was formed in December 1943 at Batchelor , Northern Territory , as part of North @-@ Western Area Command . Led by Group Captain Charles Eaton , the wing comprised four squadrons on its establishment , flying Beaufort and B @-@ 25 Mitchell bombers and Beaufighter heavy fighters . No. 79 Wing took part in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 – 45 , eventually transferring to Balikpapan in the Dutch East Indies as the Allies advanced northward . By the end of the Pacific War , the wing was attached to the Australian First Tactical Air Force and was made up of Nos. 2 and 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadrons , both flying Mitchells . The latter transferred to the Netherlands Air Force in late 1945 , while the former returned to Australia where it disbanded the following year . No. 79 Headquarters itself disbanded in October 1945 , soon after the end of hostilities . = = History = = No. 79 Wing was established at Batchelor , Northern Territory , on 30 November 1943 . Its combat units consisted of Nos. 1 and 2 Squadrons ( flying Beaufort light reconnaissance bombers ) , No. 31 Squadron ( Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters ) , and No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron ( B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers ) . The wing was commanded by Group Captain Charles Eaton , whose Dutch personnel called him " Oom Charles " ( Uncle Charles ) . Operating under the auspices of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , Darwin , No. 79 Wing participated in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 . Through March – April 1944 , the Beaufighters attacked Japanese shipping , while the Mitchells and Beauforts bombed Timor on a daily basis as a prelude to Operations Reckless and Persecution , the invasions of Hollandia and Aitape . Eaton organised a large raid against Su , Dutch Timor , on 19 April . Consisting of thirty @-@ five Mitchells , Beauforts and Beaufighters , the force destroyed the town 's barracks and fuel dumps , a result that earned the personal congratulations of the Air Officer Commanding NWA , Air Vice Marshal " King " Cole . On the day of the Allied landings , 22 April , the Mitchells and Beaufighters made a daylight raid on Dili , Portuguese Timor . The ground assault on Hollandia – Aitape met little opposition , credited in part to the air bombardment leading up to it . In May 1944 , Nos. 1 , 18 and 31 Squadrons attacked Japanese positions in Timor , while No. 2 Squadron was withdrawn from combat to re @-@ equip with Mitchells . No. 79 Wing 's light and medium bombers suffered from a lack of suitable targets as they had few airfields in forward areas from which to refuel . No. 2 Squadron returned to operations with Mitchells in June . That month , No. 18 Squadron flew 149 sorties , damaging Japanese airfields and shipping in the Timor area , but lost its commanding officer to anti @-@ aircraft fire during a raid . In June – July 1944 , No. 79 Wing supported the Allied attack on Noemfoor . No. 18 Squadron was again the wing 's most active unit , flying 107 sorties . In September , the Beaufighters and Mitchells attacked Japanese shipping and infrastructure in Ceram and Celebes , but lost nine aircraft and twenty @-@ six crewmen killed , among them Squadron Leader Wilbur Wackett , son of Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation manager Lawrence Wackett . By the end of the month , Mitchell missions were put on hold while replacement crews were trained . In late 1944 , plans were made to transfer No. 79 Wing from North @-@ Western Area Command to Northern Command in Papua New Guinea , where it would undertake operations against the Japanese in New Britain . The wing 's composition for this move was to be Nos. 2 and 18 Squadrons , operating Mitchells , and 120 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . No. 31 Squadron was transferred from No. 79 Wing to the Australian First Tactical Air Force at Morotai in December . The same month , Group Captain Eaton posted out and was replaced by Group Captain John Ryland . Weather hampered the wing 's activities in January 1945 . No. 1 Squadron was withdrawn to Queensland to re @-@ equip with Mosquitos , with No. 13 Squadron , flying Venturas , taking up the slack on anti @-@ shipping missions . The squadron accounted for around half of the thirty @-@ eight enemy vessels sunk by No. 79 Wing in February , and a similar ratio to the twenty sunk the following month . Wing operations were cut back in March , as preparations were made to transfer the Mitchells to Jacquinot Bay in New Britain . On 6 April , all twenty available aircraft of Nos. 2 and 18 Squadrons were ordered to join B @-@ 24 Liberators of No. 82 Wing in an assault on a Japanese convoy that included the cruiser Isuzu . The Liberators were late for their rendezvous with the Mitchells off Sumba so the latter , at the very limit of their range , attacked the convoy regardless . They claimed two direct hits without loss , despite anti @-@ aircraft fire from the cruiser and other ships , and frontal attacks by enemy fighters . Allied submarines sank the damaged Isuzu the next day . The wing 's proposed move to New Britain was cancelled in May 1945 , after the Netherlands government requested that its squadrons operate over the Dutch East Indies . No. 120 Squadron was transferred to Biak , while No. 79 Wing and its two Mitchell squadrons were ordered to move to Borneo , under the command of First Tactical Air Force . By July , No. 79 Wing had relocated from Batchelor to Balikpapan , leaving No. 13 Squadron under the control of North @-@ Western Area Command . After the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , the Mitchells joined Liberators of No. 82 Wing repatriating RAAF personnel from Borneo to Australia . No. 79 Wing Headquarters was disbanded on 8 October . The following month , No. 18 Squadron was reassigned to the Netherlands Air Force . No. 2 Squadron returned to Australia in December , disbanding in mid @-@ 1946 . These were the only two squadrons in the RAAF to operate Mitchells during the war .

= Vitamin D ( Glee ) = " Vitamin D " is the sixth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on October 7 , 2009 . It was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Elodie Keene . In the episode , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) pits the male and female club members against each other for a mash @-@ up competition . Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) takes a job as the school nurse to stop him becoming closer to guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , but is fired after giving the students performance @-@ enhancing pseudoephedrine tablets . The episode features mash @-@ up covers of " It 's My Life " by Bon Jovi and " Confessions Part II " by Usher , and " Halo " by Beyoncé Knowles and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . Both tracks were released as singles , available for digital download . " Vitamin D " was watched by 7 @.@ 30 million US viewers , and received generally positive reviews from critics . Performances by Morrison , Mays and Jane Lynch as cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester attracted praise , as did the staging of the musical mash @-@ ups . However , Aly Semigran of MTV and Mandi Bierly of Entertainment Weekly both noted critically that dramatic storylines in the episode dominated over the musical performances . = = Plot = = Believing the glee club members are becoming complacent ahead of the forthcoming sectionals , director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) divides the club into boys against girls for a mash @-@ up competition . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) observes that head cheerleader Quinn Fabray 's ( Dianna Agron ) performance standards are slipping . When Quinn blames her tiredness on her glee club participation , Sue renews her resolve to destroy the club , planning to sabotage Will 's personal life . Sue tells Will 's wife Terri Schuester ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) that guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) has romantic feelings for Will . Determined to stay close to her husband , Terri takes a job as the school nurse , despite having no medical qualifications . She encourages Emma 's boyfriend , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) to propose to her , which he does . After asking Will if there is any reason she should not marry Ken , and being warned off Will by Terri , Emma accepts his proposal . Terri is still hiding the fact she experienced a hysterical pregnancy from Will , and upon realizing how much her life is changing due to her pregnancy , Quinn agrees to let Terri secretly adopt her baby . Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) is exhausted by his extra @-@ curricular activities , so Terri gives him pseudoephedrine tablets , which Finn shares with the rest of the males in the glee club . The effects of the tablets enhance their performance , and they give an energetic mash @-@ up of " It 's My Life and " Confessions Part II " . When Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) tells the girls the secret behind the boys ' performance , they , too , request the tablets from Terri , and give a high @-@ spirited mash @-@ up of " Halo " and " Walking On Sunshine " . Finn and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) feel guilty for cheating , however , and agree to nullify the competition . When Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) learns what has happened , he fires Terri and , angry with Will , appoints Sue as co @-@ director of the glee club . = = Production = = Recurring characters who appear in " Vitamin D " are glee club members Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , former glee club director Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) , Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Gallagher ) , Terri 's co @-@ worker Howard Bamboo ( Kent Avenido ) , and local news anchors Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( Earlene Davis ) . Joe Hursley guest stars as Joe . The episode features mash @-@ up covers of " It 's My Life " by Bon Jovi and " Confessions Part II " by Usher , and " Halo " by Beyoncé Knowles and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . Both tracks were released as singles , available for digital download . " It 's My Life / Confessions Part II " charted at number 7 in Ireland , 14 in the UK , 22 in Australia , 25 in Canada and 30 in America , while " Halo / Walking on Sunshine " charted at number 4 in Ireland , 9 in the UK , 10 in Australia , 28 in Canada and 40 in America . Michele has revealed that she practiced talking " manically " for several days in order to convey the effects of pseudoephedrine on Rachel . In order to portray the character in her altered state , she questioned : " How manic is the right amount of manic ? What would Rachel be like on uppers ? What would she sound like ? " She deemed performing the mash @-@ up piece in that state " so much fun " . = = Reception = = The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 30 million U.S. viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Glee maintained its ratings from the previous week , despite all of the other new Wednesday night shows of the season declining by double @-@ digit percentages . It was the eighteenth most watched show in Canada for the week of broadcast , with 1 @.@ 61 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 008 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 608 million on E4 , and 400 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , as well as the most @-@ watched episode of the series at the time . " Vitamin D " was nominated for the best " Comedy Series Episode " award at the 2010 PRISM Awards . It received generally positive reviews from critics . Shawna Malcom of the Los Angeles Times noted that she preferred the boys ' performance to the girls ' , commenting : " Their number had the same heart @-@ soaring power as " Don 't Stop Believin ' " [ performed in the pilot episode ] . " Malcom enjoyed Sue 's character development in the episode , claiming that , " In less skilled hands , there ’ s no doubt Sue would be an over @-@ the @-@ top disaster . But thanks to the incomparable Jane Lynch , I can ’ t wait to see what trouble the character stirs up next . " Aly Semigran of MTV also enjoyed the boys ' performance more than the girls ' , and gave the episode a mostly positive review , writing that it moved the series ' storylines to " a whole new level " . She felt , however , that the episode " didn 't have nearly enough singing " . Mandi Bierly for Entertainment Weekly similarly noted that : " So much happened in this hour that the musical numbers , though enjoyable , were almost an afterthought . " Bierly favoured the girls ' performance , and praised Morrison 's acting , commenting : " Matthew Morrison communicates so much with his eyes . There ’ s a softness and a longing in them that I ’ m always surprised Emma ( Jayma Mays ) matches . " Mike Hale for the New York Times praised Mays ' performance , noting : " Jayma Mays registered Emma ’ s devastation with just the slightest widening of those enormous eyes . In fact all the best non @-@ singing moments in the episode were hers . " Hale was less impressed with the rest of the episode , deeming the pregnancy storyline " so boring that is hardly mattered " . He noted that : " For many viewers , the best moments in the episode probably came very early on and involved Jane Lynch ’ s Sue Sylvester , who still got all the best lines . " Jarett Wieselman for the New York Post agreed with this assessment , opining that although the episode was " filled with more brilliant moments than ever before " , the stand @-@ out scene was Sue writing in her journal , which Wieselman deemed " jam @-@ packed with so many one liners , it acted as a vacuum , sucking the smart out of everything else on TV from 9 : 05 to 9 : 07 pm . " Fellow New York Post critic Maxine Shen deemed the episode her favorite of the series so far . Anna Pickard of The Guardian called the pseudoephedrine storyline " relentlessly silly [ ... ] but joyfully so " , preferring the boys ' performance to the girls ' as " some excellent comedy helped me forget about Finn 's dodgy autotuned vocals for once " .

= Fern Hobbs = Fern Hobbs ( May 8 , 1883 – April 10 , 1964 ) was an American attorney in the U.S. state of Oregon , and a private secretary to Oregon Governor Oswald West . She was noted for her ambition and several accomplishments as a young woman , and became the highest @-@ paid woman in public service in America in her mid @-@ twenties . Hobbs made international news when Governor West sent her to implement martial law in the small Eastern Oregon town of Copperfield . The event was considered a strategic coup for West , establishing the State 's authority over a remote rural community and cementing his reputation as a proponent of prohibition . Hobbs later worked for the American Red Cross in Europe and at the Oregon Journal newspaper . She died in Portland in 1964 . = = Early life = = Hobbs was born on May 8 , 1883 , in Bloomington , Nebraska , to John Alden Hobbs and Cora Bush Hobbs . Her family moved to Salt Lake City , Utah when she was six years old ; she lived there for 12 years , finishing high school . Her father then met with financial difficulties , and she moved to Oregon , settling in Hillsboro . There , she put her younger brother and sister through school , while studying stenography and working for a living . She soon became a private secretary to the president of the Title Guarantee and Trust Company . The bank , which held many assets of the Oregon Common School Fund , failed during Hobbs ' time there . Ben Olcott , who was the Secretary of State and a member of the State Land Board , was charged with protecting the Common School Fund , and was involved in negotiating with the failing bank over the State 's assets . He took note of Hobbs ' strong loyalty to her employer . After the bank 's failure , Hobbs worked as a governess for J. Wesley Ladd ( brother of William S. Ladd ) in Portland . She also helped raise her younger brother and sister , studied stenography and the law , and worked as a secretary . In 1913 , Hobbs graduated from Willamette University College of Law with a Bachelor of Laws degree , and was admitted to the Oregon State Bar . Olcott , who managed Oswald West 's successful 1910 campaign to become Governor of Oregon , recommended that West hire Hobbs as his private stenographer . She was hired , and impressed West to the point that he hired her as his private secretary two years later . At that time , at age 27 , she was the highest @-@ paid woman in public service in the United States , earning $ 3 @,@ 000 per year . = = Martial law in Copperfield , Oregon = = West ordered Hobbs to Copperfield , Oregon to restore law and order on January 2 , 1914 , along with a group of six militia men that included Oregon State Penitentiary warden B.K. Lawson . Copperfield , located on the Snake River in Baker County , had grown up around construction projects for a railroad tunnel and power plant . Fifteen @-@ hundred jobs in the area came from the railway project of E. H. Harriman or the power generation facility . The town had descended into lawlessness with a number of saloons , brothels , dancing halls , and widespread gambling . The town had no law enforcement officers , and the local government officials had become bar keepers . Governor West had extended prohibition laws , Some local residents had appealed to the state government for assistance. but they were widely ignored in Copperfield . Over half the residents of the town had signed a petition , addressed to West , alleging that saloons owned by the mayor and City Council members were selling liquor to minors and staying open later than their posted hours . Governor West responded by ordering county officials to restore order , close the saloons , and force the resignations of the corrupt city leaders by December 25 , 1913 . County officials did not take care of the problem , so West sent Hobbs , hoping the presence of a woman would prevent any outbreak of violence . Hobbs was a petite woman standing 5 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 63 m ) tall and weighing less than 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) . She was dispatched with orders to restore order and to implement martial law if necessary . While Hobbs was traveling to Eastern Oregon , both she and Governor West were coy with reporters about the presence of the militia men , suggesting that Hobbs might be acting alone . The saloon keepers , who received word that Hobbs was accompanied by law enforcement officers only shortly before her arrival , greeted her by dressing up the town with bunting , blue and pink ribbons , and flowers . A town meeting was arranged at 2 : 30 p.m. on January 3 . Hobbs renewed the call for the resignation of city officials , but was the request was refused . Hobbs ' escorts then arrested the city leaders and ordered Lawson to declare martial law . It was the first time in Oregon since the Civil War that martial law was put into effect . Soon the town was disarmed and order restored , with the gambling equipment and weapons confiscated , and the saloons closed down . Hobbs then left Lawson in charge and caught the 4 : 00 p.m. train out of town that same day . The residents did not openly resist Hobbs or the militia men , although nearly all were armed and had been prepared to offer non @-@ violent resistance . She stopped at the county seat in Baker City to officially remove the town 's officials in front of a judge before returning to the state capitol in Salem . The Baker County Circuit Court quickly enjoined the militia from holding the town under martial law ; Sheriff Rand began assembling a posse to carry out the court order . Governor West requested a hearing , seeking Rand 's temporary removal from office , and appointed Hobbs to represent the State as special counsel . The actions of the governor were later challenged in court , with Hobbs and West among the defendants . The saloon keepers sought remuneration for liquor they claimed was confiscated during the period of martial law . The Baker County circuit court determined the governor 's actions were within his powers , and the Oregon Supreme Court ultimately concurred . These events made Hobbs the most famous woman in Oregon at that time . Hobbs also made national and international news for these events . Writer Stewart Holbrook reported : = = Later life = = After the Copperfield affair , Hobbs continued as Governor West 's secretary until the end of his term in 1915 . She visited the Union County town of Cove in February 1914 , also to investigate complaints about a saloon . A local election had declared the town " dry , " but a county election had declared the entire county " wet . " On advice of a judge , the mayor of Cove stated that he was unable to determine whether the saloon was legal or not , but expressed deference to the governor 's wishes . Hobbs did not order the saloon closed down . She then moved to Portland and practiced law . Women 's rights groups promoted Hobbs as a candidate to run for governor , but she never ran for office . Within a few years Fern Hobbs became the commissioner of Oregon State Industrial Accident Commission , working on getting taxes due on the Oregon & California Lands . In 1917 , with the United States entering World War I , she began a long association with the Red Cross . From 1917 to 1922 she worked in Europe , including time spent as the chief of the casualty division in Paris , France . In that position Hobbs was responsible for notifying dead soldiers ' next of kin . She returned to Europe in the 1930s , working in the Rhine Valley when it was occupied by France . Upon returning to Oregon , Hobbs worked as a secretary for the Oregon Journal newspaper . She retired in 1948 as the secretary to the paper 's business manager . Fern Hobbs died on April 10 , 1964 , at the age of 80 , and was buried at the Hillsboro Pioneer Cemetery in Hillsboro , Oregon . The Oregon writer Stewart Holbrook interviewed her in the early 1950s , a few years after her retirement , observing that she " still weighs 104 pounds . Her eyes are clear and blue behind her glasses . There is not a gray hair on her head . She lives as quietly as she has always lived , except for those dreadful few days so long ago [ concerning Copperfield ] . " Holbrook noted during his interview that " the subject of Copperfield bores her " and concluded his account of her as follows :

= Jessie Stephen = Jessie Stephen , MBE ( 19 April 1893 – 12 June 1979 ) was a twentieth @-@ century British suffragette , labour activist and local councillor . She grew up in Scotland and won a scholarship to train as a teacher . Family finances dictated otherwise , leading to her becoming a domestic worker at the age of 15 . She became involved in national labour issues as a teenager , via organisations such as the Independent Labour Party and the Women 's Social and Political Union . After moving to Lancashire and London she visited the United States and Canada , where she held meetings with the public including migrant English domestic workers . Stephen later become more involved in formal political parties , being elected as a local councillor and standing as a candidate in general elections . After moving to Bristol she became the first woman president of Bristol Trades Council . She was appointed MBE in 1977 and her life is commemorated by a blue plaque in Bristol . = = Biography = = Stephen is recorded in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as a " suffragette and labour activist " , and has been described as " working @-@ class " . = = = Childhood and family = = = Some sources give Stephen 's place of birth as Marylebone , London , others as Glasgow . The eldest of eleven children in a " closely @-@ knit ... family " , her father was a tailor . She has been described as " virtually the only Scottish working @-@ class Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) member about whom anything is known " . She attended Sunday schools separately linked to the church and to socialism , and was educated at North Kelvinside School . She won a scholarship to train as a pupil @-@ teacher . Her father 's low and variable income meant that she could not afford to pursue her aspiration to become a teacher , and became a domestic worker at the age of 15 . Her father was a founder member of the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) when it was established in 1893 . She described her mother as being " so quiet and the very opposite of dad " . = = = Early career = = = She was referred to as a " young activist in the Maryhill Branch of the ILP " , before she joined the WSPU in 1909 , aged 16 . She was the youngest member of the WSPU Glasgow delegation to the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George in 1912 . As a member of the WSPU and organiser of the Domestic Workers ' Union , she led the first of the " Scottish Outrages " ( involving attacks on pillar boxes ) in Glasgow in February 1913 . Stephen was approached by Sylvia Pankhurst and moved from Glasgow to London , where she became considered one of the " most active members " ( along with Emma Boyce , around 1916 ) of the Workers ' Suffrage Federation . In April 1919 , Stephen was one of a number of speakers to address a crowd of " about 10 @,@ 000 people " in Trafalgar Square , opposing the Blockade of Germany . Other speakers included Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence and Theodora Wilson Wilson . She was also an active member of the Women 's Peace Crusade and at the 1920 ILP conference argued against the use of force during events preceding the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR . In the 1920s she visited the United States , holding public meetings with immigrant communities from Scotland and Wales. and fund @-@ raising for the Socialist Party of America . She also visited Vancouver , where she encouraged migrant English domestic workers to unionise . = = = Middle years = = = Stephen later lived in Lancashire and also in London , where she became involved in the East London Federation and sold the Women 's Dreadnought . She was elected Labour borough councillor for Bermondsey in 1922 , after failing to be selected as a parliamentary candidate for the ILP , and worked for Bermondsey MP Alfred Salter . She stood as Labour candidate for Portsmouth South in the general elections of 1923 , 1924 and 1929 , and for Kidderminster in 1931 . From 1924 she worked as a freelance journalist , established a secretarial agency in Lewes in 1935 and joined the National Union of Clerks in 1938 . At the time of the Second World War , she worked for Murphy Radio in Welwyn Garden City . She later moved to Bedminster , Bristol , where she worked at the Broad Quay branch of the Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society ( CWS ) and with the National Union of Clerks . She later became chair of the local CWS management committee . Around this time , she spoke publicly and gave advice on birth control . She was elected to the city council . In 1952 she became the first woman president of Bristol Trades Council . = = = Later life = = = In the 1964 general election , she was a candidate for the Labour Party in the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare constituency . She was appointed MBE for " services to the trade union movement " in June 1977 . She died at Bristol General Hospital in 1979 , and her life is commemorated by a blue plaque in Bedminster .

= Of Human Feelings = Of Human Feelings is a studio album by American jazz saxophonist and composer Ornette Coleman . It was recorded on April 25 , 1979 , at CBS Studios in New York City with his band Prime Time , which featured guitarists Charlie Ellerbee and Bern Nix , bassist Jamaaladeen Tacuma , and drummers Calvin Weston and Coleman 's son Denardo . It followed Coleman 's failed attempt to record a direct @-@ to @-@ disc session earlier in March 1979 . Of Human Feelings explores jazz @-@ funk music and continues Coleman 's harmolodic approach to improvisation with Prime Time , whom he introduced on his 1975 album Dancing in Your Head . He drew on rhythm and blues influences from early in his career for Of Human Feelings , which had shorter and more distinct compositions than Dancing in Your Head . Coleman also applied free jazz principles from his music during the 1960s to elements of funk . Following a change in management , Coleman signed with Island Records , and Of Human Feelings was released in 1982 by its subsidiary label Antilles Records . Critics generally praised Coleman 's expressive music and harmolodic approach , but the album made little commercial impact and went out of print . Coleman enlisted his son Denardo as manager after a dispute with his former managers over the album 's royalties , a change that inspired him to perform publicly again during the 1980s . = = Background = = By the end of the 1960s , Ornette Coleman had become one of the most influential musicians in jazz after pioneering its most controversial subgenre , free jazz , which jazz critics and musicians initially derided for its deviation from conventional structures of harmony and tonality . In the mid @-@ 1970s , he stopped recording free jazz , recruited electric instrumentalists , and pursued a new creative theory he called harmolodics . According to Coleman 's theory , all the musicians are able to play individual melodies in any key , and still sound coherent as a group . He taught his young sidemen this new improvisational and ensemble approach , based on their individual tendencies , and prevented them from being influenced by conventional styles . Coleman likened this group ethic to a spirit of " collective consciousness " that stresses " human feelings " and " biological rhythms " , and said that he wanted the music , rather than himself , to be successful . He also started to incorporate elements from other styles into his music , including rock influences such as the electric guitar and non @-@ Western rhythms played by Moroccan and Nigerian musicians . Of Human Feelings was a continuation of the harmolodics approach Coleman had applied with Prime Time , an electric quartet introduced on his 1975 album Dancing in Your Head . The group comprised guitarists Charlie Ellerbee and Bern Nix , bassist Jamaaladeen Tacuma , and drummers Ronald Shannon Jackson and Denardo Coleman , Ornette Coleman 's son . Tacuma was still in high school when Coleman enlisted him , and first recorded with Prime Time in 1975 for the album Body Meta , which was released in 1978 . Tacuma had played in an ensemble for jazz organist Charles Earland , but Earland dismissed him as he felt audiences gave excessive attention to his playing . Coleman found Tacuma 's playing ideal for harmolodics and encouraged him not to change . Although Coleman 's theory initially challenged his knowledge and perception of music , Tacuma came to like the unconventional role each band member was given as a soloist and melodist : " When we read Ornette 's music we have his notes , but we listen for his phrases and phrase the way he wants to . I can take the same melody , then , and phrase it like I want to , and those notes will determine the phrasing , the rhythm , the harmony – all of that . " In March 1979 , Coleman went to RCA Records ' New York studio to produce an album with Prime Time by direct @-@ to @-@ disc recording . They had mechanical problems with the studio equipment and the recording was rejected . The failed session was a project under Phrase Text , Coleman 's music publishing company . He wanted to set up his own record company with the same name , and chose his old friend Kunle Mwanga as his manager . In April , Mwanga arranged another session at CBS Studios in New York City , and Coleman recorded Of Human Feelings there on April 25 ; the session was originally titled Fashion Faces . Jackson did not record with the band and Calvin Weston was hired in his place to play simultaneously with Denardo Coleman . They recorded all the album 's songs on the first take without any equipment problems . The album was recorded with a Sony PCM @-@ 1600 two @-@ track digital recorder , a rare item at the time . According to journalist Howard Mandel , the passages played by the band sounded neither very soft or loud on the album , because it had been mixed with a middle @-@ frequency range and compressed dynamics . Because of the equipment used , Coleman did not embellish the album with added effects and avoided overdubbing , multi @-@ tracking , and remixing . According to him , Of Human Feelings was the first jazz album to be digitally recorded in the United States . = = Composition = = According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music ( 2004 ) , Of Human Feelings features jazz @-@ funk , a type of music that originated around 1970 and was characterized by intricate rhythmic patterns , a recurrent bass line , and Latin rhythmic elements . Lloyd Sachs of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that , although Coleman was not viewed as a jazz fusion artist , the album can be described as such because of its combination of free jazz and funk . Glenn Kenny disagreed and felt its boisterous style had more in common with the no wave genre and the artists of New York City 's downtown music scene such as John Zorn . Jazz writer Stuart Nicholson viewed it as the culmination of Coleman 's musical principles that dated back to his free jazz music in 1960 , but reappropriated with a funk @-@ oriented backbeat . According to jazz critic Barry McRae , " it was as if Coleman was translating the concept of the famous double quartet " from his 1961 album Free Jazz to what was required to perform jazz @-@ funk . Coleman incorporated traditional structures and rhythms , and other elements from the rhythm and blues music he had played early his career . According to Mandel , the album 's simple , brisk music was more comparable to a coherent R & B band than jazz fusion . Although Coleman still performed the melodies on a song , he employed two guitarists for contrast to make each pair of guitarist and drummer responsible for either the rhythm or melody . Ellerbee provided accented linear counterpoint and Nix played variations of the song 's melody , while Denardo Coleman and Weston played both polyrhythms and backbeats . Tacuma and Ornette Coleman 's instrumental responses were played as the foreground to the less prominent guitars . McRae remarked that Coleman and Prime Time exchanged " directional hints " throughout the songs , as one player changed key and the others modulated accordingly . The band made no attempt to harmonize their radically different parts . Of Human Feelings features shorter and more distinct compositions than Dancing in Your Head . " Sleep Talk " , " Air Ship " , and " Times Square " were originally performed by Coleman during his concerts in 1978 under the names " Dream Talking " , " Meta " , and " Writing in the Streets " , respectively . " What Is the Name of That Song ? " was titled as a sly reference to two of his older compositions , " Love Eyes " and " Forgotten Songs " ( also known as " Holiday for Heroes " ) , whose themes were played concurrently and transfigured by Prime Time . The theme from " Forgotten Songs " , originally from Coleman 's 1972 album Skies of America , was used as a refrain . On songs such as " Jump Street " and " Love Words " , Ellerbee incorporated distortion into his guitar playing , which gave the songs a thicker texture . " Jump Street " is a blues piece , " Air Ship " comprises a six @-@ bar riff , and the atonal " Times Square " has futuristic dance themes . " Love Words " heavily uses polymodality , a central feature of harmolodics , and juxtaposes Coleman 's extended solo against a dense , rhythmically complex backdrop . Nicholson observed West African rhythms and collective improvisation rooted in New Orleans jazz on " Love Words " , and suggested that " Sleep Talk " was derived from the opening bassoon solo in Igor Stravinsky 's 1913 orchestral work The Rite of Spring . = = Release and reception = = A few weeks after Of Human Feelings was recorded , Mwanga went to Japan to negotiate a deal with Trio Records to have the album released on Phrase Text . Trio , who had previously released a compilation of Coleman 's 1966 to 1971 live performances in Paris , prepared to press the album once Mwanga provided the label with the record stamper . Coleman was also set to perform his song " Skies of America " with the NHK Symphony Orchestra , but cancelled both deals upon Mwanga 's return from Japan . Mwanga immediately quit after less than four months as Coleman 's manager . In 1981 , Coleman hired Stan and Sid Bernstein as his managers , who sold the album 's recording tapes to Island Records . He signed with the record label that year , and Of Human Feelings was released in 1982 on Island 's subsidiary jazz label Antilles Records . Billboard magazine published a front @-@ page story at the time about its distinction as both the first digital album recorded in New York City and the first digital jazz album recorded by an American label . According to jazz writer Francis Davis , " a modest commercial breakthrough seemed imminent " for Coleman , who appeared to be regaining his celebrity . German musicologist Peter Niklas Wilson said the album may have been the most tuneful and commercial @-@ sounding of his career at that point . The album 's clean mix and relatively short tracks were interpreted as an attempt for radio airplay by Mandel , who described its production as " the surface consistency that would put it in the pop sphere " . Of Human Feelings had no success on the American pop charts , only charting on the Top Jazz Albums , where it spent 26 weeks and peaked at number 15 . Because the record offered a middle ground between funk and jazz , McRae argued that it consequently appealed to neither demographic of listeners . Sound & Vision critic Brent Butterworth speculated that it was overlooked because it had electric instruments , rock and funk drumming , and did not conform to what he felt was the hokey image of jazz that many of the genre 's fans preferred . The album later went out of print . Of Human Feelings received considerable acclaim from contemporary critics . In a review for Esquire , Gary Giddins hailed it as another landmark album from Coleman and his most accomplished work of harmolodics , partly because of compositions which he found clearly expressed and occasionally timeless . In his opinion , the discordant keys radically transmuted conventional polyphony and would be the most challenging part for listeners , whom he said should concentrate on Coleman 's playing and " let the maelstrom resolve itself around his center " . Kofi Natambu from the Detroit Metro Times said Coleman 's synergetic approach displayed expressive immediacy rather than superficial technical flair while calling the record " a multi @-@ tonal mosaic of great power , humor , color , wit , sensuality , compassion and tenderness " . He found the songs inspirational , danceable , and encompassing developments in African @-@ American music over the previous century . Robert Christgau found the music heartfelt and sophisticated in its exchange of rhythms and simple pieces of melody , writing in The Village Voice , " the way the players break into ripples of song only to ebb back into the tideway is participatory democracy at its most practical and utopian . " Purist critics in jazz complained about the music 's incorporation of danceable beats and electric guitar . In Stereo Review , Chris Albertson deemed the combination of saxophone and bizarre funk occasionally captivating but ultimately unfocused . Dan Sullivan of the Los Angeles Times argued that the album 's supporters in " hip rock circles " had overlooked flaws ; he felt Tacuma and Coleman 's playing sounded like a unique " beacon of clarity " amid an incessant background . Leonard Feather wrote in the Toledo Blade deemed the music stylistically ambiguous , potentially controversial , and difficult to assess but interesting enough to warrant a listen . At the end of 1982 , Billboard editor Peter Keepnews named Of Human Feelings the year 's best album , calling it a prime example of fusing free jazz with modern funk . In year @-@ end lists for The Boston Phoenix , James Hunter and Howard Hampton ranked the album number one and number four , respectively . It was voted 13th best in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice . Christgau , the poll 's supervisor , ranked it number one in an accompanying list , and in 1990 he named it the second @-@ best album of the 1980s . Coleman received $ 25 @,@ 000 for the publishing rights to Of Human Feelings but said his managers sold it for less than the recording costs and that he did not receive any of its royalties . According to Stan Bernstein , Coleman had financial expectations that were " unrealistic in this business unless you 're Michael Jackson " . Antilles label executive Ron Goldstein felt the $ 25 @,@ 000 Coleman received was neither a great nor a fair amount for someone in jazz . After he had gone over budget to record a follow @-@ up album , Island did not release it nor pick up their option on him , and in 1983 , he left the Bernstein Agency . He chose Denardo Coleman to manage his career while overcoming his reticence of public performance , which had been rooted in his distrust of doing business with a predominantly White music industry . According to Nicholson , " the man once accused of standing on the throat of jazz was welcomed back to the touring circuits with both curiosity and affection " during the 1980s . Coleman did not record another album for six years and instead performed internationally with Prime Time . In a 1986 article for The New York Times on Coleman 's work with Prime Time , Robert Palmer said Of Human Feelings was still innovative and radical by the standards of other music in 1982 , three years after it was recorded . Because writers and musicians had heard its test pressing in 1979 , the album 's mix of jazz improvisation and gritty , punk and funk @-@ derived energy sounded " prophetic " when it was released , Palmer explained . " The album is clearly the progenitor of much that has sounded radically new in the ongoing fusion of punk rock , black dance rhythms , and free jazz . " AllMusic critic Scott Yanow believed that although Coleman 's compositions never achieved popularity , they succeeded within the context of an album that showcased his distinctive saxophone style , which was high @-@ brow yet catchy . Joshua Klein from The A.V. Club recommended Of Human Feelings as the best album for new listeners of Coleman 's harmolodics @-@ based music , while Chicago Tribune rock critic Greg Kot included it in his guide for novice jazz listeners ; he named it one of the few albums that helped him both become a better listener of rock music and learn how to enjoy jazz . In 2008 , New York magazine 's Martin Johnson included it in his list of canonical albums from what he felt had been New York 's sceneless yet vital jazz scene in the previous 40 years ; Of Human Feelings exuded what he described as a spirit of sophistication with elements of funk , Latin , and African music , all of which were encapsulated by music that retained a jazz identity . = = Track listing = = All compositions by Ornette Coleman . Side one " Sleep Talk " – 3 : 34 " Jump Street " – 4 : 24 " Him and Her " – 4 : 20 " Air Ship " – 6 : 11 Side two " What Is the Name of That Song ? " – 3 : 58 " Job Mob " – 4 : 57 " Love Words " – 2 : 54 " Times Square " – 6 : 03 = = Personnel = = Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes . = = = Musicians = = = Denardo Coleman – drums Ornette Coleman – alto saxophone , production Charlie Ellerbee – guitar Bern Nix – guitar Jamaaladeen Tacuma – bass guitar Calvin Weston – drums = = = Additional personnel = = = Susan Bernstein – cover painting Peter Corriston – cover design Joe Gastwirt – mastering Ron Saint Germain – engineering Ron Goldstein – executive direction Harold Jarowsky – second engineering Steven Mark Needham – photography Ken Robertson – tape operation

= Dangerously in Love Tour = The Dangerously in Love Tour was the debut concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé . Although the tour was intended to showcase songs from her debut solo album , Dangerously in Love , ( 2003 ) the set list also contained a special segment dedicated to Beyoncé 's girl group Destiny 's Child and featured songs from her 2003 film The Fighting Temptations . The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers , as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images . The tour was reviewed negatively by Dave Simpson of The Guardian who graded it with two stars out of five . The Dangerously in Love Tour only reached Europe and Beyoncé 's performance at the Wembley Arena in London , was filmed and later released on the CD / DVD Live at Wembley ( 2004 ) . = = Background and development = = The Dangerously In Love Tour was the debut solo concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé . The tour was intended to showcase songs from Beyoncé ' debut solo album , Dangerously in Love released in 2003 . However , the set list also contained a special segment of her show dedicated to her girl group Destiny 's Child and songs from Beyoncé ' 2003 film The Fighting Temptations ( " Fever " and " Summertime " ) . The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that moved up and down throughout the entire show and displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers , as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images with special effects . The show also featured a small staircase and platforms on both side of the stairs for her band . Beyoncé later toured alongside Missy Elliott and Alicia Keys as ensemble for the Verizon Ladies First Tour ( 2004 ) in North America . = = Synopsis and reception = = Dave Simpson of The Guardian described the opening of the show during his review : " Some while after Beyoncé is due on stage , a voice announces that the support act won 't be appearing and that Beyoncé will be with us ' in a moment ' . Like everything else – hits , boots , hair and sponsorship deals – moments are very big in Beyoncé world . An age later , cheers erupt for the raising of a curtain which revealed , er , a roadie fiddling with a drum kit . An hour later , the piped music is getting gradually louder to drown boos and the cries of small children whose parents are moaning it 's getting past their bedtime . " The show opens with " Baby Boy " which Beyoncé sang while being lowered onto the stage upside down . A highlight for many fans was her performance of " Dangerously in Love 2 " . During the tour , a special 8 @-@ minutes rendition of the song was performed . Simpson of The Guardian reviewed the opening show of the tour negatively , grading it with two out of five stars . He was negative about Beyoncé ' clothing during the show , saying : " The delays may well be down to Beyoncé 's wardrobe , which could trouble Imelda Marcos . There are skimpy skirts , tails ( for a note perfect if pointless version of Peggy Lee 's Fever ) and a general theme of low material , high glitz . But often , the main sparkle is on Beyoncé 's outfit . " He also added that " The dancers ' ' naked suits ' make the former church girl a raunchy rival to Kylie [ Minogue ] . But there 's an interminable section where they pretend to be homies , and when Beyoncé disappears for long periods it feels like an expensive night with Legs and Co . " He concluded his review by saying , " Clearly , the armies of industry professionals that put Beyoncé together aren 't sure of her core audience . A vague Saturday night TV , family entertainment feel gradually gives way to a more intriguing cross between Liza Minelli showbiz and thumping R & B. However , a ticker tape festooned Crazy In Love and a belting Work It Out suggest Beyoncé is best sticking to her roots . Bizarrely , if implausibly , she puts the carnage down to her tour manager falling off stage , but at least she 's grasped one showbiz adage : the show must go on . " = = Broadcasts and recordings = = On November 10 , 2003 , Beyoncé performed at the Wembley Arena in London ; this was later put on a DVD , titled Live at Wembley , which was released in April 2004 . It was accompanied by a CD comprising three previously @-@ unreleased studio recorded songs and one remix each of " Crazy in Love " , " Baby Boy " and " Naughty Girl " . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage can be also seen on the DVD . The album debuted at number seventeen on the Billboard 200 , selling 45 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The DVD has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it had sold 264 @,@ 000 copies in the US by October 2007 , while as at October 6 , 2010 , it had sold 197 @,@ 000 digital downloads . In an interview with The New York Times in 2007 , American singer Miranda Lambert revealed that Live at Wembley inspired her to " take little bits from that [ Beyoncé ' performance ] " for her live shows . = = Set list = = " Baby Boy " " Naughty Girl " " Fever " " Hip Hop Star " " Yes " " Work It Out " " Gift from Virgo " " Be with You " " Speechless " Destiny 's Child Medley : " Bug a Boo " " No , No , No Part 2 " " Bootylicious " " Jumpin ' , Jumpin ' " " Say My Name " " Independent Women Part I " " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " " Survivor " " Me , Myself and I " " Summertime " " Dangerously in Love 2 " " Crazy in Love " = = Tour dates = =

= Zhou Tong ( archer ) = Zhou ( or Jow ) Tong ( Chinese : 周同 and 周侗 ; pinyin : Zhōu Tóng ) ( died late 1121 CE ) was the archery teacher and second military arts tutor of famous Song Dynasty general Yue Fei . Originally a local hero from Henan , he was hired to continue Yue Fei 's military training in archery after the boy had rapidly mastered spearplay under his first teacher . In addition to the future general , Zhou accepted other children as archery pupils . During his tutelage , Zhou taught the children all of his skills and even rewarded Yue with his two favorite bows because he was his best pupil . After Zhou 's death , Yue would regularly visit his tomb twice a month and perform unorthodox sacrifices that far surpassed that done for even beloved tutors . Yue later taught what he had learned from Zhou to his soldiers and they were successful in battle . With the publishing of Yue Fei 's 17th folklore biography , The Story of Yue Fei ( 1684 ) , a new distinct fictional Zhou Tong emerged , which differed greatly from his historical persona . Not only was he now from Shaanxi ; but he was Yue 's adopted father , a learned scholar with knowledge of the eighteen weapons of war , and his personal name was spelled with a different , yet related , Chinese character . The novel 's author portrayed him as an elderly widower and military arts tutor who counted Lin Chong and Lu Junyi , two of the fictional 108 outlaws on which the Water Margin is based , among his former pupils . A later republican era folktale by noted Yangzhou storyteller Wang Shaotang not only adds Wu Song to this list , but represents Zhou as a knight @-@ errant with supreme swordsmanship . The tale also gives him the nickname " Iron Arm " , which he shares with the executioner @-@ turned @-@ outlaw Cai Fu , and makes the outlaw Lu Zhishen his sworn brother . Because of his association with the outlaws , he is often confused with the similarly named outlaw Zhou Tong . Various wuxia novels and folk legends have endowed Zhou with different kinds of martial and supernatural skills . These range from mastery of the bow , double broadswords , and Chinese spear to that of Wudang hard qigong and even x @-@ ray vision . Practitioners of Eagle Claw , Chuojiao and Xingyi commonly include him within their lineage history because of his association with Yue Fei , the supposed progenitor of these styles . He is also linked to Northern Praying Mantis boxing via Lin Chong and Yan Qing . Wang Shaotang 's folktale even represents him as a master of Drunken Eight Immortals boxing . However , the oldest historical record that mentions his name only says he taught archery to Yue Fei . Nothing is ever said about him knowing or teaching a specific style of Chinese martial arts . Zhou has appeared in various forms of media such as novels , comic books , and movies . His rare 20th century biography , Iron Arm , Golden Sabre , serves as a sequel to The Story of Yue Fei because it details his adventures decades prior to taking Yue as his pupil . This was later adapted into a ten volume Lianhuanhua comic book . He also appears in a novel concerning one of his fictional martial arts brothers . He was portrayed by three different actors in a string of black and white Yue Fei films produced in the 1940s and 1960s , one of which featured a ten @-@ year @-@ old Sammo Hung as the lead . Veteran martial arts actor Yu Chenghui , who played the sword @-@ wielding antagonist in Jet Li 's Shaolin Temple , stated in a 2005 interview that he has always wanted to portray Zhou in a film . = = History = = = = = Mention in Yue family memoirs = = = On his deathbed , Yue Fei 's third son Yue Lin ( 岳霖 , born 1130 ) asked his own son , the poet and historian Yue Ke ( 岳珂 , 1183 – post @-@ 1240 ) , to complete Yue Fei 's memoirs . This two @-@ part memoir was completed in 1203 , some sixty years after the general 's political execution , but was not published until 1234 . It was later abridged in 1345 and published in the Yuan Dynasty 's dynastic chronology History of the Song Dynasty under the title Yue Fei Biography ( chapter 365 , biography 124 ) . Zhou 's mention in Yue Ke 's memoir was only briefly summarized in the Yuan rewrite . It reads , " He [ Yue Fei ] learned archery from Zhou Tong . He learned everything and could fire with his left and right hands . After Tong 's death , he would offer sacrifices at his tomb " . Western Washington University history professor Edward Kaplan explains Zhou was a " local hao " ( 豪 - " heroic ( person ) " ) . He comments Hao can also mean " a ' knight errant ' in poetic translation , or in prosaic terms a professional strongman and bodyguard . ' " This means Zhou was a local hero from Tangyin County , Anyang prefecture , Henan province ( the same area as Yue Fei ) . Historical and scholarly sources spell his personal name as 同 ( Tong ) , meaning " same or similar " . This differs from the spelling present in fictional sources , which will be further explained below . So , " 周同 " represents the historical archer . = = = Tutelage = = = Despite being literate , giving him a chance to become a scholar , young Yue Fei chose the military path because there had never been any tradition of full @-@ fledged Confucian civil service in his family history . He would stay up all night reading military strategy books and idolized such great historical heroes as Guan Yu . However , the Yue family was much too poor to afford military lessons for their son , so , Yao Dewang , the boy 's maternal grandfather , hired Chen Guang ( 陈广 ) to teach the eleven @-@ year @-@ old how to wield the Chinese spear . Yao was very surprised when his grandson quickly mastered the spear by the age of thirteen . Zhou was then brought in to continue Yue 's military training in archery . Dr. Kaplan describes Zhou as the " most important " of the two teachers . A section of the Jin Tuo Xu Pian , the second part of Yue Ke 's original published memoir , describes one of Zhou 's archery lessons and reveals that he took other children as his pupils : " One day , [ Chou ] T 'ung gathered his pupils for an archery session and to display his ability put three arrows in succession into the center of the target . Pointing to the target to show grandfather [ Yue Fei ] , he said : ' After you can perform like this , you can say you are an archer ' . Grandfather , thanked him and asked to be allowed to try . He drew his bow , let fly his arrow and struck the end of T 'ung 's arrow . He shot again and again hit the mark . T 'ung was greatly amazed and subsequently presented to grandfather his two favorite bows . Thereafter grandfather practiced still more [ until ] he was able to shoot to the left and right , accurately letting fly the arrow as he moved . When he became a general he taught this to his officers and men so that his whole army became skilled at shooting to the left and right and frequently used this technique to crush the enemy 's spirit " . The last sentence of the passage is similar to one from the Republican era Biography of Song Yue , Prince of E. But instead of teaching them his own technique , it states Yue taught what he had learned from Zhou to his soldiers who were victorious in battle . = = = Death = = = Zhou continued to teach the children until his death , prior to Yue 's legal adulthood . Following his passing , Yue became extremely depressed since Zhou had been the greatest influence on his early life . Zhou 's student would regularly visit his tomb on the first and fifteenth of every month with sacrifices of meat and wine and would shoot three arrows in succession with one of the two bows his tutor had presented him with ( it is never mentioned whether any of Zhou 's other archery pupils came to visit his tomb ) . Dr. Kaplan comments this continuous unusual display of mourning " went far beyond the ceremonial appropriate for even a highly respected teacher " . Noted Sinologist Hellmut Wilhelm claims even though the display of grief was genuine , it was also a way of emulating the stories of his heroic idols and " [ establishing himself ] in the public eye " . Yue 's father later followed him secretly to Zhou 's tomb after striking him during an argument over his melancholic behavior . There , he saw him perform the unorthodox obediences involving the meat , wine , and three arrows . When he finally confronted him , the son confessed that " his gratitude for Chou 's instruction could not be requited simply by the usual first and middle of the month ceremonies and so he ... shot off the three arrows to symbolize that Chou had been the source of his inspiration as an archer " . Dr. Kaplan 's states this happened just prior to Yue 's entrance into the army and that the entire event served as a symbol for Yue 's " entrance into responsible manhood " . The Chronology of Yue Wumu lists the events at Zhou 's tomb happening in 1121 when Yue was nineteen , but Yue would have been eighteen in that year since he was born on " the fifteenth day of the second month of 1103 " . The author of the original source material was using xusui age calculation , in which a child is already considered one year old at birth . Since Yue joined the military shortly after Zhou 's death , a relative time frame can be given for when he died . During the early months of 1122 , the Song empire mobilized its armed forces to assist the Jurchen in confronting their common enemy , the Liao Dynasty . Therefore , it appears that Zhou died in late 1121 , before the call to arms was issued . = = Fiction = = Zhou Tong 's fictional life story can be pieced together from two sources : The Story of Yue Fei and Iron Arm , Golden Sabre . The Story of Yue Fei is a fictionalized retelling of Yue Fei 's young life , military exploits , and execution . It was written by a native of Renhuo named Qian Cai ( 钱彩 ) , who lived sometime between the reigns of the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors in the Qing dynasty . The preface dates the book 's publication to 1684 . It was deemed a threat by the Qing emperors and banned during the Qianlong era . In the novel , Zhou is portrayed as an elderly widower and Yue 's only military arts tutor . The General 's historical spear master Chen Guang is never mentioned . Zhou teaches Yue Fei and his sworn brothers military and literary arts from chapters two through five , before his death . In the writing of his novel , Qian Cai used a different character when spelling Zhou 's given name . Instead of the original character meaning " similar " , it was changed to 侗 , meaning " rude or rustic " . So , " 周侗 " represents Zhou 's distinct fictional persona . This spelling has even been carried over into modern day martial arts manuals . Iron Arm , Golden Sabre was written by Wang Yun Heng and Xiao Yun Long and published in 1986 . This novel , which serves as Zhou 's own fictional biography , is a prequel to The Story of Yue Fei because it details his adventures decades prior to taking Yue Fei as his student . It follows his life as a young martial arts instructor in the Song army 's Imperial guard , his struggles against the Xixia and Liao Tartar barbarian tribes and his tutelage of Water Margin outlaws . The last few chapters incorporate the storyline from the four chapters that he appears in The Story of Yue Fei . This was later adapted into a ten volume Lianhuanhua @-@ style comic book called The Legend of Zhou Tong in 1987 . = = = Early life and adulthood = = = Zhou is born in Shaanxi and trains in the martial arts from a young age . He is taken as one of the pupils of Shaolin master Tan Zhengfang ( 谭正芳 ) and , learning the true essence of Shaolin Kungfu , becomes proficient in things both literary and martial . Tan 's other students include the future generals Jin Tai ( 金台 ) and Zong Ze ( 宗澤 ) and the future Water Margin outlaws Sun Li and Luan Tingyu . As a young man , Zhou catches the attention of Judge Bao Zheng and enlists in the military as an officer . His superiors take note of his great skill after he helps his classmate General Jin battle Liao Tartars in northern China and install him as a teacher in the Capital Imperial Martial Arts School . The school has three teaching positions named in order of prestige : " Heaven , " " Earth , " and " Man . " Since he has the greatest skill , he occupies the Heaven position . He uses this post and his friendship with General Zong to get their classmate Sun Li installed as the Superintendent of Forces of Dengzhou . Sun later becomes an outlaw under Chao Gai and helps defeat the evil Zhu Family , who learn military arts from his classmate Luan Tingyu . As he grows older , Zhou becomes dissatisfied with politics because the Imperial court chooses to appease the northern barbarian tribes instead of standing against them . He then devotes himself wholeheartedly to his martial arts practice and creates several official and authoritative techniques including the " five step , thirteen lance piercing kick " , which is a development of Shaolin Fanzi boxing , and the " Zhou Tong cudgel . " He makes a concerted effort to transmit his martial efforts while teaching at the Imperial Martial Arts School and formally accepts two disciples : " Jade Unicorn " Lu Junyi and " Panther head " Lin Chong . Lu Junyi is a millionaire with vast land holdings and does not hold office , but Lin Chong inherits Zhou 's position after his retirement , and continues to serve as the lead instructor for the 800 @,@ 000 members of the Song army 's Imperial Guard . During this time , Zhou Tong also has an additional disciple named Wu Song . Wu Song becomes famous for killing a man @-@ eating tiger with his bare hands and is appointed as a constable in his native Shandong . The county magistrate Sun Guoqin later sends Wu on a mission to Kaifeng with precious tiger bone balm in order to curry favor with influential personages . During his stay in the capital , he makes the acquaintance of Zhou . Zhou finds Wu to be a man of great strength , but feels that he lacks refinement in his martial technique and , therefore , offers guidance for Wu 's training . Unfortunately , these two men only interact for a brief two months before Wu has to return home , never to see Zhou again . Following his retirement , Zhou serves for a time as an advisor to General Liu Guangshi ( 劉光世 ) , whose troops are garrisoned in Henan Province . But Zhou later becomes an outlaw himself after he aids the heroes of the Water Margin and is forced to flee from government forces . Meanwhile , he learns his elderly classmate Jin Tai is close to death and hurries to Shaolin ( where the general had become a Buddhist monk after the murder of his family ) to pay his last respects . As the oldest of Tan 's pupils , Jin orders Zhou to find a talented youth to pass on all of his martial arts knowledge to . However , this reunion is cut short when the troops track him to Shaolin . He flees to Wine Spring mountain and lives in hiding for sometime before being invited by his old friend Wang Ming ( 王明 ) to become the precept of the Wang family in Unicorn Village . = = = Old age and death = = = One day , Zhou surprises the children with a written exam and leaves the classroom to speak with a visitor . Wang 's son , Wang Gui ( 王贵 ) , tricks their maid 's son , Yue Fei , into completing their assignment while they go outside to play . After easily finishing the task at hand , Yue writes a heroic poem on a whitewashed wall and signs it with his name . The children then burst into the classroom upon learning of Zhou 's forthcoming return and tell Yue to escape in order to avoid apprehension . The old teacher eventually discovers the ruse and , after marveling at Yue 's impromptu ballad , asks Yue to fetch his mother , Lady Yao ( 姚夫人 ) , for an important meeting . With the entire Wang household assembled in the main hall , Zhou asks the Lady for her blessing to have the boy as his adopted son and student . She consents and Yue takes his seat amongst Zhou 's students the following morning . Because Zhou knows Yue is poor , he commands the four students to become sworn brothers . Zhou also begins to teach Yue all of the eighteen weapons of war . Six years later , Zhou takes the group to visit his old friend , the abbot of a small Buddhist temple on the " Hill of Dripping Water " . Thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Yue wanders behind the temple and finds the " Cave of Dripping Water " , in which lives a magical snake . When it lunges at Yue , he dodges to one side and pulls on its tail with his supernatural strength , causing it to turn into an 18 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , gold @-@ plated spear named the " Supernatural Spear of Dripping Water " . When they return home , Zhou begins to drill all of his students in the military arts — eighteen weapons of war , archery , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . After three years of practice , Zhou enters them into a preliminary military examination in Tangyin in which sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Yue wins first place by shooting a succession of nine arrows through the bullseye of a target two hundred and forty paces away . After his display of marksmanship , Yue is asked to marry the daughter of Li Chun ( 李春 ) , an old friend of Zhou 's and the county magistrate who presided over the military exams . Father and son then return home to their village . Magistrate Li writes out a marriage certificate and dispatches a messenger to deliver the document to Yue Fei in Unicorn Village . Zhou and Yue set out at dawn and travel back to Tangyin to thank the Magistrate for his generosity and kindness . There , Li prepares a great feast for them , but when food is brought out for any servants that might have accompanied them , Zhou comments that they had come on foot without help . Li decides to let Yue pick from any one of his thousands of horses because every able military man needs a strong steed . After finishing their feast , Zhou and Yue thank Li once again and leave Tangyin to return home . During their journey , Zhou recommends that Yue run the horse to test its speed . Yue spurs the horse on leaving Zhou in pursuit . When they reach the village gate , the two dismount and Zhou returns to his study where he feels hot from the race and removes his outer garments to fan himself . But he soon falls ill and stays bedridden for seven days . Then the book describes his death and burial : " ... his phlegm bubbled up and he died . This was on the fourteenth day of the ninth month in the seventeenth year of the Reign of Xuan He , and his age was seventy @-@ nine ... Buddhist and Taoist Priests were asked to come and chant prayers , for seven times seven , namely forty @-@ nine days . Then the body was taken up to be buried beside the Hill of Dripping Water " . Yue lives in a shed by his grave through the winter and in the second lunar month of the following year , his martial brothers come and pull the building down , forcing him to return home and take care of his mother . The quoted death date is not only unreliable because the book is fiction , but also because the Xuan He reign era of Emperor Huizong lasted only seven years ( 1119 – 1125 ) and not seventeen . Although The Story of Yue Fei states Zhou died shortly before Yue took a wife , he historically died after Yue married . It is likely that the original author invented this fictional date . = = = Family = = = According to The Story of Yue Fei , Zhou was married with a son . But Zhou comments that his " old wife " died and his " small son " was killed in battle against the Liaos after leaving with the outlaw Lu Junyi to fight in the war . In The Legend of Zhou Tong , his wife is named Meng Cuiying ( 孟翠英 ) and his son is named Zhou Yunqing ( 周云清 ) . He defeats Meng in a lei tai martial arts contest and wins her as his wife . But she is shortly thereafter kidnapped by the wicked monks of the Stone Buddha temple . Both Zhou and Meng eventually defeat the monks with their combined martial skills and later marry at the Miaochuan Pass in Hubei province . Zhou Yunqing first appears as a fierce , impulsive young man who rides his horse into the thick of enemy encampments wielding a long spear . He later dies in battle against the Liao Dynasty . After his son 's death , Zhou retreats to the Xiangguo Temple for a long morning period . He later takes seven @-@ year @-@ old Yue Fei as his adopted son and sole heir years after the boy 's father drowns in a great flood : " I see that he [ Yue Fei ] is clever and handsome and I , an old man , wish to have him as my adopted son ... He need change neither his name nor his surname . I only want him to call me father temporarily so that I can faithfully transmit all the skills I have learned in my life to a single person . Later , when I die , all he has to do is to bury my old bones in the earth and not allow them to be exposed , and that is all " . However , after comparing events from The Story of Yue Fei and an account of Yue 's life from the sixteenth @-@ century work Restoration of the Great Song Dynasty : The Story of King Yue ( 大宋中興岳王傳 ) , literary critic C.T. Hsia concluded " that his father did not [ historically ] die in the flood and that , although Yueh Fei showed almost filial regard for the memory of his teacher Chou T 'ung 同 ( not 侗 ) , the latter had not been his adopted father " . The Restoration of the Great Song was one of the earliest of four " historical novels " ( fictionalized dynastic chronologies ) written about Yue during the Ming Dynasty , all of which predate The Story of Yue Fei . Despite the addition of popular legends , Xiong Damu ( fl 1552 ) , the author of the The Story of King Yue , relied heavily on historical chronologies including Zhu Xi 's ( 1130 – 1200 ) Outlines and Details Based on the T 'ung @-@ chien , Yue Ke 's family memoir , and the Yuan Dynasty 's official Yue Fei Biography to write his story . So , The Story of Yue Fei was the first full @-@ blown fictionalized novel to introduce the adoption storyline . = = = Appearance and voice = = = He is generally portrayed as a large elderly man with a powerful voice . A modern folktale by noted Yangzhou storyteller Wang Shaotang ( 1889 – 1968 ) , whom folklore researcher Vibeke Børdahl called " the unrivaled master of this [ the 20th ] century " , describes Zhou thus , " He was beyond the age of fifty , he was more than fifty , and standing upright he measured about eight feet . His face had a golden tan , arched brows , a pair of bright eyes , a regular head form , a square mouth , a pair of protruding ears , and under his chin there were three locks of beard , a grizzled beard . On his head he wore a sky @-@ blue satin scarf , and he was dressed in a stately sky @-@ blue satin coat with a silken girdle , a pair of wide black trousers without crotch and satin boots with thin soles " . Heroes and religious masters with above normal height are a recurring theme in Chinese folklore . For instance , his student Wu Song is said to be over nine feet tall in the same folktale . In The Story of Yue Fei , the General simultaneously duels with two other warriors vying for first place in a military exam ; one is nine feet tall and the other is eight feet tall . A Hagiography of the Taoist saint Zhang Daoling states he was over seven feet tall . When Zhou is vocalized in " Yangzhou storytelling " , he speaks in " Square mouth public talk " , which is a manner of speaking reserved for martial heroes , highly respected characters , or , sometimes , lesser characters that pretend to be an important hero . Square mouth public talk is actually a mixture of two forms of dialogue : Fangkou and Guanbai . Fangkou ( square mouth ) is a manner of steady , yet forceful over pronunciation of dialogue that was possibly influenced by Northern Chinese opera . Guanbai ( public talk ) is monologue and dialogue that is sometimes used for " imposing heroes " . This mixture of styles means Zhou Tong is treated as a highly regarded hero . In her analysis of Yangzhou storytelling , Børdahl noted that the aforementioned tale about Zhou and Wu Song uses different forms of dialogue for both characters . Wu speaks square mouth utilizing standard mandarin without rusheng ( short glottal syllables ) . On the contrary , Zhou speaks squaremouth using the Yangzhou tone system , which does utilize rusheng syllables . Therefore , she believes " square mouth dialogue should at least be divided into two subcategories , namely the Wu Song variant — without rusheng , and the Zhou Tong variant — with rusheng " . = = = Students = = = = = = = Water Margin outlaws = = = = The Water Margin ( c . 1400 ) is a Ming Dynasty military romance about one hundred and eight demons @-@ born @-@ men and women who band together to rebel against the lavish Song Dynasty government . Lin Chong and Lu Junyi , two of these outlaws , are briefly mentioned as being Zhou 's previous students in The Story of Yue Fei . They are not characters within the main plot , though , as both are killed by " villainous officials " prior to Zhou becoming precept of the Wang household . Most importantly , the two were not among his historical students since they are fictional characters . Zhou 's portrayal as their teacher is connected to a recurring element in Chinese fiction where Tang and Song Dynasty heroes train under a " celestial master " , usually a Taoist immortal , prior to their military exploits . C.T. Hsia suggests the mold from which all other similar teachers are cast is Guiguzi , master of the feuding strategists Sun Bin and Pang Juan , from the Yuan Dynasty tale Latter Volume of the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Seven Kingdoms ( 七國春秋後集 ) . Hsia goes on to say that Qian Cai , Yue 's fictional biographer , associated Zhou with the outlaws because " most such teachers [ in the military romance genre ] are celestials " with at least two students . But in adopting this format , Qian reversed the traditional pattern of " celestial tutelage " since Zhou is written as a human , while his students are reincarnations of demons ( Lin and Lu ) and the celestial bird Garuda ( Yue Fei ) . Although Lin and Lu have been connected to Zhou since the early Qing Dynasty , Wu Song did not become associated with him until Wang Shaotang created a 20th @-@ century folktale in which the two meet in Kaifeng . The tale takes place during Wu 's mission to Kaifeng , but before the murder of his older brother Wu Dalang . Zhou teaches Wu the " Rolling Dragon " style of swordplay during the constable 's one @-@ month stay in the capital city . This tale was chapter two of Wang 's " Ten chapters on Wu Song " storytelling repertoire , which was later transcribed and published in the book Wu Sung in 1959 . It eventually carried over into the storyline of Iron Arm , Golden Sabre and , subsequently , The Legend of Zhou Tong . In the latter version , Wu instead learns Chuo Jiao boxing from Zhou during a two month stay in the capital . Wang 's tale portrays Zhou as an aging itinerant swordmaster with " a fame reverberating like thunder " throughout the underworld society of Jianghu . He is made the sworn brother of the outlaw " Flowery Monk " Lu Zhishen , a military officer @-@ turned @-@ fighting monk , who is , according to Hsia , first among the most popular protagonists of the Water Margin . He is also given the nickname " Iron Arm " ( 铁臂膀 ) , which carried over into the title of his fictional biography Iron Arm , Golden Sabre . While the tale fails to explain the reason for the moniker , it does mention Zhou 's ability to direct his qi to any part of his body to make it hard enough to overpower the " Iron shirt " technique of another martial artist . Furthermore , Zhou shares the same nickname with Cai Fu , an executioner @-@ turned @-@ outlaw known for his ease in wielding a heavy sword . Because of his association with these outlaws , Zhou is often confused with the similarly named outlaw " Little Conqueror " Zhou Tong . In the Water Margin , this Zhou Tong is a bandit chief of Mount Peach Blossom whom Lu Zhishen beats for trying to forcibly marry the daughter of the Liu family . He dies later under the sword of Li Tianrun , an officer in the rebel army of Fang La . So , the connection between both Zhou 's is based solely on the romanized transcription of their name . = = = = Yue Fei = = = = The Story of Yue Fei comments Lu Junyi is Zhou 's last student prior to taking on seven @-@ year @-@ old Yue Fei and his three sworn @-@ brothers Wang Gui , Tang Huai ( 湯懷 ) and Zhang Xian ( 張顯 ) . He teaches them literary and military lessons on even and odd days . The novel says Yue is talented in all manners of " literary and military matters " and even surpasses the skill of Lin and Lu . After Yue acquires his " Supernatural Spear of Dripping Water " , Zhou tutors all of his students in the eighteen weapons of war , but each excels with one in particular ; Yue Fei and Tang Huai , the spear ; Zhang Xian , the Hook @-@ Sickle spear and Wang Gui , the Yanyue Dao . All of them learn the skill of archery in addition . Some of these and other children are mentioned in Yue Ke 's memoir as being his grandfather 's historical childhood friends , but they are never specified as being Zhou 's students . Books written by modern @-@ day martial artists make many claims that are not congruent with historical documents or current scholarly thought . For instance , internalist Yang Jwing @-@ Ming says Zhou was a scholar who studied martial arts in the Shaolin Monastery and later took Yue as his student after the young man worked as a tenant farmer for the official @-@ general Han Qi ( 韓琦 , 1008 – 1075 ) . During this time , he learned all types of military weapons , horseback riding , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The General later created Xingyi and Eagle Claw boxing from his internal and external training under Zhou . However , history Prof. Meir Shahar notes that unarmed boxing styles did not develop at Shaolin until the late Ming Dynasty . He also states that Ji family memoirs and Qing Dynasty records suggest Xingyi was created hundreds of years after the death of Yue by a spearplayer named Ji Jike ( fl . 1651 ) . In addition , the appearance of Han Qi in the story is a chronological anachronism since he died nearly 30 years before Yue 's birth . Yue historically worked as a tenant farmer and bodyguard for descendants of Han Qi in 1124 after leaving the military upon the death of his father in late 1122 , but he learned from Zhou well before this time . Eagle Claw Grandmasters Leung Shum and Lily Lau believe " Jow Tong " ( the Cantonese rendering of his name ) was a monk who brought young Yue to the Shaolin Monastery and taught him a set of hand techniques , which Yue later adapted to create his Ying Kuen ( Eagle fist ) . Liang Shouyu states practitioners of Emei Dapeng Qigong believe Yue trained under Zhou as a child and competed to become China 's top fighter at an early age . Their lineage story dictates Zhou also took Yue to a " Buddhist hermit " who taught him said qigong style . Northern Praying Mantis Master Yuen Mankai says Zhou taught Yue the " same school " of martial arts as he did his Water Margin students and that the General was the originator of the praying mantis technique " Black Tiger Steeling [ sic ] Heart " . Although Martial arts historian Stanley Henning admits that Yue 's biographies do not mention boxing , he says " he [ Yue ] almost certainly did practice some form of bare handed fighting " to prepare for his weapons training . But he does not suggest who Yue might have learned it from . = = = Martial arts = = = There is insufficient historical evidence to support the claim he knew any skills beyond archery . Contemporary records never once mention Zhou teaching Yue boxing . Despite this , various wuxia novels and folk legends have attributed many different military and supernatural skills to Zhou . These range from mastery of the bow , double swords and Chinese spear to that of Wudang hard qigong , Chuojiao boxing and even X @-@ ray vision . Wang Shaotang 's folktale even represents him as a master of Drunken Eight Immortals boxing . Zhou can also be linked to these combat arts through his historical and folklore students . Practitioners of Eagle Claw , Chuojiao and Xingyi commonly include him within their lineage history because of his association with Yue Fei , the supposed progenitor of these styles . Yuen Mankai believes Zhou taught Lin Chong and Lu Junyi the " same school " of martial arts that was later combined with seventeen other schools to create Mantis fist . This combination of various schools refers to an eighteenth @-@ century martial arts manual that describes the gathering of eighteen masters at the Shaolin Monastery that supposedly took place during the early years of the Song Dynasty . Lin Chong and Yan Qing are listed as two of the eighteen masters invited , which means their skills of Mandarin Duck Leg and ground fighting are treated as two separate schools , instead of one . But he believes Mantis fist was created during the Ming Dynasty , and was therefore influenced by these eighteen schools from the Song . He also says Lu Junyi taught Yan Qing the same martial arts as he learned from Zhou . Very few references are made to the people who supposedly taught martial arts to Zhou . In The Legend of Zhou Tong , he learns as a child from a Shaolin master named Tan Zhengfang . Practitioners of Chuojiao claim he learned the style from its creator , a wandering Taoist named Deng Liang . Practitioners of Geok Gar Kuen , a style attributed to Yue Fei , believe he studied under Han De , a " chivalrous person " from Shaanxi . = = In popular culture = = Zhou has appeared in various kinds of media including novels , comic books , and movies . Apart from The Story of Yue Fei and Iron Arm , Golden Sabre , he appears in a novel based around his older martial arts brother , Jin Tai . A recent graphic novel of The Story of Yue Fei , deletes all mythological elements from the storyline and presents it in a historical manner . Instead of traveling from Hebei to Hubei to inspect land , Zhou travels from Shaanxi to Kaifeng City in Henan to visit an old friend who had been promoted to General . While en route to the capital city , Zhou takes note of a great famine plaguing the peasantry and even hears stories of some people resorting to Cannibalism . However , when he arrives in Kaifeng , he sees the empire is wasting money on the construction of large imperial gardens , the court officials Cai Jing and Wang Pu have extravagant residencies , and hears that even eunuchs are rich because they are given high government posts . Upon locating his friend , Zhou is distressed to find him in stocks and shackles and being escorted to the farthest reaches of China by imperial guards . He later learns that the General had accidentally offended some court officials and was sentenced to permanent exile on some trumped up charges . Apparently having little or no money , Zhou decides to visit Wang Ming in Hubei ( mistakenly called Hebei ) and becomes the estate 's tutor . Another noticeable difference in the storyline takes place when Zhou travels with his teenage disciples to visit his friend the Abbot . Instead of Yue wandering behind the temple to battle the magical snake , he stays with Zhou and the Abbot , while the other disciples go off to explore . Zhou watches as the Abbot tests Yue 's strength by asking him to move an ornate three @-@ hundred pound copper stove dating from the Han Dynasty . The abbot then lifts a stone floor tile and presents the boy with a large book on military strategy . He goes on to tell Yue how he was once a great soldier who fought in campaigns against the Liao and Western Xia empires , but became a monk after the Song agreed to become a vassal of each state . He later made a name for himself by teaching military skills to youths from the surrounding area . Since he has no heir of his own , the Abbot presents Yue with his own personal spear and instructs him in the proper use of the weapon . Zhou kindly protests the gift at first , but allows Yue to keep it out of friendship . A second graphic novelization drastically changes the storyline involving Zhou . Like the original , Zhou becomes the tutor of the Wang estate , but , when news of his arrival prompts rich families to send their sons to learn from him , he is forced to accept droves of these students on a trial basis . He eventually chooses his friends ' sons as his indoor disciples and Yue as his " godchild " . Years later , he takes his now teenage students not to see the Buddhist abbot , but to teach them military strategy out in the mountain wilderness . Yue senses trouble after his martial brothers separate to explore the forest and rushes off to rescue them , only to be confronted by a monstrous snake . After vanquishing the beast with his sword , Yue discovers a magic glowing spear within a cave and reports back to Zhou . Following their training , Zhou becomes ill from overexposure to the cold mountain air on the return trip home and dies soon after . Instead of just Yue , all of his students live beside his grave for a mourning period of one hundred days before returning home to their families . These events take place three years before Zhou originally died in The Story of Yue Fei . Stories including Zhou have also been used to educate . The Secondary School system of Hong Kong teaches children the value of mentorship by making them read about the close teacher @-@ pupil relationship between Zhou and Yue . A morale tale called " Yue Fei Studies Archery " in Children 's Pictorial , a Chinese magazine tailored for children ages two through seven , demonstrates how great achievements are only made possible via diligent practice . The story states how young Yue stumbles upon Zhou 's training hall in a neighboring town while gathering fire wood . Yue applies to become a student , but Zhou tells him he must first practice the art of the " far @-@ sighted person " by staring into the morning sun to improve his eyesight . After years of unrelenting practice , Yue is able to spot a lone goose flying off in the distance and two cicadas on a tree far into the forest . Zhou then officially takes him as his disciple and adopted son . Under his tutelage , Yue is able to master the eighteen weapons of war and to shoot a falling leaf from one @-@ hundred paces away . He is mentioned numerous times in author Robert Liparulo 's thriller Deadlock ( 2009 ) . Zhou is first featured in chapter eight during a conversation between the main character John " Hutch " Hutchinson , a journalist bent on stopping the maniacal plans of a billionaire madman , and his friend 's young son Dillon , an archery enthusiast . When Hutch asks him if he had ever heard of the archery @-@ champion @-@ turned @-@ actor Howard Hill , Dillon replies : " I don 't think so ... You told me about Zhou Tong " . Hutch then says : " Oh , yeah . Zhou Tong was something . Taught the Song Dynasty to be the best military archers in history . But Howard Hill [ was the best ] " . Later in chapter fifty , while Hutch is trailing a killer through an airport , a page goes out over the intercom system for a " Mr. Zhou Tong " . When the page goes out again , Hutch muses : " Zhou Tong had been a famous archery teacher and military arts tutor in the Song Dynasty . [ Dillon and I ] had long telephone conversations about him , because of Tong 's blending of archery skills and self @-@ discipline . He was an inspiration to [ me ] . Dillon had sensed that and wanted to known everything about him " . He finally realizes that the page had to have been left by Dillon 's mother Laura to catch his attention . The page is sent to warn him of a trap , but Hutch receives it too late . Screen actors who have portrayed Zhou in film 's from the 1940s and 1960s include Wong Sau Nin , Li Ming , and Jing Ci Bo . Jing starred alongside a ten @-@ year @-@ old Sammo Hung , who played young Yue Fei . Veteran martial arts actor Yu Chenghui , who played the sword @-@ wielding antagonist in Jet Li 's Shaolin Temple , stated in a 2005 newspaper interview that he never shaved his trademark beard , even at the request of movie producers , because he wanted to portray Zhou in a future film . He went on to say " He is an outstandingly able person from the northern and southern Song Dynasties and many Water Margin heroes are his disciples . This person is very important in the martial arts and many people want to portray him in films " .

= Romanian Land Forces = The Romanian Land Forces ( Romanian : Forțele Terestre Române ) is the army of Romania , and the main component of the Romanian Armed Forces . In recent years , full professionalisation and a major equipment overhaul have transformed the nature of the force . The Romanian Land Forces were founded on 24 November [ O.S. 12 November ] 1859 . They participated in World War I , together with the Russian Empire forces in actions against the Central Powers and , despite initial setbacks , won the decisive battles of Mărăşti and Mărăşeşti . During most of World War II ( until August 23 , 1944 ) Romanian forces supported the Axis powers , fighting against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front . From August 1944 until the end of the war , Romania fought against Germany under the control of the Soviet Union . When the communists seized power after the Second World War , the army underwent reorganisation and sovietization . Following the Romanian Revolution , due to shortage of funds , many units were disbanded and much equipment was phased out . Likewise , Romanian military capability declined because of a lack of fuel as well as training . However , since the late 1990s , a number of positive changes have come about and the level of combat readiness is growing greatly ; since 1996 , the military budget has grown more than four times - rising from 636 million dollars to 2 @.@ 8 billion dollars in 2007 . Conscription has been abolished and professionalisation has been completed . = = Mission = = The Land Forces represent the most important component of the Romanian Armed Forces and they are destinated for execution of various military actions , with terrestrial or aeromobile character , in any zone or direction . The Land Forces must , independently or together with other Romanian military branches , conduct operations and defensive or offensive battles , for capture , or destruction of the invading enemy , being part of national , or multinational military structures . A part of the units which compose the current operational structure of the Land Forces , must be able to conduct military operations outside the national territory , together with the international military forces . = = History = = The first attempt to create an independent Romanian army was made by Gheorghe Magheru during the 1848 Wallachian Revolution , and it was based at Râureni ( now part of Râmnicu Vâlcea ) . However , Magheru rapidly ordered his troops to disband when the Ottoman forces swept into Bucharest to stop the revolution . = = = Romanian War of Independence = = = The current Romanian Land Forces were formed in 1859 , immediately after the unification of Wallachia with Moldavia , and were commanded by Alexandru Ioan Cuza , Domnitor of Romania until his abdication in 1866 . In 1877 , at the request of Nikolai Konstantinovich , Grand Duke of Russia the Romanian army fused with the Russian forces , and led by King Carol I , fought in what was to become the Romanian War of Independence . They participated in the Siege of Plevna and several other battles . The Romanians won the war , but suffered about 27 @,@ 000 casualties . Until World War I , the Romanian army didn 't face any other serious actions . = = = Second Balkan War = = = The Romanian Army entered the Second Balkan War against Bulgaria , allowing Romania to annex Southern Dobruja ( also known as the Cadrilater ) . Although some 330 @,@ 000 troops were mobilised , the Romanians met little resistance in Bulgaria and as such this is not considered a major conflict in Romanian history . This was due to historical claims on land . This area no longer belongs to Romania . = = = World War I = = = On July 6 , 1916 , Romania declared war on Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , following the initial success of the Brusilov Offensive ( a major Russian offensive against the armies of the Central Powers on the Eastern Front ) . The Romanian armies entered Transylvania ( then part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire ) , together with Russian forces . However , German forces under the command of General Erich von Falkenhayn stalled the attack in November , 1916 , and drove back the Romanians . At the same time , Austrian and Turkish troops invaded southern Romania , forcing the country into a two @-@ front war . The Central Powers drove deep into Romania and conquered the south of the country ( Wallachia , including Bucharest ) by the end of 1916 . The Romanian forces , led by Marshal Constantin Prezan , retreated into the north @-@ east part of Romania ( Moldavia ) . In the summer of 1917 however , Prezan , aided by the future Marshal , General Ion Antonescu , successfully defended the remaining unoccupied territories against German and Austro @-@ Hungarian forces led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen . General Alexandru Averescu led the Second Army in the victories of the Battle of Mărăşti ( July 22 to August 1 , 1917 ) and the Battle of Mărăşeşti ( August 6 to September 8 , 1917 ) . As a result of the Russian Revolution , Romania was left isolated and unable to continue the war , and was forced to sign the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers . Later on , in 1919 , Germany agreed , in the Treaty of Versailles Article 259 , to renounce all the benefits provided to it by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1918 . After the successful offensive on the Thessaloniki front , which put Bulgaria out of the war , Romania re @-@ entered the war on November 10 , 1918 , a day before its end in the West . = = = Hungarian @-@ Romanian War of 1919 = = = After World War I , Transylvania proclaimed union with the Kingdom of Romania . As a result , in April 1919 , the newly established Hungarian Soviet Republic vowed to retake the region by force , and Hungarian troops attacked Romanian formations in Transylvania . The Romanian Army defeated the Hungarians and conquered Budapest in August 1919 . From 1921 to 1939 in Transylvania Inspectorate General of Army no . 3 had subordinate the 6th and 7th Army Corps . By 1 April 1921 , when he disbanded Forces Western Command , to order 6th Army Corps ( and earlier structures ) have been generals Prezan Constantin , Constantin Christescu Traian Mosoiu , Mardarescu George , Nicholas and Arthur Văitoianu et al . After 1 April 1921 to 23 March 1939 , C. 6 A. was commissioned by General Nicholas Petal , Danila Pop Hanzu Alexander , John Prodan , Motas Dumitru Gheorghe Florescu and Christie Doe , prominent military leaders , whom Octavian Goga wrote that " in the interwar period , in Cluj in Transylvania , commanders have made a large @-@ scale opera and unanimous praise . " Three divisions were part of 6th Army Corps : 16th ( Dej ) , 17th ( Oradea ) and 20th Infantry Divisions ( Targu @-@ Mureş ) . With rapid and marked worsening international situation , especially in neighboring Romania , on 22 September 1939 , the 4th Army , recently founded , became Army Group Command no . 1 of Transylvania . = = = World War II = = = After General ( later Marshal ) Ion Antonescu took power in September 1940 , Romania signed the Tripartite Pact with the Axis Powers and subsequently took part in Operation Barbarossa in 1941 . An expeditionary force invaded the Soviet Union in Bessarabia and southern Ukraine , alongside the German Wehrmacht . The expeditionary force , ' Army Group Antonescu , ' was composed on 22 June 1941 of the 3rd Army , the 4th Army , the 2nd Army Corps , and the 11th Infantry Division . The 3rd Army comprised the 4th Army Corps ( 6th and 7th Infantry Divisions ) , the Cavalry Corps , the Mountain Corps , two separate artillery battalion , a TA unit , and the Air Force 's 3rd Army Cooperation Command . The 4th Army consisted of the 3rd Army Corps , the 5th Army Corps , the 11th Army Corps ( two fortress brigades ) , and the 4th Army Cooperation Command . The army group @-@ level 2nd Army Corps , under Major General N. Macici , controlled the 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions and the 7th Cavalry Brigade . Additionally the 1st Armoured Division was formed for service on the Eastern Front . The Army Group 's first offensive , in conjunction with the Eleventh Army , Operation Munchen , enabled Romania to retake the territory immediately east of the Dnister , former part of Moldavia . The Romanian Armies saw their first major battles at Odessa and Sevastopol , and in 1942 advanced with other Axis forces deeper into Soviet territory during Operation Blue . The greatest disaster for the Romanian expeditionary force on the Eastern Front came at Stalingrad , where , during the Soviet counter @-@ offensive of November 1942 , the thinly spread forces of the Third Army ( deployed north of Stalingrad ) and of the Fourth Army ( deployed south of Stalingrad ) were attacked by vastly superior Soviet forces and suffered combined losses of some 158 @,@ 000 personnel . During April – May 1944 the Romanian forces led by General Mihai Racoviţǎ , together with elements of the German Eighth Army were responsible for defending Northern Romania during the Soviet First Jassy @-@ Kishinev Offensive , and took part in the Battles of Târgu Frumos . In late August 1944 , the Red Army entered eastern Romania . On August 23 , 1944 , a coup led by King Michael I of Romania deposed Marshal Antonescu and set up a pro @-@ Soviet government . It has been estimated that the royal coup shortened the war for Romania by six months . Romania soon declared war on Nazi Germany , and the First and Fourth Armies were pressed into action . After the expelling of the last Wehrmacht remnants from Romania , the Romanian Armies took part in the Siege of Budapest and the Prague Offensive of May 1945 . = = = Cold War = = = The Soviet occupation of Romania led to a complete reorganisation of the Romanian Land Forces under the supervision of the Red Army . At the onset , pro @-@ German elements were purged from the Romanian armed forces . In 1944 – 45 , two divisions were formed out of Romanian volunteers — ex @-@ prisoners of war , trained and indoctrinated in the Soviet Union during the war , but also of many Communist activists . One was the Tudor Vladimirescu First Volunteer Division , under the command of Colonel Nicolae Cambrea , and the other the Horia , Cloşca şi Crişan Division , under the command of General Mihail Lascăr ( who later served as Minister of Defence from 1946 to 1947 ) . These two units formed the nucleus of the new Romanian Land Forces under Soviet control . The postwar reorganisation of the Land Forces included cavalry but the arm disappeared from the force with the disbandment in November 1954 of the 59th Cavalry Division at Oradea . After the Romanian Communist Party seized political power , the sovietization of the army commenced , under the supervision of the new Minister of Defence , Emil Bodnăraş . Thirty per cent of the officers and noncommissioned officers ( mostly experienced soldiers , and a potential source of opposition ) were purged from the military . This involved copying the Soviet model of military and political organisation , and changing the military doctrine of combat and defence , also in the context of Romania 's integration in the strategic system of the Soviets , at the beginning of the Cold War . In the early 1950s the RLF reached a level of 12 rifle , one mechanised , and one tank division . Between 1960 and 1964 the rifle and mechanised divisions were converted to motor rifle divisions , and reductions in strength began ; force size dropped to six motor rifle and two tank divisions by 1970 . From 1970 to 1976 , three more motor rifle divisions were formed , but one was deactivated in 1977 , and the eight motor rifle and three tank division figure remained that way for the rest of the Cold War . From 1947 to 1960 the country seems to have been divided into three major military regions : Cluj , Bacău , and Bucharest in the west , east , and south , respectively . In wartime the land forces in each military region would become an army corps with their headquarters in Cluj @-@ Napoca , Iaşi , and Bucharest . Armies seem to have succeeded military regions in 1960 , and three armies seem to have become four in 1980 . What is known is that on 01 @.@ 07 @.@ 1947 Fourth Army became 3rd Military Region , based in Cluj . The 3rd Military Region became the 3rd Army on 30 April 1960 , and the 4th Army on 5 April 1980 . During the 1980s , the land forces numbered 140 @,@ 000 personnel , of whom two thirds were conscripts . In 1989 four armies appeared to exist : the First Army at Bucharest , Second Army at Buzau , Third Army at Craiova , and Fourth Army at Napoca . In 1989 the land forces consisted of eight mechanised ( infantry ) divisions ( 1st , Bucharest , 2nd , Craiova , 9th , Constanta , 10th , Iași , 11th , Oradea , 18th , Timişoara , 67th , and 81st , Tirgu Mureş ) two tank divisions ( the 57th Tank Division at Bucharest and the 6th Tank Division at Tirgu Mureş ) , four mountain infantry brigades , and three airborne brigades . According to the 165 @-@ year ' History of Modern Romanian Artillery , ' in 1989 the 1st Army consisted of the 1st Mech Div , 57th Tank Div . , and the 2nd Mountain Brigade ; the 2nd Army of the 9th Mech Div , 10th Mech Div , 67th Mech Div , and 32nd TActical Rocket Bde ; the 3rd Army of the 2nd Mech Div , 18th Mech Div , and the 4th Mountain Bde ; and the 4th Army of the 11th Mech Div , 81st Mech Div , 6th Tank Div . , 1st Mountain Bde , 5th Mountain Bde , and 37th Tactical Missile Brigade . Motorised rifle divisions were organized along the Soviet model with three motorised rifle regiments , one tank regiment , and a full complement of 12 @,@ 000 infantry soldiers . The artillery , antitank , and air defence regiments of divisions provided specialised fire support that enabled motorised rifle and tank regiments to maneuver . The air defense regiments consisted of two anti @-@ aircraft artillery battalions and one surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) battalion , each composed of several batteries . In the late 1980s the artillery regiments of motorised rifle and tank divisions included two artillery battalions , one multiple rocket launcher battalion , and one surface @-@ to @-@ surface missile battalion . Surface @-@ to @-@ surface missile battalions were divided into three or four batteries , each equipped with one missile launcher . They operated thirty FROG @-@ 3 and eighteen SCUD missile launchers . The FROG @-@ 3 , a tactical missile first introduced in 1960 , was being replaced in other non @-@ Soviet Warsaw Pact armies . Proven to be fairly inaccurate in combat , FROG and SCUD missiles would be ineffective weapons carrying conventional high @-@ explosive warheads . Tipped with nuclear or chemical warheads , however , they could be devastating . According to one former Romanian official writing in 1988 , Romania produced chemical agents that could be delivered by battlefield missiles . = = = Post @-@ communist era = = = During the early 1990s , some major units were disbanded and a lot of equipment was phased out or scrapped due to a severe shortage of funds . The whole land forces structure was reorganized from armies into territorial corps , and from regiments into battalions . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the situation of the land forces was critical : the military budget was three times lower than in 1989 ( 636 million dollars ) , 50 % of the equipment was older than 30 years , and 60 % of the armoured vehicles and 85 % of the missile units were non @-@ operational . Due to lack of fuel and training , the level of combat readiness and military capability was extremely low ( only about 30 % of the entire land forces were operational ) . However , after 1996 the government took serious action ; the military budget was increased greatly , and modernisation of equipment commenced . Officially , the program to modernize and restructure the armed forces began on 11 April 2000 . = = Present organisation = = = = = Manpower = = = In 2005 , the army comprised eight combat , four combat support and two logistic brigades , while ten combat , five combat support and two logistic brigades could be further mobilised in case of crisis . Many of these units have been restructured , however , as part of the 2007 Force Plan . Currently , about 75 @,@ 000 military personnel and 15 @,@ 000 civilians comprise the armed forces , for a total of 90 @,@ 000 men and women . Out of these 75 @,@ 000 , cca . 43 @,@ 000 are in the Land Forces . = = = Modernisation = = = The Romanian military is undergoing a three @-@ stage restructuring . As of 2007 , the first short @-@ term stage was completed ( reorganisation of the command system , implementation of the voluntary military service ) . The year 2015 marks the end of the second stage ( operational integration in NATO and EU ) , while 2025 is the date when the long @-@ term stage is to be completed ( full technical integration in NATO and EU ) . The stages aim at modernising the structure of the armed forces , reducing the personnel as well as acquiring newer and improved technology that is compatible with NATO standards . Romania abolished compulsory military service on October 23 , 2006 . This came about due to a 2003 constitutional amendment which allowed the parliament to make military service optional . The Romanian Parliament voted to abolish conscription in October 2005 , with the vote formalising one of many military modernisation and reform programmes that Romania agreed to when it joined NATO in March 2004 . = = = Structure = = = In peacetime , the commander of the land forces is the minister of defense , while in wartime , the President of Romania becomes the supreme commander of the armed forces . The main combat formations of Romania are the 2nd Infantry Division Getica , and the 4th Infantry Division Gemina . Until 2015 the Romanian land forces fielded a third division , namely the 1st Division Dacia . Before June 2008 , the 1st and 4th divisions were known as the 1st Territorial Army Corps and the 4th Territorial Army Corps and in turn they used to be called the 1st Army and 4th Army prior to 2000 . However due to their personnel having been reduced considerably in order to reach compatibility with NATO standards they were renamed and reorganized as divisions . In 2010 , the Joint HQ command was renamed as 2nd Infantry Division Getica and received units from the 1st and the 4th Infantry divisions . The current chief of the Romanian Land Forces Staff is Major General Nicolae Ciucă , who succeeded Major General Mircea Savu on 7 January 2014 . The Land Forces official day is celebrated each year , on 23 April . = = Equipment = = The Romanian Land Forces have completely overhauled their equipment in the past few years , replacing it with a more modern one . The TR @-@ 85M1 " Bizon " main battle tank and the MLI @-@ 84M " Jder " infantry fighting vehicle are the most modern native made equipment of the Romanian Land Forces . Also , 43 ex @-@ German Gepard anti @-@ aircraft systems were commissioned in late @-@ 2004 . The Land Forces ordered about 100 US Army Humvees ; the first eight were delivered to the military police in December 2006 . 31 Piranha III armoured vehicles ( LAV III variant ) and 60 URO VAMTAC high mobility vehicles were also ordered in 2007 for deployment in Iraq and Afghanistan . Equipment Summary : = = Special Forces = = The evolution of the special forces within the Romanian Land Forces led to the establishment of the 1st Special Operations Regiment on 1 August 2009 , headquartered at Târgu Mureş . It later became the 6th Special Operations Brigade on 25 October 2011 , composed of a special operations battalion , two paratrooper battalions and a logistic battalion . The most famous and well trained unit is the 1st Special Operations Battalion " Vulturii " , which was legally created in late 2005 , after several batches of graduates had already been selected . Members of the special forces battalion have benefitted from courses abroad , such as the US Army Special Forces ( Green Berets ) course , the United States Marine Corps Force Recon course , as well as other courses . The Special Forces battalion became fully operational during 2007 , after a company had already been commissioned in early @-@ 2006 . The current Romanian reconnaissance battalions ( the 313th , the 317th and the 528th ) are also considered special forces units , and were formed in the 1960s during the communist regime . After the revolution , the units suffered from a lack of funds which resulted in the temporary disbandment of the 313th Battalion . However , their equipment was completely overhauled in the past few years and the combat readiness and capabilities have regained full strength . DIR , Rapid Intervention Squad of the Romanian Ministry of Defense is an elite special operations unit currently belonging to the Romanian Military Police . It is a special unit inside the military , formed of highly skilled individuals , a very large percentage of its members being champions in martial arts , kickboxing , athletic disciplines and so on . DIR was , until December 2003 , top secret . = = International missions = = The following troops are deployed abroad : 45 personnel in Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 23 in Sarajevo and 22 in Banja Luka ) - as part of EUFOR , since 2000 ( to be withdrawn ) 150 personnel in Peć , Kosovo - as part of KFOR 1 battalion in Zabul ( 479 personnel ) , 1 guard detachment in Kandahar ( 193 personnel ) , a reconnaissance squad in Mazari Sharif ( 6 personnel ) , Afghanistan - as part of ISAF ; additionally , a special forces squad ( 39 personnel ) and a training detachment ( 47 personnel ) are deployed there = = Training = = After the Romanian Revolution , many firing ranges and training areas were closed and abandoned due to lack of funds . Currently , the military schools and training units of the Romanian Land Forces are directly subordinated to the central headquarters . There are 3 military high schools ( Câmpulung Moldovenesc , Alba Iulia and Breaza ) , one military academy ( Sibiu ) , one officers school ( Piteşti ) , 3 training schools ( Sibiu , Piteşti , Buzău ) and 9 training battalions . In the past few years , lots of training exercises took place in Romania with other Balkan or Allied countries . Most of these exercises took place at Babadag , which is one of the largest and most modern training firing ranges and military facilities in Europe , with a total surface area of 270 square kilometres . It was announced on December 6 , 2006 that 1 @,@ 500 U.S. troops stationed at Mihail Kogălniceanu , which in time will form Joint Task Force East , will be using Babadag as a training base . = = Ranks and insignia = = The Romanian Land Forces distinguishes four career paths : officers ( Ofiţeri ) , warrant officers ( Maiştrii militari ) , NCO 's ( Subofiţeri ) and enlisted men ( Soldaţi şi gradaţi voluntari ) . The Marshal rank can be given only in wartime by the President of Romania ; in fact , Romania had only three marshals coming from the officers` rank in its history : Ion Antonescu , Alexandru Averescu and Constantin Prezan . Kings Ferdinand I , Carol II and Mihai I also held the rank of Marshal of Romania . King Carol I held simultaneous ranks as Russian Marshal and German Field @-@ marshal .

= Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! = Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! is a 2008 Australian documentary film about the Australian New Wave of 1970s and ' 80s low @-@ budget cinema . The film was written and directed by Mark Hartley , who interviewed over eighty Australian , American and British actors , directors , screenwriters and producers , including Quentin Tarantino , Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith , Jamie Lee Curtis , Dennis Hopper , George Lazenby , George Miller , Barry Humphries , Stacy Keach and John Seale . Hartley spent several years writing a detailed research document , which served to some degree as a script for the film , about the New Wave era of Australian cinema . It focused on the commonly overlooked " Ozploitation " films — mainly filled with sex , horror and violence — which critics and film historians considered vulgar and offensive , often excluded from Australia 's " official film history " . Hartley approached Quentin Tarantino , a longtime " Ozploitation " fan who had dedicated his 2003 film Kill Bill to the exploitation genre , and Tarantino agreed to help get the project off the ground . Hartley then spent an additional five years interviewing subjects and editing the combined 250 hours of interviews and original stock footage into a 100 @-@ minute film . Not Quite Hollywood , which premiered at the 2008 Melbourne International Film Festival , did not perform well at the box office upon its Australia @-@ wide release , but garnered universally positive reviews from critics and a nomination for " Best Documentary " at the 2008 Australian Film Institute Awards . = = Synopsis = = Not Quite Hollywood documents the revival of Australian cinema during the Australian New Wave of the 1970s and ' 80s through B @-@ movies including Alvin Purple , Barry McKenzie Holds His Own , Dead @-@ End Drive In , Long Weekend , Mad Max , The Man from Hong Kong , Patrick , Razorback , Road Games , Stork and Turkey Shoot . From 1971 through to the late 1980s , Australian directors began to take advantage of the newly introduced R @-@ rating which allowed more on @-@ screen nudity , sex and violence for audiences restricted to age 18 and over . " Ozploitation " — writer @-@ director Mark Hartley 's own portmanteau of " Australian exploitation " — was a subgenre of the New Wave which accounted for the critically panned " gross @-@ out comedies , sex romps , action and road movies , teen films , westerns , thrillers and horror films " of the era , commonly overlooked in Australia 's " official film history " . The film addresses three main categories of " Ozploitation " films : sex , horror and action . = = Interviewees = = The actors , directors , screenwriters and producers interviewed for the film were : = = Production = = As a child , Mark Hartley discovered many of the " Ozploitation " B @-@ movies from the 1970s and ' 80s while watching late @-@ night television , but was disappointed when they were completely overlooked in books he read detailing Australian cinema . After becoming an accomplished music video director , his interest in this era of Australian filmmaking grew and he spent years researching a potential documentary film . He was close to giving up on the project when he sent a 100 @-@ page draft of the script to American film director Quentin Tarantino , not expecting to receive a reply . Tarantino was a longtime fan of " Ozploitation " films and had even dedicated his film Kill Bill to Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith 's work . He replied the day after , telling Hartley that he would do whatever he could to get the film made . Hartley traveled to Los Angeles , California to meet with Tarantino , who agreed to sit for hours of interviews as one of the film 's most prominent interviewees . Hartley spent the following five years interviewing other actors , directors , screenwriters and producers , collecting original stock footage , and then cutting the 100 hours of interviews and 150 hours of film footage down into a 100 @-@ minute film . = = Release = = Not Quite Hollywood had its worldwide premiere at the Melbourne International Film Festival on 28 July 2008 , and was screened at the Australian Centre for the Moving Image . Its Australia @-@ wide release was a month later , on 28 August 2008 , and it had its overseas premiere at the Toronto Film Festival on 7 September 2008 , where distribution rights were secured for the United Kingdom , Canada , France , Russia , Germany and Benelux . The film was also screened at the Austin , Sitges , Warsaw , Helsinki and Stockholm International Film Festivals in 2008 , and featured at the London Film Festival on 25 October 2008 . The film did not perform well at the box office upon its Australian release , taking in a gross of A $ 108 @,@ 330 on its first weekend but only $ 31 @,@ 995 on its second weekend at a screen average of $ 681 on 47 screens . = = Reception = = Overall , Not Quite Hollywood received positive reviews from critics . Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 94 % of critics have given the film a positive review , " Certified Fresh " , based on 63 reviews , with an average score of 7 @.@ 4 out of 10 . Margaret Pomeranz and David Stratton of At the Movies gave the film four and three and a half out of five stars respectively ; Pomeranz commended Hartley for " the depth of his research and for creating a wildly entertaining film experience " , and claimed that " for those of us who remember the films , Not Quite Hollywood is a blast " . Sandra Hall , writing for The Sydney Morning Herald , gave the film three and a half out of five stars , believing that " Hartley 's own film is much livelier than most of those he is out to celebrate " . Jake Wilson of The Age similarly gave the film three and a half stars , but called the film " basically a feature @-@ length advertisement for its subject " , saying that it " moves far too rapidly to permit sustained analysis " . The Courier @-@ Mail 's Des Partidge , who gave the film four and a half out of five stars , disagreed , saying that " Brisk editing means the history is lively and fun " , and claimed in homage to The Castle , " Copies of Hartley 's film should go straight to pool rooms all over Australia when it becomes available on DVD . " Luke Goodsell of Empire Magazine Australasia gave Not Quite Hollywood five out of five stars , calling the film " fast , thrilling and often ribald " , while Leigh Paatsch wrote for the Herald Sun that " there is not a single instant where boredom can possibly intrude " , dubbing the film " an incredibly energetic and merrily messed @-@ up celebration of Australian B @-@ movies " . English director Edgar Wright named Not Quite Hollywood his fourth favourite film of 2008 , and called it " the best documentary ever . " = = = Awards and nominations = = = = = Films referenced = = A list of film referenced within Not Quite Hollywood , separated by genre . = = Box office = = Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! grossed $ 186 @,@ 986 at the box office in Australia , .

= Why Does It Hurt So Bad = " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " is a song recorded by American singer Whitney Houston for the 1995 film Waiting to Exhale . It was released on July 7 , 1996 , by Arista Records as the seventh and final single from the accompanying soundtrack . The song was written and produced solely by Babyface . Musically , it is an R & B ballad , and the lyrics chronicle a lovelorn lament . The song garnered positive reviews from critics , who commended Houston 's vocal effort . It charted in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number twenty @-@ six . It also reached a peak position of number twenty @-@ two in the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and number six on the Adult Contemporary chart . In Canada , the song reached a peak of number forty @-@ five on the RPM Singles chart . Although there is no official music video for the song , a performance of the song at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards was taped and is used as a promotional clip . The song was later included as a medley , in her My Love Is Your Love World Tour ( 1999 ) , along with a few other songs . = = Background = = Houston starred in the 1995 romance film Waiting to Exhale , directed by Forest Whittaker . Although Houston did not intend to contribute to the film 's soundtrack , when Whittaker hired Babyface to score the soundtrack , she opted in . Babyface , Houston and some other African @-@ American female singers recorded songs for the album . The song was one of the final additions to the soundtrack . " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " was originally written by Babyface for Houston , two years prior to the release of Waiting to Exhale , but Houston refused to record it at that time . " I wasn 't really in the mood for singing about why it hurts so bad , " said Houston . Two years later , according to Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly , the emotions of the movie merged with the real @-@ life circumstances of Houston 's troubled marriage to Bobby Brown . " Now , I 'm ready to sing not only the joys of things , but the pains of things , also , " Houston explained . = = Composition = = " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " is an R & B ballad . The song was written and produced by Kenneth Brian Edmonds , popularly known as " Babyface " . According to the sheet music book for The Greatest Hits at Sheetmusicplus.com , the song is written in the key of B ♭ major , and moves at a tempo of 69 beats per minute . It is set in time signature of common time and features a basic chord progression of B / E – Em – C ♯ m – G ♯ 7 . Houston 's vocals span from the note of Am7 to the note of D5 . According to Stephen Holden of New York Times , the song is a " lovelorn lament with a realistic twist " . He noted that , through the verses , the singer congratulates herself for breaking up with an abusive boyfriend and admits that she is still in love . = = Reception = = The song garnered mainly positive reviews from critics . Craig Lytle of Allmusic noted that Houston 's voice " sailed " through the song . Christopher John Farley of TIME commented Houston " particularly held her own " , with a " masterly balance of pop , zip , and soulful melancholy " . Steve Knopper of Newsday wrote : " It 's lower @-@ key and the singer , who also stars in the film , doesn 't feel compelled to perform constant vocal feats . " A writer for Boston Herald noted that the song was " understated " . Similarly , Larry Flick of Billboard commented that the song should have been released as the follow @-@ up to " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . " Paired with Babyface , Houston is positively luminous on [ this ] heartbreak ballad , performing with a perfect blend of theatrical melodrama and guttural soul , " he added . Deborah Wilker of South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel was mixed in her review commenting that the song was a " predictably histrionic follow @-@ up " to " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . But , Nick Krewen of The Spectator was even less enthusiastic , writing " [ ... ] the two guaranteed [ Whitney Houston ] hits – ' Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) ' and ' Why Does It Hurt So Bad ' – don 't really offer anything new . " Similarly , Cary Darling of Rome News @-@ Tribune gave a negative review . She noted that " [ the ] ballad ' Why Does It Hurt So Bad ' is [ more ] standard Whitney @-@ fare " . Released as the seventh and final single from the Waiting to Exhale : Original Soundtrack Album , the song debuted at number 60 on the Billboard Hot 100 , on the issue dated August 3 , 1996 . On the same issue , the song debuted at number 34 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart . The song later reached a peak of number 26 on the Hot 100 , and 22 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart . It also reached number six on the Adult Contemporary chart , while reaching a peak of 39 on the Adult Pop Songs chart . In Canada , the song debuted at number 98 on the RPM Singles chart , on the July 22 , 1996 issue . Later , on the September 15 , 1996 issue , it reached a peak of number 45 . = = Music video and live performances = = The song was not promoted through an official music video , although Houston appeared at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards held at Walt Disney Studios , Burbank and performed " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " . The performance was directed and taped by Bruce Gowers and was later used as a promotional clip to accompany the song . The performance features Houston sitting on a chair , wearing a white outfit , and singing the song . Houston performed the song on her My Love Is Your Love World Tour , in 1999 . The song was performed as a part of the " Movie Medley " , along with " I Believe in You and Me " , " It Hurts Like Hell " , originally performed by Aretha Franklin , and " I Will Always Love You " . This performance was taped in Sopot , Poland , on August 22 , 1999 and broadcast on Polish television channel , TVP1 . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Retrieved from CD liner notes = = Charts = =

= Hurricane Omar ( 2008 ) = Hurricane Omar was a strong hurricane that took an unusual southwest to northeast track through the eastern Caribbean Sea during October , 2008 . Forming out of a tropical disturbance on October 13 , Omar initially moved slowly in the eastern Caribbean Sea . By October 15 , Omar began to quickly intensify as deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Later that day , an eye developed and the storm began to accelerate to the northeast . Early on October 16 , Omar reached its peak intensity with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Shortly after , the hurricane rapidly weakened to Category 1 intensity . After slightly re @-@ strengthening the next day , Omar weakened to a tropical storm before degenerating into a non @-@ convective low pressure area . The remnants of Omar persisted until October 21 at which time it dissipated to the west of the Azores . Throughout the eastern Caribbean , Omar affected numerous islands , most of which only recorded minor impacts . Large swells and heavy rains impacted the ABC islands . Antigua and Barbuda sustained $ 54 million in damages , mainly on Antigua as nine homes were destroyed , several others damaged and many farms were inundated by flood waters . One person died in Puerto Rico after suffering a stress @-@ induced cardiac arrest . The United States Virgin Islands also sustained significant damage , costing roughly $ 6 million . Numerous boats and homes were damaged and over 100 power poles were snapped . Total losses from the storm were estimated at $ 79 million . = = Meteorological history = = On September 30 , a well @-@ developed tropical wave moved off the eastern coast of Africa and entered the Atlantic Ocean . Deep convection formed around a prominent mid @-@ level circulation as it moved towards the west . However , the convection diminished on October 2 before entering the Caribbean Sea a week later . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea , shower and thunderstorm activity redeveloped around the low . Continued development followed and the low was designated as Tropical Depression Fifteen at 0600 UTC on October 13 while located about 190 miles ( 305 kilometres ) south of the southeastern tip of the Dominican Republic . The previous steady westward motion that the system took across the Atlantic halted as it entered an area of weak steering currents and significant motion was not expected for another day or two . As the structure of the storm improved , it was upgraded to a tropical storm and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) gave it the name Omar . Located to the southeast of a broad and deep tropospheric trough and to the west of a low to mid @-@ level ridge , Omar took a counter @-@ clockwise turn on October 14 . Upon becoming a tropical storm , Omar began to undergo an extended period of rapid intensification as very deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Wind shear around the storm , which was previously inhibiting quick development , weakened , allowing for further strengthening . Later that day , an 11 @.@ 5 to 17 @.@ 2 mi ( 18 @.@ 5 to 27 @.@ 7 km ) wide eye formed as the storm began to turn towards the northeast due to the trough . With the formation of an eye , the Dvorak technique rendered an intensity of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , signifying that Omar had intensified into a hurricane . The intensification briefly stalled as the eyewall eroded and the center of the storm became slightly elliptical . However , deep convection persisted and strengthening was forecast as the storm neared Puerto Rico . Shortly after , the eye quickly became well @-@ defined and appeared on visible satellite images , an indication the storm was intensifying . The chances of rapid intensification were good as the storm featured well @-@ developed outflow and prominent banding features . With very warm sea surface temperatures , high ocean heat content , low wind shear , and a moist air mass , Omar quickly reached its peak intensity early on October 16 as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . During the intensification phase , the forward motion of the hurricane increased to 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . Once in the Atlantic Ocean , Omar began to rapidly weaken , with winds decreasing by 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) in 12 hours . Visible satellite images depicted an exposed low @-@ level circulation with convection displaced to the east due to a combination of very high wind shear and dry air . By October 17 , most of the deep convection associated with the system dissipated ; however , a brief decrease in wind shear allowed Omar to re @-@ strengthen to its secondary peak , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . During this phase , convection redeveloped around the center and an eye reformed . Later that day , the trough that caused the rapid northeastern motion bypassed Omar , leading to decreasing movement . A weakening storm , Omar continued towards the northeast due to a mid to upper @-@ level ridge located south of the system and the mid @-@ latitude westerlies to the north . Late on October 17 , wind shear increased once more as Omar tracked over waters below 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . Around 0000 UTC on October 18 , Omar weakened to a tropical storm as deep convection associated with it dissipated . Twelve hours later , while still producing tropical storm @-@ force winds , the storm degenerated into a remnant low pressure area . The remnants of Omar persisted until 0600 UTC on October 21 when it dissipated about 805 mi ( 1 @,@ 295 km ) west of the Azores . = = Preparations = = On October 15 , the governor of the United States Virgin Islands announced the final preparations for Hurricane Omar as he signed a State of Emergency declaration for the territory . Public schools would be closed on October 16 . All non @-@ essential workers would be dismissed at 10 a.m. local time . At 6 p.m. curfew was put in place for the same day . Only those with valid passes would be allowed to be out after the curfew was put in place . That same day , a Hurricane Warning and flash flood watch were put in place in anticipation of hurricane @-@ force winds and torrential rains from Omar . The American Red Cross planned to open shelters throughout the islands before the hurricane struck . Sandbags were also being distributed in St. Croix . A large oil refinery , which produces 500 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 79 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , was shut down and only necessary workers remained at the refinery . On Sint Maarten , officials advised residents to start all necessary actions to prepare for a hurricane . Residents were told to clear their yards of any debris or lose furniture that could become airborne during the storm , place shutters over windows and doors and assist elderly neighbors with shuttering their homes , and mariners should find a safe haven . A curfew from 10 : 00 p.m. on October 15 to 10 : 00 a.m. on October 16 was put in place . Due to the possibility of flash flooding , residents were to unclog and free up all waterways around their homes . Officials also warned people to stay away from areas prone to landslides until the " all @-@ clear " was given . Owners of livestock were advised to have insured that they were secured in holding areas . As a precaution , the water supply would be shut down from 8 : 00 p.m. October 15 to 8 : 00 a.m. October 16 . Four public areas , St. Peters Community Center , Dutch Quarter Community Center , Genevieve de Weever School , and the Salvation Army building would be used as emergency shelters . All public activities , flights , and schools were either closed or canceled on Puerto Rico . Eighteen shelters were open on the eastern part of the island . Also , on Anguilla , residents in the Sandy Ground , Valley Bottom , Welches and Mount Fortune areas were placed under evacuation orders . Shelters were opened throughout the island for those in need of shelter . Schools and government offices were also closed and visitors were told to leave the island . = = Impact = = Omar produced moderate damage throughout numerous islands , amounting to at least $ 60 million ( 2008 USD ) and one death was related to the storm . While it was moving little over the south @-@ central Caribbean , Omar brought prolonged tropical storm conditions to the ABC Islands . Sustained winds to near gale force battered the islands , although peak gusts to 58 mph ( 92 km / h ) were confined to Bonaire . In 24 hours , a maximum precipitation total of 4 @.@ 0 in ( 102 mm ) was recorded on Aruba , while 1 @.@ 7 in ( 43 mm ) and 1 @.@ 5 in ( 41 mm ) of rain fell in Curaçao and Bonaire , respectively . The high winds damaged roofs on all three islands , and rough seas caused beach erosion and significant damage to coastal facilities . Some rain damage also occurred , with significant flooding reported in some parts of Aruba . In the SSS Islands ( Saba , St. Eustatius , and Sint Maarten ) strong winds from Omar , gusting up to 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) , and high waves caused significant damage and coastal flooding . On Sint Maarten , rainfall from the storm totaled to 5 @.@ 4 in ( 139 @.@ 4 mm ) . Damage in Sint Maarten was mainly limited to beach erosion and scattered power outages . The island of Dominica suffered severe damage from Hurricane Omar . The village of Scotts Head , with a population of 450 , was cut off from the rest of the country as roads were extensively damaged . The village also suffered water losses , electricity shortage , and landline telephones were cut off . Ports throughout the country were severely damaged . All barge access for hauling sand and stones were destroyed . The airport also sustained some damage . Seven boats ran aground during the storm . Minor damage was reported in Anguilla . Two hotels sustained roof damage , downed treed knocked down power lines causing scattered power outages , and the rough seas caused severe beach erosion . Three cargo ships and seven boats ran aground and two other boats sank . In Antigua and Barbuda , winds from Omar were recorded at 40 mph , with gusts to 48 mph . Intense squall lines brought torrential rains , falling at rates of 2 in ( 50 @.@ 8 mm ) at times , peaking at 2 @.@ 22 in ( 56 @.@ 4 mm ) per hour from 0900 UTC to 1200 UTC on October 16 . The maximum recorded rainfall was 9 @.@ 1 in ( 232 @.@ 6 mm ) however , up to 11 in ( 279 @.@ 4 mm ) was estimated to have fallen in the mountains . Storm Surge was estimated at 2 – 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) with waves reaching 5 – 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height . Nine homes were destroyed and several landslides were reported . No fatalities were associated with Omar , and only a few sustained minor injuries . The most severe damage was dealt to roads and agriculture due to flooding . Seventy @-@ five people were forced to evacuate to shelters as their homes were flooded . Several farms were washed away , including their livestock . Numerous farmers lost their harvest due to flooding . Damages in Barbuda were estimated at $ 18 million . Agricultural losses in Antigua amounted to around $ 11 million ( 2008 USD ) and property damage amounted to $ 25 million . In Puerto Rico , a man died after he collapsed from cardiac arrest while trying to install storm shutters on his home . As a tropical wave , the precedent to Omar produced heavy rains over the island , causing minor flooding . After passing by Puerto Rico a second time , Omar produced locally heavy rains , which caused minor street flooding . On St. Croix , waves up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) from Omar sank about 47 boats , leading to a large oil spill around the islands . About 400 ships broke lose from the docks , 200 of which lost their anchors . Omar produced upwards of 7 in ( 177 @.@ 8 mm ) of rain on the island within a 24 ‑ hour span . Although St. Croix was brushed by the eyewall , sustained winds reached 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) with gusts to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) . Three people needed to be rescued when their ship struck a reef and began to sink . Most of the islands 55 @,@ 000 residents were without power as over 100 utility poles were destroyed . Damages on the island were estimated at $ 700 @,@ 000 with another $ 1 million in clean @-@ up costs . St. Thomas , one of the hardest hit islands , was left completely without power in the wake of the hurricane . All of the major intersections were shut down as traffic lights were either on the ground or without power . Damages on the island totaled to $ 5 @.@ 3 million . In the Gros Islet Quarter on St. Lucia , rough seas damaged a jetty and grounded a yacht . In Soufrière , four homes were destroyed by the storm surge , which also made some areas impassible . The storm surge also flooded parts of the Anse la Raye Quarter , leading to officials declaring a mandatory evacuation of the area . On Montserrat , very little damage was reported . A few minor landslides occurred in rural areas ; no impact was caused by them . On Nevis there was relatively little damage although the beachfront part of the Four Seasons Resort was severely damaged and was subsequently closed for an extended period . Throughout St. Kitts and Nevis , damage was estimated at $ 19 million . = = Aftermath = = The damage dealt to the agricultural sector of Antigua and Barbuda fueled major concerns for " food security " in 2009 . The government allocated about $ 33 @,@ 897 @,@ 420 to help develop and repair the industry . Significant expansions of croplands were discussed , 15 @,@ 000 ft2 ( 4572 m2 ) area , to help promote growth of the sector . On October 29 , in the wake of Omar , President George W. Bush signed a major disaster declaration for the United States Virgin Islands , allowing public aid to assist the islands . The Federal Emergency Management Agency or FEMA , had received 60 requests for public assistance throughout the area . Monetary value for the assistance was estimated at $ 3 million and growing . Twenty @-@ five departments and agencies were approved of for federal support , namely the U.S. V.I. Department of Public Works . Several non @-@ profit organizations also received support from FEMA , while those that did not meet the criteria were referred to the Small Business Administration ’ s low @-@ interest loan program . On Dominica , Omar 's close pass to the island left 30 families homeless and severely hampered the fishing community . On December 15 , the Board of Directors of the Caribbean Development Bank approved $ 9 @.@ 16 million for assistance to those affected by Omar on the island and to restore the infrastructure damaged by the hurricane . On December 18 , the government of Dominica invested $ 4 million in aid for the fishing communities impacted by Omar . A total of 140 fishermen were provided with $ 250 per week for a total of four weeks . Sixty @-@ two of which continued to receive funds due to their circumstances . The government also purchased 121 boat engines to distribute to fishers . Another $ 794 @,@ 000 was spent to repair 47 boats and construct another 28 that had been damaged or destroyed by Omar . The government also bought replacement fishing gear .

= Papal conclave , 1769 = A papal conclave which lasted from 15 February to 19 May 1769 was convoked after the death of Pope Clement XIII . It elected as his successor Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli , who took the name Clement XIV . = = Death of Clement XIII = = Clement XIII died suddenly on 2 February 1769 , a day before the date of the consistory that he had convoked to examine the demands for the general suppression of the Society of Jesus . The various courts under the House of Bourbon and the Kingdom of Portugal ( under the House of Braganza ) had exerted strong pressure on the Holy See to suppress this order through almost the whole of his pontificate . In 1759 Jesuits were expelled from Portugal , in 1762 from the Kingdom of France , in 1767 from Spain and in 1768 from the Kingdom of Naples , the Kingdom of Sicily and the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza . Clement XIII strongly defended the Society ( e.g. in the bull Apostolicum pascendi in 1765 ) , but without success . In January 1769 France and Naples seized the papal territories around Avignon , Benevento and Pontecorvo to force the pope to issue a decree for the suppression of the order . The sudden death of 75 @-@ year @-@ old Clement XIII left this difficult decision to his successor . = = List of participants = = Forty six out of fifty seven cardinals participated in the conclave : Carlo Alberto Guidobono Cavalchini ( created cardinal on September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Ostia e Velletri ; Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; pro @-@ Datary of His Holiness ; prefect of the S.C. of Ceremonies ; prefect of the S.C. of Bishops and Regulars Federico Marcello Lante ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina ; Sub @-@ dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; prefect of the S.C. of the Good Government ; governor of Balneario Gian Francesco Albani ( April 10 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Sabina ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Poland Henry Benedict Stuart ( July 3 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Frascati ; commendatario of S. Lorenzo in Damaso ; Vice @-@ Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church ; archpriest of the patriarchal Vatican Basilica Fabrizio Serbelloni ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Albano Giovanni Francesco Stoppani ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Palestrina Giuseppe Pozzobonelli ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria sopra Minerva ; archbishop of Milan Carlo Vittorio Amedeo delle Lanze ( April 10 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Prassede ; titular archbishop of Nicosia Vincenzo Malvezzi ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Marcellino e Pietro ; archbishop of Bologna Antonio Sersale ( April 22 , 1754 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Pudenziana ; archbishop of Naples Francisco de Solís Folch de Cardona ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Seville ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Spain Paul d 'Albert de Luynes ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Tommaso in Parione ; archbishop of Sens Carlo Rezzonico ( September 11 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Clemente ; Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church Antonio Maria Priuli ( October 2 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Marco ; bishop of Padua Fernando Maria de Rossi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Cecilia ; prefect of the S.C. of the Tridentine Council ; Latin Patriarch of Constantinople Girolamo Spinola ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Balbina ; legate in Ferrara Giuseppe Maria Castelli ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Alessio ; prefect of the S.C. for the Propagation of Faith Gaetano Fantuzzi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli ; prefect of the S.C. of the Ecclesiestical Immunities Pietro Girolamo Guglielmi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Trinita al Monte Pincio ; Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals Pietro Paolo de Conti ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Stefano al Monte Celio Lorenzo Ganganelli , O.F.M.Conv. ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . XII Apostoli Marcantonio Colonna ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria della Pace ; Vicar General of Rome ; prefect of the S.C. of the Residence of the Bishops ; archpriest of the patriarchal Liberian Basilica Buenaventura de Córdoba Espínola de la Cerda ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; patriarch of the West Indies ; vicar general of the Spanish army and fleet Giovanni Molino ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Brescia Simone Buonaccorsi ( July 18 , 1763 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Giovanni a Porta Latina Giovanni Ottavio Bufalini ( July 21 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria degli Angeli ; archbishop of Ancona Giovanni Carlo Boschi ( July 21 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Giovanni e Paolo ; Grand penitentiary ; prefect of the Congregation for the correction of the books of the Oriental Church Ludovico Calini ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Anastasia ; prefect of the S.C. of the Indulgences and Sacred Relics Antonio Colonna Branciforte ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Via Lazzaro Opizio Pallavicino ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Nereo ed Achilleo ; legate in Bologna Vitaliano Borromeo ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Aracoeli ; legate in Romagna Pietro Pamphili ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Trastevere Urbano Paracciani Rutili ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Callisto ; archbishop of Fermo Filippo Maria Pirelli ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Crisogono Alessandro Albani ( July 16 , 1721 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata ; commendatario of S. Maria in Cosmedin ; Protodeacon of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; Librarian of the Holy Roman Church ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Austria and the Kingdom of Sardinia Neri Maria Corsini ( August 14 , 1730 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Eustachio ; archpriest of the patriarchal Lateran Basilica ; secretary of the Supreme S.C. of the Roman and Universal Inquisition ; prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature of Justice ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Portugal Domenico Orsini d 'Aragona ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria ad Martyres ; Cardinal @-@ protector of the Kingdom of Naples Flavio II Chigi ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria in Portico ; prefect of the S.C. of Rites Luigi Maria Torregiani ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Agata in Suburra ; Cardinal Secretary of State François @-@ Joachim de Pierre de Bernis ( October 2 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon [ no deaconry assigned ] ; Cardinal @-@ protector of the Kingdom of France ; archbishop of Albi Giovanni Costanzio Caracciolo ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Cesareo in Palatio ; prefect of the Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature of Grace Nicola Perelli ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro Andrea Corsini ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Angelo in Pescheria Andrea Negroni ( July 18 , 1763 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of SS . Vito e Modesto ; secretary of the Apostolic Briefs Saverio Canale ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria della Scala ; commendatory abbot of Subiaco Benedetto Veterani ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of SS . Cosma e Damiano ; prefect of the S.C. of Index Twenty nine electors were created by Clement XIII , while fifteen by Pope Benedict XIV . Alessandro Albani received the red hat from Innocent XIII , and Neri Maria Corsini from Clement XII . = = = Absentees = = = Giacomo Oddi ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Lorenzo in Lucina ; Protopriest of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; archbishop of Viterbo e Toscanella Carlo Francesco Durini ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . IV Coronati ; archbishop of Pavia Luis Fernández de Córdoba ( December 18 , 1754 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Toledo Etienne @-@ René Potier de Gesvres ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Agnese fuori le mura ; bishop of Beauvais Franz Konrad Casimir von Rodt ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria del Popolo ; bishop of Constance Francisco de Saldanha da Gama ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; patriarch of Lisbon Christoph Anton von Migazzi von Waal und Sonnenthurn ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Vienna ; administrator of the see of Vacz Antoine Clairiard de Choiseul de Beaupré ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Besançon Jean @-@ François @-@ Joseph de Rochechouart ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Eusebio ; bishop of Laon Franz Christoph Freiherr von Hutten zu Stolzenfels ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Speyer Louis @-@ César @-@ Constantine de Rohan @-@ Guéménée ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Strasbourg = = Divisions in the College of Cardinals and the candidates to the papacy = = The papal conclave in 1769 was almost completely dominated by the problem of the Society of Jesus . The Sacred College of Cardinals was divided into two blocs : pro @-@ Jesuits and anti @-@ Jesuits , but several cardinals were neutral . The pro @-@ Jesuit faction , called Zelanti , grouped Italian curial cardinals who opposed the secular influences on the Church . Their leaders were Gian Francesco and Alessandro Albani and cardinal @-@ nephew of the deceased pope Carlo Rezzonico . The anti @-@ Jesuit bloc ( called also " court faction " ) grouped crown @-@ cardinals of the Catholic Powers : France , Spain and Naples . Respectively ruled at the time by Louis XV of France , Charles III of Spain and Ferdinand III of Sicily / Ferdinand IV of Naples . In spite of the national divisions they worked together for the main goal – suppression of the Society of Jesus . The Bourbon courts had decided to put the official leadership of this bloc in the hands of the French Cardinal de Bernis . He and his colleagues were instructed to block every pro @-@ Jesuit candidature , even with the official exclusion if necessary . Several cardinals , among them Lorenzo Ganganelli , did not belong to either faction . The Spanish and Neapolitan governments had classified forty three Italian cardinals into five categories : " good " ( eleven cardinals ) , " indifferent " ( eight ) , " doubtful " ( three ) , " bad " ( fifteen ) and " very bad " ( six ) : Cardinal Orsini , the official representative of the Neapolitan court , and all the foreigners , were not classified because it was certain that none of them would be ever elected pope . The French government was more fastidious than Spanish and Neapolitan . Only three cardinals were considered good candidates : Conti , Durini and Ganganelli Out of these 43 cardinals only 27 or 28 were actually considered papabile , while the remaining 15 were excluded due to their age or health . = = Conclave = = The conclave began on February 15 , 1769 . Initially only 27 cardinals participated . Zelanti , taking advantage of the small number of the electors and the absence of the French and Spanish cardinals , tried to achieve a quick election of Cardinal Flavio Chigi . In one ballot he was only two votes short of being elected . The efforts of Zelanti met with strong protests from the ambassadors of France and Spain , but , fortunately for them , Cardinal Orsini , protector of the Kingdom of Naples and the only crown @-@ cardinal present in the early ballots , was able to join some neutral cardinals to block Chigi ’ s candidature . An unprecedented event was the visit of Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , who arrived incognito in Rome on March 6 and was allowed to enter the conclave . He stayed there two weeks , freely debating with the electors . Fortunately , he did not press them but only expressed the wish for the election of a pope who would be able to carry out his duties with the proper respect for the secular rulers . Cardinal de Bernis entered the conclave at the end of March and took the leadership of the anti @-@ Jesuit faction from the hands of Cardinal Orsini , who could have blocked Zelanti ’ s actions only with the great difficulties . Bernis immediately established a regular correspondence with French ambassador Marquis d 'Aubeterre , which was in violation of the fundamental law of the conclave . Ambassadors of France and Spain urged Bernis to insist that the election of the future pope be made to depend on his written engagement to suppress the Jesuits . Bernis refused , answering that demanding from the future pope a written or oral promise to destroy the Society of Jesus would be in violation of the canon law . In spite of this refusal , during the next few weeks Bernis consecutively rejected all candidates proposed by Zelanti as too devoted to the Jesuits . In this way twenty @-@ three out of twenty @-@ eight papabile were eliminated , among them strongly pro @-@ Jesuit Cardinal Fantuzzi , who at some point was very close to achieving election to the papal throne , as well as Cavalchini , Colonna , Stoppani , Pozzobonelli , Sersale , and several others . The arrival of Spanish cardinals Solis and de la Cerda on April 27 strengthened the anti @-@ Jesuit party . They also violated the law of the conclave by establishing regular correspondence with Spanish ambassador Azpuru . The Spaniards had fewer scruples than Bernis and , supported by Cardinal Malvezzi , took the matter into their own hands . They paid attention to the only friar in the Sacred College , Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli , O.F.M.Conv. The attitude of Ganganelli towards the Jesuits was a great mystery – he had been educated by the Jesuits and it was said that he received the red hat at the instance of Father Lorenzo Ricci , general of the Society of Jesus , but during the pontificate of Clement XIII he did not engage himself in the defence of the Order . Cardinal Solis began by sounding him out as to his willingness to give the promise required by the Bourbon princes as an indispensable condition for election . Ganganelli answered that " he recognized in the sovereign pontiff the right to extinguish , with good conscience , the Society of Jesus , provided he observed the canon law ; and that it was desirable that the pope should do everything in his power to satisfy the wishes of the Crowns " . It is not certain whether it was a written or only an oral promise , but this declaration fully satisfied the ambassadors . In the same time Zelanti , also began to incline to give their support to Ganganelli , looking upon him as indifferent or even favourable to the Jesuits . It seems that the attitude of Zelanti was decided by the secret negotiations between their leaders Alessandro and Gian Francesco Albani and the Spanish cardinals . Cardinal de Bernis , the nominal leader of the court faction , probably did not play any role in the appointment of Ganganelli and only followed the instructions of Marquis d 'Aubeterre when all had been already known . = = = Results of the ballots = = = The results of the ballots between April 27 and May 18 were following ( only the leading candidates are included ) : April 27 – Fantuzzi – 10 ; Colonna – 9 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Ganganelli – 5 April 28 – Fantuzzi – 9 ; Colonna – 9 ; Pozzobonelli – 7 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 April 29 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 8 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 April 30 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 8 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 May 1 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 May 2 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 May 3 – Colonna – 9 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 May 4 – Colonna – 10 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 2 May 5 – Fantuzzi – 10 ; Colonna – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 3 May 6 – Fantuzzi – 11 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Colonna – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 May 7 – Colonna – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 7 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 May 8 – Colonna – 9 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 3 May 9 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 3 May 10 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Pozzobonelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 May 11 – Colonna – 11 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Ganganelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 3 May 12 – Colonna – 11 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 May 13 – Colonna – 13 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Ganganelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 5 May 14 – Colonna – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 9 ; Stoppani – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 4 May 15 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 9 ; Fantuzzi – 5 May 16 – Colonna – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 8 ; Stoppani – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 4 May 17 – Colonna – 12 ; Pozzobonelli – 12 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 1 May 18 – Ganganelli – 19 ; Colonna – 13 ; Pozzobonelli – 11 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 1 = = Election of Clement XIV = = In the final ballot on May 19 , 1769 Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli was elected to the papacy receiving all votes except of his own , which he gave to Carlo Rezzonico , nephew of Clement XIII and one of the leaders of Zelanti . He took the name of Clement XIV , in honour of Clement XIII , who had elevated him to the cardinalate . On May 28 the new pope was consecrated to the episcopate by Cardinal Federico Marcello Lante , bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina and sub @-@ dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals , assisted by Cardinals Gian Francesco Albani , bishop of Sabina and Henry Benedict Stuart , bishop of Frascati . On June 4 he was solemnly crowned by Cardinal Alessandro Albani , protodeacon of S. Maria in Via Lata

= West Hendford Cricket Ground , Yeovil = West Hendford Cricket Ground was a first @-@ class cricket ground located in Yeovil , Somerset . The land for the ground was first leased by Yeovil Cricket Club in 1874 , and was also used for a range of other sports , most significantly hosting Yeovil Rugby Club in the 1890s , and then again from 1935 until the ground was closed . Significant improvements were made to the ground during the 1930s , including the opening of a new pavilion , jointly funded by the Rugby and Cricket clubs . The ground was demolished in 1944 when Westland Aircraft extended their factory , and both Yeovil Cricket Club and Rugby Club moved to Johnson Park . Between 1935 and 1939 , the ground hosted five annual Somerset County Cricket Club matches in July or August ; the first of which nearly broke a county record for ticket sales on the gate . Somerset only won one of the five matches , the 1936 contest against Worcestershire . = = History = = Yeovil and County Cricket Club was formed in 1865 , and was the first attempt at setting up a county cricket team for Somerset . The attempt was unsuccessful , and the club broke up . In 1874 , the club was re @-@ formed with the lesser remit , as Yeovil Cricket Club . As part of the club 's resuscitation , the committee purchased the use of a field in West Hendford in Yeovil , from a local farmer , Mr Brook . The field , part of Key Farm , was leased for £ 10 . There is record of a match being played on the ground the following year between two sets of members of the Yeovil Cricket Club . During the late 19th @-@ century , the ground was used for other sports as well as cricket ; it had a grass athletics track , and also hosted Yeovil Football Club , who at the time played both association and rugby football . The football club played at West Hendford on an irregular basis during the late 19th @-@ century , but returned in 1935 , by which time they only played rugby , and had changed their name accordingly to Yeovil Rugby Club . In 1895 , the cricket club committee announced that there was provision for a longer lease , of five or seven years , and that they would make improvements to the ground to enable it to host first @-@ class cricket . The ground was also used for field hockey in the early 20th @-@ century , hosting a Yeovil Hockey Club . Somerset County Cricket Club played their first of five annual first @-@ class matches on the ground in 1935 . The match , against Surrey , was a significant event in the town , and a series of festivities were arranged to run alongside the three @-@ day contest , including a dance and a smoking concert . Entry for the match , which took place from 17 to 19 August was one shilling , and attracted over 5 @,@ 000 people , raising around £ 400 . Surrey won the match by eight wickets . The takings from this match helped the Yeovil Cricket Club make further improvements to the ground , expanding it and adding further seating . The following year , Somerset played Worcestershire at the ground , in what the Western Gazette described as " Yeovil Cricket Festival " . The captain of Yeovil Cricket Club , Richard Southcombe , was included in the Somerset team , which won the match by 170 runs . The takings were slightly lower than the previous year due to poor weather , but still described as " gratifying " . In 1937 , Sussex beat Somerset at the ground , in a match that once again drew a crowd of around 5 @,@ 000 . The Yorkshire Evening Post described the wicket as " crumbling " towards the end of the match , favouring the bowlers . In 1938 Hampshire visited , and the report in the Western Daily Press lamented the state of the wicket , which meant that the game , like the three first @-@ class matches at the ground before it , was completed in two days , rather than the scheduled three . That winter , a new pavilion costing £ 550 was erected on the ground for the shared use of the cricket club and the rugby club . The final first @-@ class match on the ground was played in July 1939 against Lancashire , but torrential rain limited the match to only three hours of play . The takings for the full three days of the match were only £ 87 , and the Taunton Courier estimated that the losses for the match could be hundreds of pounds . Despite the weather , almost 2 @,@ 000 people attended the match , and the Taunton Courier report praised the alterations that had been made to the ground ; the removal of a hedge made the ground lighter , while the ground itself had been well looked after , and drained quickly . The Second World War suspended the County Championship from 1940 to 1945 , and during that time , Westland Aircraft took over the ground to expand their factory , and informed Yeovil Cricket Club that it was no longer available , forcing them to search for a new ground in 1946 . They eventually relocated to the newly opened Johnson Park in 1948 . The rugby club also moved to Johnson Park , amalgamating itself into Yeovil Sports Club . After a short break , Somerset County Cricket Club returned to Yeovil , playing fourteen fixtures at Johnson Park between 1951 and 1970 , and eight matches at Westlands Sports Ground from 1971 to 1978 . = = Records = = During its limited use as a first @-@ class cricket ground , only one century was scored on the ground , by Jim Parks . During the 1937 match , he scored 140 runs for Sussex . The most wickets taken by a bowler in a match at West Hendford was achieved in 1938 , when Hampshire 's Stuart Boyes took twelve wickets , including nine in the first innings . Somerset 's only success on the ground was in 1936 against Worcestershire , who they dismissed for 60 runs in the first innings , and 77 in the second .

= New Year 's Eve ( Up All Night ) = " New Year 's Eve " is the twelfth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Up All Night . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 12 , 2012 . It was written by Erica Rivinoja and was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . The episode also featured a guest appearance from Jason Lee as Chris and Reagan 's neighbor and Ava 's boyfriend , Kevin . During Reagan ( Christina Applegate ) and Chris 's ( Will Arnett ) first New Year 's Eve game night , Reagan 's competitiveness comes out causing Chris to become embarrassed . Meanwhile , Missy ( Jennifer Hall ) brings an unexpected date along to the party and , Kevin ( Jason Lee ) starts to feel as though Ava ( Maya Rudolph ) may be ashamed of him . " New Year 's Eve " received mostly positive reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " New Year 's Eve " drew 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 5 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking a 5 % rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " First Christmas " . It ranked third in its timeslot and was the second highest @-@ rated NBC program of the night after The Office . = = Plot = = After not being able to find a baby @-@ sitter for Amy , Reagan suggests that the two throw a game night , an idea Chris doesn 't react well to . They invite Ava , Kevin , Missy , but Chris attempts to hide the games due to Reagan 's competitive nature . He tries to make her promise that she won 't be too competitive , but she does which makes the party awkward . While playing Rock Band the two get in a fight when Chris loses the beat on the drums because he was looking at his " drumming arm " . Reagan decide to a make a list of " Things We Are Going to Stop Doing That Embarrass Each Other in 2012 " , which features annoying habits that the two want each other to give up . However , before 2011 comes to an end the two erase every thing from the list except for Chris 's Borat impression and Reagen 's competitive nature . Meanwhile , Ava is asked to be the grand marshal to a New Year 's Day parade . This makes her boyfriend , Kevin , feel like he can 't live up to her lifestyle . He then starts thinking she may be ashamed of him , especially after he isn 't invited to sit with her during the parade . Eventually , Kevin confronts Ava on this and she reveals that if she messes up their relationship she doesn 't wanted to be reminded of it while Googling her name . He assures her that their relationship won 't end badly and the two go to the parade . = = Production = = " New Year 's Eve " was written by supervising producer Erica Rivinoja , marking her third writing credit for the series after " Mr. Bob 's Toddler Kaleidoscope " and " Parents " . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , who previously worked with creator Emily Spivey and executive producer Lorne Michaels on Saturday Night Live as director for 11 years . The episode features a guest appearance from Jason Lee as Kevin , Ava 's boyfriend . He first appeared in the eighth episode , " First Night Away " and is currently set to appear in a recurring role for the series . Lee had previously worked with Spivey and Michaels after hosting an episode of Saturday Night Live on November 12 , 2005 . This is the first time the series aired in the 9 : 30 pm timeslot for the first season after The Office ; the series previously aired in the 8 : 00pm timeslot on Wednesday . The series switched timeslots with another NBC comedy series , Whitney . Some media critics have said that the goal for moving the series was in order to make it more of a ratings success , like The Office . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " New Year 's Eve " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 12 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 24 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 5 % rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " First Christmas " . The episode finished third in its time slot along with The Office , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode , however , did manage to beat the Fox drama series The Finder and the CW drama series The Secret Circle . Added with DVR viewers , who viewed the episode within seven days of the original broadcast , the episode received a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 0 rating to the original viewership . = = = Critical reviews = = = " New Year 's Eve " received several positive reviews from critics . New York writer Steven Heisler praised the episode for avoiding " sitcom @-@ y territory " with the emotional ending . He also called the series a better choice to follow The Office then Whitney . The A.V. Club reviewer Margaret Eby complemented the believability of the main Reagen @-@ Chris plot . Despite this , she criticized the Ava @-@ Kevin subplot comparing it to a storyline from Sex and The City . She also noted the plotline didn 't stay true to the characters following their plotline in the previous episode , " First Christmas " . She ultimately rated the episode with a B. Adam Victavage of Paste called the episode a perfect transition from the previous episodes and allowed Ava to be " a loveable third wheel to a completely strong duo in Chris and Reagan " . He also reacted positively for the scenes featuring Missy , comparing her scenes to " early Ava , but less obnoxious " . He ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 7 / 10 calling it " commendable " . Bradford Evans of SplitSider praised Jennifer Hall 's performance calling her the " unsung hero " of the series . He also reacted positively towards the episode 's ability to unify the show and " keep all of the characters on the same turf " . He concluded that he hoped the series could make itself a vital part of the network 's lineup . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall called the episode " one its [ the series ] strongest episodes to date " . He wrote that the addition of Jason Lee humanized Ava more and gave her a more natural reason to visit Reagan and Chris at home . He also wrote that the episode worked on a " character level " .