Daily Papers

While Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities in natural language understanding and generation, their performance often lags in lower-resource, non-English languages due to biases in the training data. In this work, we explore strategies for adapting the primarily English LLMs (Llama-2 and Llama-3) to Dutch, a language spoken by 30 million people worldwide yet often underrepresented in LLM development. We collect 104GB of Dutch text (32B tokens) from various sources to first apply continued pretraining using low-rank adaptation (LoRA), complemented with Dutch posttraining strategies provided by prior work. For Llama-2, we consider using (i) the tokenizer of the original model, and (ii) training a new, Dutch-specific tokenizer combined with embedding reinitialization. We evaluate our adapted models, ChocoLlama-2, both on standard benchmarks and a novel Dutch benchmark, ChocoLlama-Bench. Our results demonstrate that LoRA can effectively scale for language adaptation, and that tokenizer modification with careful weight reinitialization can improve performance. Notably, Llama-3 was released during the course of this project and, upon evaluation, demonstrated superior Dutch capabilities compared to our Dutch-adapted versions of Llama-2. We hence apply the same adaptation technique to Llama-3, using its original tokenizer. While our adaptation methods enhanced Llama-2's Dutch capabilities, we found limited gains when applying the same techniques to Llama-3. This suggests that for ever improving, multilingual foundation models, language adaptation techniques may benefit more from focusing on language-specific posttraining rather than on continued pretraining. We hope this work contributes to the broader understanding of adapting LLMs to lower-resource languages, and to the development of Dutch LLMs in particular.

Pre-trained multilingual language models underpin a large portion of modern NLP tools outside of English. A strong baseline for specializing these models for specific languages is Language-Adaptive Pre-Training (LAPT). However, retaining a large cross-lingual vocabulary and embedding matrix comes at considerable excess computational cost during adaptation. In this study, we propose several simple techniques to replace a cross-lingual vocabulary with a compact, language-specific one. Namely, we address strategies for re-initializing the token embedding matrix after vocabulary specialization. We then provide a systematic experimental comparison of our techniques, in addition to the recently-proposed Focus method. We demonstrate that: 1) Embedding-replacement techniques in the monolingual transfer literature are inadequate for adapting multilingual models. 2) Replacing cross-lingual vocabularies with smaller specialized ones provides an efficient method to improve performance in low-resource languages. 3) Simple embedding re-initialization techniques based on script-wise sub-distributions rival techniques such as Focus, which rely on similarity scores obtained from an auxiliary model.

The success of self-supervised contrastive learning hinges on identifying positive data pairs, such that when they are pushed together in embedding space, the space encodes useful information for subsequent downstream tasks. Constructing positive pairs is non-trivial as the pairing must be similar enough to reflect a shared semantic meaning, but different enough to capture within-class variation. Classical approaches in vision use augmentations to exploit well-established invariances to construct positive pairs, but invariances in the time-series domain are much less obvious. In our work, we propose a novel method of using a learned measure for identifying positive pairs. Our Retrieval-Based Reconstruction (REBAR) measure measures the similarity between two sequences as the reconstruction error that results from reconstructing one sequence with retrieved information from the other. Then, if the two sequences have high REBAR similarity, we label them as a positive pair. Through validation experiments, we show that the REBAR error is a predictor of mutual class membership. Once integrated into a contrastive learning framework, our REBAR method learns an embedding that achieves state-of-the-art performance on downstream tasks across various modalities.

Prompt tuning for pre-trained masked language models (MLM) has shown promising performance in natural language processing tasks with few labeled examples. It tunes a prompt for the downstream task, and a verbalizer is used to bridge the predicted token and label prediction. Due to the limited training data, prompt initialization is crucial for prompt tuning. Recently, MetaPrompting (Hou et al., 2022) uses meta-learning to learn a shared initialization for all task-specific prompts. However, a single initialization is insufficient to obtain good prompts for all tasks and samples when the tasks are complex. Moreover, MetaPrompting requires tuning the whole MLM, causing a heavy burden on computation and memory as the MLM is usually large. To address these issues, we use a prompt pool to extract more task knowledge and construct instance-dependent prompts via attention. We further propose a novel soft verbalizer (RepVerb) which constructs label embedding from feature embeddings directly. Combining meta-learning the prompt pool and RepVerb, we propose MetaPrompter for effective structured prompting. MetaPrompter is parameter-efficient as only the pool is required to be tuned. Experimental results demonstrate that MetaPrompter performs better than the recent state-of-the-arts and RepVerb outperforms existing soft verbalizers.

In Continual learning (CL) balancing effective adaptation while combating catastrophic forgetting is a central challenge. Many of the recent best-performing methods utilize various forms of prior task data, e.g. a replay buffer, to tackle the catastrophic forgetting problem. Having access to previous task data can be restrictive in many real-world scenarios, for example when task data is sensitive or proprietary. To overcome the necessity of using previous tasks' data, in this work, we start with strong representation learning methods that have been shown to be less prone to forgetting. We propose a holistic approach to jointly learn the representation and class prototypes while maintaining the relevance of old class prototypes and their embedded similarities. Specifically, samples are mapped to an embedding space where the representations are learned using a supervised contrastive loss. Class prototypes are evolved continually in the same latent space, enabling learning and prediction at any point. To continually adapt the prototypes without keeping any prior task data, we propose a novel distillation loss that constrains class prototypes to maintain relative similarities as compared to new task data. This method yields state-of-the-art performance in the task-incremental setting, outperforming methods relying on large amounts of data, and provides strong performance in the class-incremental setting without using any stored data points.

Recently, a new Continual Learning (CL) paradigm was presented to control catastrophic forgetting, called Interval Continual Learning (InterContiNet), which relies on enforcing interval constraints on the neural network parameter space. Unfortunately, InterContiNet training is challenging due to the high dimensionality of the weight space, making intervals difficult to manage. To address this issue, we introduce HyperInterval, a technique that employs interval arithmetic within the embedding space and utilizes a hypernetwork to map these intervals to the target network parameter space. We train interval embeddings for consecutive tasks and train a hypernetwork to transform these embeddings into weights of the target network. An embedding for a given task is trained along with the hypernetwork, preserving the response of the target network for the previous task embeddings. Interval arithmetic works with a more manageable, lower-dimensional embedding space rather than directly preparing intervals in a high-dimensional weight space. Our model allows faster and more efficient training. Furthermore, HyperInterval maintains the guarantee of not forgetting. At the end of training, we can choose one universal embedding to produce a single network dedicated to all tasks. In such a framework, hypernetwork is used only for training and can be seen as a meta-trainer. HyperInterval obtains significantly better results than InterContiNet and gives SOTA results on several benchmarks.

Injecting external knowledge can improve the performance of pre-trained language models (PLMs) on various downstream NLP tasks. However, massive retraining is required to deploy new knowledge injection methods or knowledge bases for downstream tasks. In this work, we are the first to study how to improve the flexibility and efficiency of knowledge injection by reusing existing downstream models. To this end, we explore a new paradigm plug-and-play knowledge injection, where knowledge bases are injected into frozen existing downstream models by a knowledge plugin. Correspondingly, we propose a plug-and-play injection method map-tuning, which trains a mapping of knowledge embeddings to enrich model inputs with mapped embeddings while keeping model parameters frozen. Experimental results on three knowledge-driven NLP tasks show that existing injection methods are not suitable for the new paradigm, while map-tuning effectively improves the performance of downstream models. Moreover, we show that a frozen downstream model can be well adapted to different domains with different mapping networks of domain knowledge. Our code and models are available at https://github.com/THUNLP/Knowledge-Plugin.

Transformer models exhibit in-context learning: the ability to accurately predict the response to a novel query based on illustrative examples in the input sequence. In-context learning contrasts with traditional in-weights learning of query-output relationships. What aspects of the training data distribution and architecture favor in-context vs in-weights learning? Recent work has shown that specific distributional properties inherent in language, such as burstiness, large dictionaries and skewed rank-frequency distributions, control the trade-off or simultaneous appearance of these two forms of learning. We first show that these results are recapitulated in a minimal attention-only network trained on a simplified dataset. In-context learning (ICL) is driven by the abrupt emergence of an induction head, which subsequently competes with in-weights learning. By identifying progress measures that precede in-context learning and targeted experiments, we construct a two-parameter model of an induction head which emulates the full data distributional dependencies displayed by the attention-based network. A phenomenological model of induction head formation traces its abrupt emergence to the sequential learning of three nested logits enabled by an intrinsic curriculum. We propose that the sharp transitions in attention-based networks arise due to a specific chain of multi-layer operations necessary to achieve ICL, which is implemented by nested nonlinearities sequentially learned during training.

Recent work has shown that state space models such as Mamba are significantly worse than Transformers on recall-based tasks due to the fact that their state size is constant with respect to their input sequence length. But in practice, state space models have fairly large state sizes, and we conjecture that they should be able to perform much better at these tasks than previously reported. We investigate whether their poor copying and recall performance could be due in part to training difficulties rather than fundamental capacity constraints. Based on observations of their "attention" maps, we propose a structured initialization technique that allows state space layers to more readily mimic attention. Across a variety of architecture settings, our initialization makes it substantially easier for Mamba to learn to copy and do associative recall from scratch.

Conversational systems often rely on embedding models for intent classification and intent clustering tasks. The advent of Large Language Models (LLMs), which enable instructional embeddings allowing one to adjust semantics over the embedding space using prompts, are being viewed as a panacea for these downstream conversational tasks. However, traditional evaluation benchmarks rely solely on task metrics that don't particularly measure gaps related to semantic understanding. Thus, we propose an intent semantic toolkit that gives a more holistic view of intent embedding models by considering three tasks -- (1) intent classification, (2) intent clustering, and (3) a novel triplet task. The triplet task gauges the model's understanding of two semantic concepts paramount in real-world conversational systems -- negation and implicature. We observe that current embedding models fare poorly in semantic understanding of these concepts. To address this, we propose a pre-training approach to improve the embedding model by leveraging augmentation with data generated by an auto-regressive model and a contrastive loss term. Our approach improves the semantic understanding of the intent embedding model on the aforementioned linguistic dimensions while slightly effecting their performance on downstream task metrics.

Recently, there has been a surge in face personalization techniques, benefiting from the advanced capabilities of pretrained text-to-image diffusion models. Among these, a notable method is Textual Inversion, which generates personalized images by inverting given images into textual embeddings. However, methods based on Textual Inversion still struggle with balancing the trade-off between reconstruction quality and editability. In this study, we examine this issue through the lens of initialization. Upon closely examining traditional initialization methods, we identified a significant disparity between the initial and learned embeddings in terms of both scale and orientation. The scale of the learned embedding can be up to 100 times greater than that of the initial embedding. Such a significant change in the embedding could increase the risk of overfitting, thereby compromising the editability. Driven by this observation, we introduce a novel initialization method, termed Cross Initialization, that significantly narrows the gap between the initial and learned embeddings. This method not only improves both reconstruction and editability but also reduces the optimization steps from 5000 to 320. Furthermore, we apply a regularization term to keep the learned embedding close to the initial embedding. We show that when combined with Cross Initialization, this regularization term can effectively improve editability. We provide comprehensive empirical evidence to demonstrate the superior performance of our method compared to the baseline methods. Notably, in our experiments, Cross Initialization is the only method that successfully edits an individual's facial expression. Additionally, a fast version of our method allows for capturing an input image in roughly 26 seconds, while surpassing the baseline methods in terms of both reconstruction and editability. Code will be made publicly available.

Fine-tuning large language models (LLMs) can cause them to lose their general capabilities. However, the intrinsic mechanisms behind such forgetting remain unexplored. In this paper, we begin by examining this phenomenon by focusing on knowledge understanding and instruction following, with the latter identified as the main contributor to forgetting during fine-tuning. Consequently, we propose the Instruction Vector (IV) framework to capture model representations highly related to specific instruction-following capabilities, thereby making it possible to understand model-intrinsic forgetting. Through the analysis of IV dynamics pre and post-training, we suggest that fine-tuning mostly adds specialized reasoning patterns instead of erasing previous skills, which may appear as forgetting. Building on this insight, we develop IV-guided training, which aims to preserve original computation graph, thereby mitigating catastrophic forgetting. Empirical tests on three benchmarks confirm the efficacy of this new approach, supporting the relationship between IVs and forgetting. Our code will be made available soon.

Word embeddings, i.e., semantically meaningful vector representation of words, are largely influenced by the distributional hypothesis "You shall know a word by the company it keeps" (Harris, 1954), whereas modern prediction-based neural network embeddings rely on design choices and hyperparameter optimization. Word embeddings like Word2Vec, GloVe etc. well capture the contextuality and real-world analogies but contemporary convolution-based image embeddings such as VGGNet, AlexNet, etc. do not capture contextual knowledge. The popular king-queen analogy does not hold true for most commonly used vision embeddings. In this paper, we introduce a pre-trained joint embedding (JE), named IMAGINATOR, trained on 21K distinct image objects level from 1M image+text pairs. JE is a way to encode multimodal data into a vector space where the text modality serves as the ground-ing key, which the complementary modality (in this case, the image) is anchored with. IMAGINATOR encapsulates three individual representations: (i) object-object co-location, (ii) word-object co-location, and (iii) word-object correlation. These three ways capture complementary aspects of the two modalities which are further combined to obtain the final JEs. Generated JEs are intrinsically evaluated to assess how well they capture the contextuality and real-world analogies. We also evaluate pre-trained IMAGINATOR JEs on three downstream tasks: (i) image captioning, (ii) Image2Tweet, and (iii) text-based image retrieval. IMAGINATOR establishes a new standard on the aforementioned down-stream tasks by outperforming the current SoTA on all the selected tasks. IMAGINATOR will be made publicly available. The codes are available at https://github.com/varunakk/IMAGINATOR

How much private information do text embeddings reveal about the original text? We investigate the problem of embedding inversion, reconstructing the full text represented in dense text embeddings. We frame the problem as controlled generation: generating text that, when reembedded, is close to a fixed point in latent space. We find that although a na\"ive model conditioned on the embedding performs poorly, a multi-step method that iteratively corrects and re-embeds text is able to recover 92% of 32-token text inputs exactly. We train our model to decode text embeddings from two state-of-the-art embedding models, and also show that our model can recover important personal information (full names) from a dataset of clinical notes. Our code is available on Github: https://github.com/jxmorris12/vec2text{github.com/jxmorris12/vec2text}.

Continual learning is a promising machine learning paradigm to learn new tasks while retaining previously learned knowledge over streaming training data. Till now, rehearsal-based methods, keeping a small part of data from old tasks as a memory buffer, have shown good performance in mitigating catastrophic forgetting for previously learned knowledge. However, most of these methods typically treat each new task equally, which may not adequately consider the relationship or similarity between old and new tasks. Furthermore, these methods commonly neglect sample importance in the continual training process and result in sub-optimal performance on certain tasks. To address this challenging problem, we propose Relational Experience Replay (RER), a bi-level learning framework, to adaptively tune task-wise relationships and sample importance within each task to achieve a better `stability' and `plasticity' trade-off. As such, the proposed method is capable of accumulating new knowledge while consolidating previously learned old knowledge during continual learning. Extensive experiments conducted on three publicly available datasets (i.e., CIFAR-10, CIFAR-100, and Tiny ImageNet) show that the proposed method can consistently improve the performance of all baselines and surpass current state-of-the-art methods.

Loss of plasticity is a phenomenon where neural networks become more difficult to train during the course of learning. Continual learning algorithms seek to mitigate this effect by sustaining good predictive performance while maintaining network trainability. We develop new techniques for improving continual learning by first reconsidering how initialization can ensure trainability during early phases of learning. From this perspective, we derive new regularization strategies for continual learning that ensure beneficial initialization properties are better maintained throughout training. In particular, we investigate two new regularization techniques for continual learning: (i) Wasserstein regularization toward the initial weight distribution, which is less restrictive than regularizing toward initial weights; and (ii) regularizing weight matrix singular values, which directly ensures gradient diversity is maintained throughout training. We present an experimental analysis that shows these alternative regularizers can improve continual learning performance across a range of supervised learning tasks and model architectures. The alternative regularizers prove to be less sensitive to hyperparameters while demonstrating better training in individual tasks, sustaining trainability as new tasks arrive, and achieving better generalization performance.

Artificial neural networks suffer from catastrophic forgetting when they are sequentially trained on multiple tasks. To overcome this problem, we present a novel approach based on task-conditioned hypernetworks, i.e., networks that generate the weights of a target model based on task identity. Continual learning (CL) is less difficult for this class of models thanks to a simple key feature: instead of recalling the input-output relations of all previously seen data, task-conditioned hypernetworks only require rehearsing task-specific weight realizations, which can be maintained in memory using a simple regularizer. Besides achieving state-of-the-art performance on standard CL benchmarks, additional experiments on long task sequences reveal that task-conditioned hypernetworks display a very large capacity to retain previous memories. Notably, such long memory lifetimes are achieved in a compressive regime, when the number of trainable hypernetwork weights is comparable or smaller than target network size. We provide insight into the structure of low-dimensional task embedding spaces (the input space of the hypernetwork) and show that task-conditioned hypernetworks demonstrate transfer learning. Finally, forward information transfer is further supported by empirical results on a challenging CL benchmark based on the CIFAR-10/100 image datasets.

Neural algorithmic reasoning is an emerging research direction that endows neural networks with the ability to mimic algorithmic executions step-by-step. A common paradigm in existing designs involves the use of historical embeddings in predicting the results of future execution steps. Our observation in this work is that such historical dependence intrinsically contradicts the Markov nature of algorithmic reasoning tasks. Based on this motivation, we present our ForgetNet, which does not use historical embeddings and thus is consistent with the Markov nature of the tasks. To address challenges in training ForgetNet at early stages, we further introduce G-ForgetNet, which uses a gating mechanism to allow for the selective integration of historical embeddings. Such an enhanced capability provides valuable computational pathways during the model's early training phase. Our extensive experiments, based on the CLRS-30 algorithmic reasoning benchmark, demonstrate that both ForgetNet and G-ForgetNet achieve better generalization capability than existing methods. Furthermore, we investigate the behavior of the gating mechanism, highlighting its degree of alignment with our intuitions and its effectiveness for robust performance.

Language Models (LMs) excel in natural language processing tasks for English but show reduced performance in most other languages. This problem is commonly tackled by continually pre-training and fine-tuning these models for said languages. A significant issue in this process is the limited vocabulary coverage in the original model's tokenizer, leading to inadequate representation of new languages and necessitating an expansion of the tokenizer. The initialization of the embeddings corresponding to new vocabulary items presents a further challenge. Current strategies require cross-lingual embeddings and lack a solid theoretical foundation as well as comparisons with strong baselines. In this paper, we first establish theoretically that initializing within the convex hull of existing embeddings is a good initialization, followed by a novel but simple approach, Constrained Word2Vec (CW2V), which does not require cross-lingual embeddings. Our study evaluates different initialization methods for expanding RoBERTa and LLaMA 2 across four languages and five tasks. The results show that CW2V performs equally well or even better than more advanced techniques. Additionally, simpler approaches like multivariate initialization perform on par with these advanced methods indicating that efficient large-scale multilingual continued pretraining can be achieved even with simpler initialization methods.

Vision Language Models (VLMs), pre-trained on large-scale image-text datasets, enable zero-shot predictions for unseen data but may underperform on specific unseen tasks. Continual learning (CL) can help VLMs effectively adapt to new data distributions without joint training, but faces challenges of catastrophic forgetting and generalization forgetting. Although significant progress has been achieved by distillation-based methods, they exhibit two severe limitations. One is the popularly adopted single-teacher paradigm fails to impart comprehensive knowledge, The other is the existing methods inadequately leverage the multimodal information in the original training dataset, instead they rely on additional data for distillation, which increases computational and storage overhead. To mitigate both limitations, by drawing on Knowledge Integration Theory (KIT), we propose a Multi-Stage Knowledge Integration network (MulKI) to emulate the human learning process in distillation methods. MulKI achieves this through four stages, including Eliciting Ideas, Adding New Ideas, Distinguishing Ideas, and Making Connections. During the four stages, we first leverage prototypes to align across modalities, eliciting cross-modal knowledge, then adding new knowledge by constructing fine-grained intra- and inter-modality relationships with prototypes. After that, knowledge from two teacher models is adaptively distinguished and re-weighted. Finally, we connect between models from intra- and inter-task, integrating preceding and new knowledge. Our method demonstrates significant improvements in maintaining zero-shot capabilities while supporting continual learning across diverse downstream tasks, showcasing its potential in adapting VLMs to evolving data distributions.

In recent years supervised representation learning has provided state of the art or close to the state of the art results in semantic analysis tasks including ranking and information retrieval. The core idea is to learn how to embed items into a latent space such that they optimize a supervised objective in that latent space. The dimensions of the latent space have no clear semantics, and this reduces the interpretability of the system. For example, in personalization models, it is hard to explain why a particular item is ranked high for a given user profile. We propose a novel model of representation learning called Supervised Explicit Semantic Analysis (SESA) that is trained in a supervised fashion to embed items to a set of dimensions with explicit semantics. The model learns to compare two objects by representing them in this explicit space, where each dimension corresponds to a concept from a knowledge base. This work extends Explicit Semantic Analysis (ESA) with a supervised model for ranking problems. We apply this model to the task of Job-Profile relevance in LinkedIn in which a set of skills defines our explicit dimensions of the space. Every profile and job are encoded to this set of skills their similarity is calculated in this space. We use RNNs to embed text input into this space. In addition to interpretability, our model makes use of the web-scale collaborative skills data that is provided by users for each LinkedIn profile. Our model provides state of the art result while it remains interpretable.

Memory retention challenges in deep neural architectures have ongoing limitations in the ability to process and recall extended contextual information. Token dependencies degrade as sequence length increases, leading to a decline in coherence and factual consistency across longer outputs. A structured approach is introduced to mitigate this issue through the reweaving of latent states captured at different processing layers, reinforcing token representations over extended sequences. The proposed Contextual Memory Reweaving framework incorporates a Layered Latent State Reconstruction mechanism to systematically integrate past contextual embeddings without introducing external memory modules. Experimental results demonstrate improvements in recall accuracy across a range of sequence lengths, with notable gains in the retention of rarely occurring tokens and numerical reasoning consistency. Further analysis of computational efficiency indicates that the additional processing overhead remains within acceptable thresholds, enabling scalability across different model sizes. Evaluations in long-form text generation and ambiguous query resolution highlight the capacity of memory reweaving to enhance continuity and reduce inconsistencies over extended outputs. Attention weight distributions reveal more structured allocation patterns, suggesting that reweaved latent states contribute to improved contextual awareness. The findings establish a framework for refining memory retention mechanisms in language models, addressing long-standing challenges in handling complex, multi-step reasoning tasks.

Pretrained contextualized embeddings are powerful word representations for structured prediction tasks. Recent work found that better word representations can be obtained by concatenating different types of embeddings. However, the selection of embeddings to form the best concatenated representation usually varies depending on the task and the collection of candidate embeddings, and the ever-increasing number of embedding types makes it a more difficult problem. In this paper, we propose Automated Concatenation of Embeddings (ACE) to automate the process of finding better concatenations of embeddings for structured prediction tasks, based on a formulation inspired by recent progress on neural architecture search. Specifically, a controller alternately samples a concatenation of embeddings, according to its current belief of the effectiveness of individual embedding types in consideration for a task, and updates the belief based on a reward. We follow strategies in reinforcement learning to optimize the parameters of the controller and compute the reward based on the accuracy of a task model, which is fed with the sampled concatenation as input and trained on a task dataset. Empirical results on 6 tasks and 21 datasets show that our approach outperforms strong baselines and achieves state-of-the-art performance with fine-tuned embeddings in all the evaluations.

Recent advancements in text-to-image diffusion models have shown remarkable creative capabilities with textual prompts, but generating personalized instances based on specific subjects, known as subject-driven generation, remains challenging. To tackle this issue, we present a new hybrid framework called HybridBooth, which merges the benefits of optimization-based and direct-regression methods. HybridBooth operates in two stages: the Word Embedding Probe, which generates a robust initial word embedding using a fine-tuned encoder, and the Word Embedding Refinement, which further adapts the encoder to specific subject images by optimizing key parameters. This approach allows for effective and fast inversion of visual concepts into textual embedding, even from a single image, while maintaining the model's generalization capabilities.

In this work, we introduce a new unsupervised embedding method, Meta-Task Prompting with Explicit One-Word Limitation (MetaEOL), for generating high-quality sentence embeddings from Large Language Models (LLMs) without the need for model fine-tuning or task-specific engineering. Leveraging meta-task prompting, MetaEOL guides LLMs to produce embeddings through a series of carefully designed prompts that address multiple representational aspects. Our comprehensive experiments demonstrate that embeddings averaged from various meta-tasks yield competitive performance on Semantic Textual Similarity (STS) benchmarks and excel in downstream tasks, surpassing contrastive-trained models. Our findings suggest a new scaling law for embedding generation, offering a versatile, resource-efficient approach for embedding extraction across diverse sentence-centric scenarios.

Can one inject new concepts into an already trained generative model, while respecting its existing structure and knowledge? We propose a new task - domain expansion - to address this. Given a pretrained generator and novel (but related) domains, we expand the generator to jointly model all domains, old and new, harmoniously. First, we note the generator contains a meaningful, pretrained latent space. Is it possible to minimally perturb this hard-earned representation, while maximally representing the new domains? Interestingly, we find that the latent space offers unused, "dormant" directions, which do not affect the output. This provides an opportunity: By "repurposing" these directions, we can represent new domains without perturbing the original representation. In fact, we find that pretrained generators have the capacity to add several - even hundreds - of new domains! Using our expansion method, one "expanded" model can supersede numerous domain-specific models, without expanding the model size. Additionally, a single expanded generator natively supports smooth transitions between domains, as well as composition of domains. Code and project page available at https://yotamnitzan.github.io/domain-expansion/.

Recent work has demonstrated that semantics specified by pretraining data influence how representations of different concepts are organized in a large language model (LLM). However, given the open-ended nature of LLMs, e.g., their ability to in-context learn, we can ask whether models alter these pretraining semantics to adopt alternative, context-specified ones. Specifically, if we provide in-context exemplars wherein a concept plays a different role than what the pretraining data suggests, do models reorganize their representations in accordance with these novel semantics? To answer this question, we take inspiration from the theory of conceptual role semantics and define a toy "graph tracing" task wherein the nodes of the graph are referenced via concepts seen during training (e.g., apple, bird, etc.) and the connectivity of the graph is defined via some predefined structure (e.g., a square grid). Given exemplars that indicate traces of random walks on the graph, we analyze intermediate representations of the model and find that as the amount of context is scaled, there is a sudden re-organization from pretrained semantic representations to in-context representations aligned with the graph structure. Further, we find that when reference concepts have correlations in their semantics (e.g., Monday, Tuesday, etc.), the context-specified graph structure is still present in the representations, but is unable to dominate the pretrained structure. To explain these results, we analogize our task to energy minimization for a predefined graph topology, providing evidence towards an implicit optimization process to infer context-specified semantics. Overall, our findings indicate scaling context-size can flexibly re-organize model representations, possibly unlocking novel capabilities.

Pretrained language models (PLMs) are today the primary model for natural language processing. Despite their impressive downstream performance, it can be difficult to apply PLMs to new languages, a barrier to making their capabilities universally accessible. While prior work has shown it possible to address this issue by learning a new embedding layer for the new language, doing so is both data and compute inefficient. We propose to use an active forgetting mechanism during pretraining, as a simple way of creating PLMs that can quickly adapt to new languages. Concretely, by resetting the embedding layer every K updates during pretraining, we encourage the PLM to improve its ability of learning new embeddings within a limited number of updates, similar to a meta-learning effect. Experiments with RoBERTa show that models pretrained with our forgetting mechanism not only demonstrate faster convergence during language adaptation but also outperform standard ones in a low-data regime, particularly for languages that are distant from English.

Following the success of Word2Vec embeddings, graph embeddings (GEs) have gained substantial traction. GEs are commonly generated and evaluated extrinsically on downstream applications, but intrinsic evaluations of the original graph properties in terms of topological structure and semantic information have been lacking. Understanding these will help identify the deficiency of the various families of GE methods when vectorizing graphs in terms of preserving the relevant knowledge or learning incorrect knowledge. To address this, we propose RESTORE, a framework for intrinsic GEs assessment through graph reconstruction. We show that reconstructing the original graph from the underlying GEs yields insights into the relative amount of information preserved in a given vector form. We first introduce the graph reconstruction task. We generate GEs from three GE families based on factorization methods, random walks, and deep learning (with representative algorithms from each family) on the CommonSense Knowledge Graph (CSKG). We analyze their effectiveness in preserving the (a) topological structure of node-level graph reconstruction with an increasing number of hops and (b) semantic information on various word semantic and analogy tests. Our evaluations show deep learning-based GE algorithm (SDNE) is overall better at preserving (a) with a mean average precision (mAP) of 0.54 and 0.35 for 2 and 3-hop reconstruction respectively, while the factorization-based algorithm (HOPE) is better at encapsulating (b) with an average Euclidean distance of 0.14, 0.17, and 0.11 for 1, 2, and 3-hop reconstruction respectively. The modest performance of these GEs leaves room for further research avenues on better graph representation learning.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have made substantial strides in structured tasks through Reinforcement Learning (RL), demonstrating proficiency in mathematical reasoning and code generation. However, applying RL in broader domains like chatbots and content generation -- through the process known as Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) -- presents unique challenges. Reward models in RLHF are critical, acting as proxies that evaluate the alignment of LLM outputs with human intent. Despite advancements, the development of reward models is hindered by challenges such as computational heavy training, costly evaluation, and therefore poor reproducibility. We advocate for using embedding-based input in reward model research as an accelerated solution to those challenges. By leveraging embeddings for reward modeling, we can enhance reproducibility, reduce computational demands on hardware, improve training stability, and significantly reduce training and evaluation costs, hence facilitating fair and efficient comparisons in this active research area. We then show a case study of reproducing existing reward model ensemble research using embedding-based reward models. We discussed future avenues for research, aiming to contribute to safer and more effective LLM deployments.

In this paper, we introduce UniBridge (Cross-Lingual Transfer Learning with Optimized Embeddings and Vocabulary), a comprehensive approach developed to improve the effectiveness of Cross-Lingual Transfer Learning, particularly in languages with limited resources. Our approach tackles two essential elements of a language model: the initialization of embeddings and the optimal vocabulary size. Specifically, we propose a novel embedding initialization method that leverages both lexical and semantic alignment for a language. In addition, we present a method for systematically searching for the optimal vocabulary size, ensuring a balance between model complexity and linguistic coverage. Our experiments across multilingual datasets show that our approach greatly improves the F1-Score in several languages. UniBridge is a robust and adaptable solution for cross-lingual systems in various languages, highlighting the significance of initializing embeddings and choosing the right vocabulary size in cross-lingual environments.

With hundreds of thousands of language models available on Huggingface today, efficiently evaluating and utilizing these models across various downstream, tasks has become increasingly critical. Many existing methods repeatedly learn task-specific representations of Large Language Models (LLMs), which leads to inefficiencies in both time and computational resources. To address this, we propose EmbedLLM, a framework designed to learn compact vector representations, of LLMs that facilitate downstream applications involving many models, such as model routing. We introduce an encoder-decoder approach for learning such embeddings, along with a systematic framework to evaluate their effectiveness. Empirical results show that EmbedLLM outperforms prior methods in model routing both in accuracy and latency. Additionally, we demonstrate that our method can forecast a model's performance on multiple benchmarks, without incurring additional inference cost. Extensive probing experiments validate that the learned embeddings capture key model characteristics, e.g. whether the model is specialized for coding tasks, even without being explicitly trained on them. We open source our dataset, code and embedder to facilitate further research and application.

Continual learning is a setting where machine learning models learn novel concepts from continuously shifting training data, while simultaneously avoiding degradation of knowledge on previously seen classes which may disappear from the training data for extended periods of time (a phenomenon known as the catastrophic forgetting problem). Current approaches for continual learning of a single expanding task (aka class-incremental continual learning) require extensive rehearsal of previously seen data to avoid this degradation of knowledge. Unfortunately, rehearsal comes at a cost to memory, and it may also violate data-privacy. Instead, we explore combining knowledge distillation and parameter regularization in new ways to achieve strong continual learning performance without rehearsal. Specifically, we take a deep dive into common continual learning techniques: prediction distillation, feature distillation, L2 parameter regularization, and EWC parameter regularization. We first disprove the common assumption that parameter regularization techniques fail for rehearsal-free continual learning of a single, expanding task. Next, we explore how to leverage knowledge from a pre-trained model in rehearsal-free continual learning and find that vanilla L2 parameter regularization outperforms EWC parameter regularization and feature distillation. Finally, we explore the recently popular ImageNet-R benchmark, and show that L2 parameter regularization implemented in self-attention blocks of a ViT transformer outperforms recent popular prompting for continual learning methods.

Large language models have exhibited intriguing in-context learning capability, achieving promising zero- and few-shot performance without updating the parameters. However, conventional in-context learning is usually restricted by length constraints, rendering it ineffective to absorb supervision from a large number of examples. In order to go beyond few shots, we introduce structured prompting that breaks the length limit and scales in-context learning to thousands of examples. Specifically, demonstration examples are separately encoded with well-designed position embeddings, and then they are jointly attended by the test example using a rescaled attention mechanism. So we can scale the number of exemplars with linear complexity instead of quadratic complexity with respect to length. Experimental results on a diverse set of tasks show that our approach improves end-task performance and reduces evaluation variance over conventional in-context learning as the number of demonstration examples increases. Code has been released at https://aka.ms/structured-prompting.

Loss spikes often occur during pre-training of large language models. The spikes degrade the performance of large language models and sometimes ruin the pre-training. Since the pre-training needs a vast computational budget, we should avoid such spikes. To investigate the cause of loss spikes, we focus on gradients of internal layers. Through theoretical analyses, we reveal two causes of the exploding gradients, and provide requirements to prevent the explosion. In addition, we propose a method to satisfy the requirements by combining the initialization method and a simple modification to embeddings. We conduct various experiments to verify our theoretical analyses empirically. Experimental results indicate that the combination is effective in preventing spikes during pre-training.

We explore the Iterative Inference Hypothesis (IIH) within the context of transformer-based language models, aiming to understand how a model's latent representations are progressively refined and whether observable differences are present between correct and incorrect generations. Our findings provide empirical support for the IIH, showing that the nth token embedding in the residual stream follows a trajectory of decreasing loss. Additionally, we observe that the rate at which residual embeddings converge to a stable output representation reflects uncertainty in the token generation process. Finally, we introduce a method utilizing cross-entropy to detect this uncertainty and demonstrate its potential to distinguish between correct and incorrect token generations on a dataset of idioms.

Catastrophic forgetting in neural networks is a significant problem for continual learning. A majority of the current methods replay previous data during training, which violates the constraints of an ideal continual learning system. Additionally, current approaches that deal with forgetting ignore the problem of catastrophic remembering, i.e. the worsening ability to discriminate between data from different tasks. In our work, we introduce Relevance Mapping Networks (RMNs) which are inspired by the Optimal Overlap Hypothesis. The mappings reflects the relevance of the weights for the task at hand by assigning large weights to essential parameters. We show that RMNs learn an optimized representational overlap that overcomes the twin problem of catastrophic forgetting and remembering. Our approach achieves state-of-the-art performance across all common continual learning datasets, even significantly outperforming data replay methods while not violating the constraints for an ideal continual learning system. Moreover, RMNs retain the ability to detect data from new tasks in an unsupervised manner, thus proving their resilience against catastrophic remembering.

To correctly use in-context information, language models (LMs) must bind entities to their attributes. For example, given a context describing a "green square" and a "blue circle", LMs must bind the shapes to their respective colors. We analyze LM representations and identify the binding ID mechanism: a general mechanism for solving the binding problem, which we observe in every sufficiently large model from the Pythia and LLaMA families. Using causal interventions, we show that LMs' internal activations represent binding information by attaching binding ID vectors to corresponding entities and attributes. We further show that binding ID vectors form a continuous subspace, in which distances between binding ID vectors reflect their discernability. Overall, our results uncover interpretable strategies in LMs for representing symbolic knowledge in-context, providing a step towards understanding general in-context reasoning in large-scale LMs.

To answer one-to-many factual queries (e.g., listing cities of a country), a language model (LM) must simultaneously recall knowledge and avoid repeating previous answers. How are these two subtasks implemented and integrated internally? Across multiple datasets and models, we identify a promote-then-suppress mechanism: the model first recalls all answers, and then suppresses previously generated ones. Specifically, LMs use both the subject and previous answer tokens to perform knowledge recall, with attention propagating subject information and MLPs promoting the answers. Then, attention attends to and suppresses previous answer tokens, while MLPs amplify the suppression signal. Our mechanism is corroborated by extensive experimental evidence: in addition to using early decoding and causal tracing, we analyze how components use different tokens by introducing both Token Lens, which decodes aggregated attention updates from specified tokens, and a knockout method that analyzes changes in MLP outputs after removing attention to specified tokens. Overall, we provide new insights into how LMs' internal components interact with different input tokens to support complex factual recall. Code is available at https://github.com/Lorenayannnnn/how-lms-answer-one-to-many-factual-queries.

As large-scale text-to-image generation models have made remarkable progress in the field of text-to-image generation, many fine-tuning methods have been proposed. However, these models often struggle with novel objects, especially with one-shot scenarios. Our proposed method aims to address the challenges of generalizability and fidelity in an object-driven way, using only a single input image and the object-specific regions of interest. To improve generalizability and mitigate overfitting, in our paradigm, a prototypical embedding is initialized based on the object's appearance and its class, before fine-tuning the diffusion model. And during fine-tuning, we propose a class-characterizing regularization to preserve prior knowledge of object classes. To further improve fidelity, we introduce object-specific loss, which can also use to implant multiple objects. Overall, our proposed object-driven method for implanting new objects can integrate seamlessly with existing concepts as well as with high fidelity and generalization. Our method outperforms several existing works. The code will be released.

The Linear Representation Hypothesis (LRH) states that neural networks learn to encode concepts as directions in activation space, and a strong version of the LRH states that models learn only such encodings. In this paper, we present a counterexample to this strong LRH: when trained to repeat an input token sequence, gated recurrent neural networks (RNNs) learn to represent the token at each position with a particular order of magnitude, rather than a direction. These representations have layered features that are impossible to locate in distinct linear subspaces. To show this, we train interventions to predict and manipulate tokens by learning the scaling factor corresponding to each sequence position. These interventions indicate that the smallest RNNs find only this magnitude-based solution, while larger RNNs have linear representations. These findings strongly indicate that interpretability research should not be confined by the LRH.

While prompt tuning approaches have achieved competitive performance with high efficiency, we observe that they invariably employ the same initialization process, wherein the soft prompt is either randomly initialized or derived from an existing embedding vocabulary. In contrast to these conventional methods, this study aims to investigate an alternative way to derive soft prompt. Our empirical studies show that the soft prompt typically exhibits a low intrinsic rank characteristic. With such observations, we propose decomposed prompt tuning, a novel approach that utilizes low-rank matrices to initialize the soft prompt. Through the low-rank reparameterization, our method significantly reduces the number of trainable parameters while maintaining effectiveness. Experimental results on the SuperGLUE benchmark in both high-resource and low-resource scenarios demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method.

Hallucination has emerged as the most vulnerable aspect of contemporary Large Language Models (LLMs). In this paper, we introduce the Sorry, Come Again (SCA) prompting, aimed to avoid LLM hallucinations by enhancing comprehension through: (i) optimal paraphrasing and (ii) injecting [PAUSE] tokens to delay LLM generation. First, we provide an in-depth analysis of linguistic nuances: formality, readability, and concreteness of prompts for 21 LLMs, and elucidate how these nuances contribute to hallucinated generation. Prompts with lower readability, formality, or concreteness pose comprehension challenges for LLMs, similar to those faced by humans. In such scenarios, an LLM tends to speculate and generate content based on its imagination (associative memory) to fill these information gaps. Although these speculations may occasionally align with factual information, their accuracy is not assured, often resulting in hallucination. Recent studies reveal that an LLM often neglects the middle sections of extended prompts, a phenomenon termed as lost in the middle. While a specific paraphrase may suit one LLM, the same paraphrased version may elicit a different response from another LLM. Therefore, we propose an optimal paraphrasing technique to identify the most comprehensible paraphrase of a given prompt, evaluated using Integrated Gradient (and its variations) to guarantee that the LLM accurately processes all words. While reading lengthy sentences, humans often pause at various points to better comprehend the meaning read thus far. We have fine-tuned an LLM with injected [PAUSE] tokens, allowing the LLM to pause while reading lengthier prompts. This has brought several key contributions: (i) determining the optimal position to inject [PAUSE], (ii) determining the number of [PAUSE] tokens to be inserted, and (iii) introducing reverse proxy tuning to fine-tune the LLM for [PAUSE] insertion.

Embeddings have become a pivotal means to represent complex, multi-faceted information about entities, concepts, and relationships in a condensed and useful format. Nevertheless, they often preclude direct interpretation. While downstream tasks make use of these compressed representations, meaningful interpretation usually requires visualization using dimensionality reduction or specialized machine learning interpretability methods. This paper addresses the challenge of making such embeddings more interpretable and broadly useful, by employing Large Language Models (LLMs) to directly interact with embeddings -- transforming abstract vectors into understandable narratives. By injecting embeddings into LLMs, we enable querying and exploration of complex embedding data. We demonstrate our approach on a variety of diverse tasks, including: enhancing concept activation vectors (CAVs), communicating novel embedded entities, and decoding user preferences in recommender systems. Our work couples the immense information potential of embeddings with the interpretative power of LLMs.

Semantic word embeddings represent the meaning of a word via a vector, and are created by diverse methods. Many use nonlinear operations on co-occurrence statistics, and have hand-tuned hyperparameters and reweighting methods. This paper proposes a new generative model, a dynamic version of the log-linear topic model of~mnih2007three. The methodological novelty is to use the prior to compute closed form expressions for word statistics. This provides a theoretical justification for nonlinear models like PMI, word2vec, and GloVe, as well as some hyperparameter choices. It also helps explain why low-dimensional semantic embeddings contain linear algebraic structure that allows solution of word analogies, as shown by~mikolov2013efficient and many subsequent papers. Experimental support is provided for the generative model assumptions, the most important of which is that latent word vectors are fairly uniformly dispersed in space.

Several recent publications have proposed methods for mapping images into continuous semantic embedding spaces. In some cases the embedding space is trained jointly with the image transformation. In other cases the semantic embedding space is established by an independent natural language processing task, and then the image transformation into that space is learned in a second stage. Proponents of these image embedding systems have stressed their advantages over the traditional classification framing of image understanding, particularly in terms of the promise for zero-shot learning -- the ability to correctly annotate images of previously unseen object categories. In this paper, we propose a simple method for constructing an image embedding system from any existing image classifier and a semantic word embedding model, which contains the n class labels in its vocabulary. Our method maps images into the semantic embedding space via convex combination of the class label embedding vectors, and requires no additional training. We show that this simple and direct method confers many of the advantages associated with more complex image embedding schemes, and indeed outperforms state of the art methods on the ImageNet zero-shot learning task.

Recent empirical works have successfully used unlabeled data to learn feature representations that are broadly useful in downstream classification tasks. Several of these methods are reminiscent of the well-known word2vec embedding algorithm: leveraging availability of pairs of semantically "similar" data points and "negative samples," the learner forces the inner product of representations of similar pairs with each other to be higher on average than with negative samples. The current paper uses the term contrastive learning for such algorithms and presents a theoretical framework for analyzing them by introducing latent classes and hypothesizing that semantically similar points are sampled from the same latent class. This framework allows us to show provable guarantees on the performance of the learned representations on the average classification task that is comprised of a subset of the same set of latent classes. Our generalization bound also shows that learned representations can reduce (labeled) sample complexity on downstream tasks. We conduct controlled experiments in both the text and image domains to support the theory.

We ask whether multilingual language models trained on unbalanced, English-dominated corpora use English as an internal pivot language -- a question of key importance for understanding how language models function and the origins of linguistic bias. Focusing on the Llama-2 family of transformer models, our study uses carefully constructed non-English prompts with a unique correct single-token continuation. From layer to layer, transformers gradually map an input embedding of the final prompt token to an output embedding from which next-token probabilities are computed. Tracking intermediate embeddings through their high-dimensional space reveals three distinct phases, whereby intermediate embeddings (1) start far away from output token embeddings; (2) already allow for decoding a semantically correct next token in the middle layers, but give higher probability to its version in English than in the input language; (3) finally move into an input-language-specific region of the embedding space. We cast these results into a conceptual model where the three phases operate in "input space", "concept space", and "output space", respectively. Crucially, our evidence suggests that the abstract "concept space" lies closer to English than to other languages, which may have important consequences regarding the biases held by multilingual language models.

Representational spaces learned via language modeling are fundamental to Natural Language Processing (NLP), however there has been limited understanding regarding how and when during training various types of linguistic information emerge and interact. Leveraging a novel information theoretic probing suite, which enables direct comparisons of not just task performance, but their representational subspaces, we analyze nine tasks covering syntax, semantics and reasoning, across 2M pre-training steps and five seeds. We identify critical learning phases across tasks and time, during which subspaces emerge, share information, and later disentangle to specialize. Across these phases, syntactic knowledge is acquired rapidly after 0.5% of full training. Continued performance improvements primarily stem from the acquisition of open-domain knowledge, while semantics and reasoning tasks benefit from later boosts to long-range contextualization and higher specialization. Measuring cross-task similarity further reveals that linguistically related tasks share information throughout training, and do so more during the critical phase of learning than before or after. Our findings have implications for model interpretability, multi-task learning, and learning from limited data.

Word embeddings and language models have transformed natural language processing (NLP) by facilitating the representation of linguistic elements in continuous vector spaces. This review visits foundational concepts such as the distributional hypothesis and contextual similarity, tracing the evolution from sparse representations like one-hot encoding to dense embeddings including Word2Vec, GloVe, and fastText. We examine both static and contextualized embeddings, underscoring advancements in models such as ELMo, BERT, and GPT and their adaptations for cross-lingual and personalized applications. The discussion extends to sentence and document embeddings, covering aggregation methods and generative topic models, along with the application of embeddings in multimodal domains, including vision, robotics, and cognitive science. Advanced topics such as model compression, interpretability, numerical encoding, and bias mitigation are analyzed, addressing both technical challenges and ethical implications. Additionally, we identify future research directions, emphasizing the need for scalable training techniques, enhanced interpretability, and robust grounding in non-textual modalities. By synthesizing current methodologies and emerging trends, this survey offers researchers and practitioners an in-depth resource to push the boundaries of embedding-based language models.

The goal of continual learning is to find a model that solves multiple learning tasks which are presented sequentially to the learner. A key challenge in this setting is that the learner may forget how to solve a previous task when learning a new task, a phenomenon known as catastrophic forgetting. To address this challenge, many practical methods have been proposed, including memory-based, regularization-based, and expansion-based methods. However, a rigorous theoretical understanding of these methods remains elusive. This paper aims to bridge this gap between theory and practice by proposing a new continual learning framework called Ideal Continual Learner (ICL), which is guaranteed to avoid catastrophic forgetting by construction. We show that ICL unifies multiple well-established continual learning methods and gives new theoretical insights into the strengths and weaknesses of these methods. We also derive generalization bounds for ICL which allow us to theoretically quantify how rehearsal affects generalization. Finally, we connect ICL to several classic subjects and research topics of modern interest, which allows us to make historical remarks and inspire future directions.

Modern deep-learning systems are specialized to problem settings in which training occurs once and then never again, as opposed to continual-learning settings in which training occurs continually. If deep-learning systems are applied in a continual learning setting, then it is well known that they may fail to remember earlier examples. More fundamental, but less well known, is that they may also lose their ability to learn on new examples, a phenomenon called loss of plasticity. We provide direct demonstrations of loss of plasticity using the MNIST and ImageNet datasets repurposed for continual learning as sequences of tasks. In ImageNet, binary classification performance dropped from 89\% accuracy on an early task down to 77\%, about the level of a linear network, on the 2000th task. Loss of plasticity occurred with a wide range of deep network architectures, optimizers, activation functions, batch normalization, dropout, but was substantially eased by L^2-regularization, particularly when combined with weight perturbation. Further, we introduce a new algorithm -- continual backpropagation -- which slightly modifies conventional backpropagation to reinitialize a small fraction of less-used units after each example and appears to maintain plasticity indefinitely.

Prompt tuning is one of the successful approaches for parameter-efficient tuning of pre-trained language models. Despite being arguably the most parameter-efficient (tuned soft prompts constitute <0.1% of total parameters), it typically performs worse than other efficient tuning methods and is quite sensitive to hyper-parameters. In this work, we introduce Residual Prompt Tuning - a simple and efficient method that significantly improves the performance and stability of prompt tuning. We propose to reparameterize soft prompt embeddings using a shallow network with a residual connection. Our experiments show that Residual Prompt Tuning significantly outperforms prompt tuning on SuperGLUE benchmark. Notably, our method reaches +7 points improvement over prompt tuning with T5-Base and allows to reduce the prompt length by 10x without hurting performance. In addition, we show that our approach is robust to the choice of learning rate and prompt initialization, and is effective in few-shot settings.

Continual Learning (CL) focuses on learning from dynamic and changing data distributions while retaining previously acquired knowledge. Various methods have been developed to address the challenge of catastrophic forgetting, including regularization-based, Bayesian-based, and memory-replay-based techniques. However, these methods lack a unified framework and common terminology for describing their approaches. This research aims to bridge this gap by introducing a comprehensive and overarching framework that encompasses and reconciles these existing methodologies. Notably, this new framework is capable of encompassing established CL approaches as special instances within a unified and general optimization objective. An intriguing finding is that despite their diverse origins, these methods share common mathematical structures. This observation highlights the compatibility of these seemingly distinct techniques, revealing their interconnectedness through a shared underlying optimization objective. Moreover, the proposed general framework introduces an innovative concept called refresh learning, specifically designed to enhance the CL performance. This novel approach draws inspiration from neuroscience, where the human brain often sheds outdated information to improve the retention of crucial knowledge and facilitate the acquisition of new information. In essence, refresh learning operates by initially unlearning current data and subsequently relearning it. It serves as a versatile plug-in that seamlessly integrates with existing CL methods, offering an adaptable and effective enhancement to the learning process. Extensive experiments on CL benchmarks and theoretical analysis demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed refresh learning. Code is available at https://github.com/joey-wang123/CL-refresh-learning.

Text-to-image models encounter safety issues, including concerns related to copyright and Not-Safe-For-Work (NSFW) content. Despite several methods have been proposed for erasing inappropriate concepts from diffusion models, they often exhibit incomplete erasure, consume a lot of computing resources, and inadvertently damage generation ability. In this work, we introduce Reliable and Efficient Concept Erasure (RECE), a novel approach that modifies the model in 3 seconds without necessitating additional fine-tuning. Specifically, RECE efficiently leverages a closed-form solution to derive new target embeddings, which are capable of regenerating erased concepts within the unlearned model. To mitigate inappropriate content potentially represented by derived embeddings, RECE further aligns them with harmless concepts in cross-attention layers. The derivation and erasure of new representation embeddings are conducted iteratively to achieve a thorough erasure of inappropriate concepts. Besides, to preserve the model's generation ability, RECE introduces an additional regularization term during the derivation process, resulting in minimizing the impact on unrelated concepts during the erasure process. All the processes above are in closed-form, guaranteeing extremely efficient erasure in only 3 seconds. Benchmarking against previous approaches, our method achieves more efficient and thorough erasure with minor damage to original generation ability and demonstrates enhanced robustness against red-teaming tools. Code is available at https://github.com/CharlesGong12/RECE.

Current unlearning methods for large language models usually rely on reverse optimization to reduce target token probabilities. However, this paradigm disrupts the subsequent tokens prediction, degrading model performance and linguistic coherence. Moreover, existing evaluation metrics overemphasize contextual forgetting while inadequately assessing response fluency and relevance. To address these challenges, we propose ReLearn, a data augmentation and fine-tuning pipeline for effective unlearning, along with a comprehensive evaluation framework. This framework introduces Knowledge Forgetting Rate (KFR) and Knowledge Retention Rate (KRR) to measure knowledge-level preservation, and Linguistic Score (LS) to evaluate generation quality. Our experiments show that ReLearn successfully achieves targeted forgetting while preserving high-quality output. Through mechanistic analysis, we further demonstrate how reverse optimization disrupts coherent text generation, while ReLearn preserves this essential capability. Code is available at https://github.com/zjunlp/unlearn.

Contextual memory integration remains a high challenge in the development of language models, particularly in tasks that require maintaining coherence over extended sequences. Traditional approaches, such as self-attention mechanisms and memory-augmented architectures, often prioritize short-term dependencies, leading to fragmentation and inconsistency in long-range contextual understanding. Inspired by principles of synaptic plasticity observed in biological neural systems, a novel mechanism, Synaptic Resonance, is introduced to dynamically reinforce relevant memory pathways during training and inference. Unlike static memory representations, this mechanism continuously adjusts synaptic weight matrices based on contextual relevance, allowing for improved information retention without excessive computational overhead. Evaluations conducted on an open-source language model demonstrate reductions in perplexity, enhancements in contextual coherence, and increased robustness against input noise, highlighting the effectiveness of reinforcement-driven memory modulation. Comparative analysis against baseline models further reveals that the proposed approach achieves higher memory retention efficiency while maintaining computational feasibility. The architectural modifications integrate seamlessly into existing transformer-based frameworks, ensuring stable convergence and efficient inference without sacrificing scalability. Applications benefiting from improved long-term contextual consistency, such as dialogue systems and document summarization, stand to gain from this approach. Empirical findings suggest that dynamically reinforced memory pathways offer a promising alternative to conventional memory mechanisms, addressing longstanding limitations in extended sequence modeling.

Continual learning can incrementally absorb new concepts without interfering with previously learned knowledge. Motivated by the characteristics of neural networks, in which information is stored in weights on connections, we investigated how to design an Innately Forgetting-Free Network (IF2Net) for continual learning context. This study proposed a straightforward yet effective learning paradigm by ingeniously keeping the weights relative to each seen task untouched before and after learning a new task. We first presented the novel representation-level learning on task sequences with random weights. This technique refers to tweaking the drifted representations caused by randomization back to their separate task-optimal working states, but the involved weights are frozen and reused (opposite to well-known layer-wise updates of weights). Then, sequential decision-making without forgetting can be achieved by projecting the output weight updates into the parsimonious orthogonal space, making the adaptations not disturb old knowledge while maintaining model plasticity. IF2Net allows a single network to inherently learn unlimited mapping rules without telling task identities at test time by integrating the respective strengths of randomization and orthogonalization. We validated the effectiveness of our approach in the extensive theoretical analysis and empirical study.

How to interact with LLMs through instructions has been widely studied by researchers. However, previous studies have treated the emergence of instructions and the training of LLMs on task data as separate processes, overlooking the inherent unity between the two. This paper proposes a neural network framework, VaiBot, that integrates VAE and VIB, designed to uniformly model, learn, and infer both deduction and induction tasks under LLMs. Through experiments, we demonstrate that VaiBot performs on par with existing baseline methods in terms of deductive capabilities while significantly surpassing them in inductive capabilities. We also find that VaiBot can scale up using general instruction-following data and exhibits excellent one-shot induction abilities. We finally synergistically integrate the deductive and inductive processes of VaiBot. Through T-SNE dimensionality reduction, we observe that its inductive-deductive process significantly improves the distribution of training parameters, enabling it to outperform baseline methods in inductive reasoning tasks. The code and data for this paper can be found at https://anonymous.4open.science/r/VaiBot-021F.

Recent advances in text-to-image models have enabled high-quality personalized image synthesis of user-provided concepts with flexible textual control. In this work, we analyze the limitations of two primary techniques in text-to-image personalization: Textual Inversion and DreamBooth. When integrating the learned concept into new prompts, Textual Inversion tends to overfit the concept, while DreamBooth often overlooks it. We attribute these issues to the incorrect learning of the embedding alignment for the concept. We introduce AttnDreamBooth, a novel approach that addresses these issues by separately learning the embedding alignment, the attention map, and the subject identity in different training stages. We also introduce a cross-attention map regularization term to enhance the learning of the attention map. Our method demonstrates significant improvements in identity preservation and text alignment compared to the baseline methods.

Humans can learn incrementally, whereas neural networks forget previously acquired information catastrophically. Continual Learning (CL) approaches seek to bridge this gap by facilitating the transfer of knowledge to both previous tasks (backward transfer) and future ones (forward transfer) during training. Recent research has shown that self-supervision can produce versatile models that can generalize well to diverse downstream tasks. However, contrastive self-supervised learning (CSSL), a popular self-supervision technique, has limited effectiveness in online CL (OCL). OCL only permits one iteration of the input dataset, and CSSL's low sample efficiency hinders its use on the input data-stream. In this work, we propose Continual Learning via Equivariant Regularization (CLER), an OCL approach that leverages equivariant tasks for self-supervision, avoiding CSSL's limitations. Our method represents the first attempt at combining equivariant knowledge with CL and can be easily integrated with existing OCL methods. Extensive ablations shed light on how equivariant pretext tasks affect the network's information flow and its impact on CL dynamics.

The ability to learn new concepts continually is necessary in this ever-changing world. However, deep neural networks suffer from catastrophic forgetting when learning new categories. Many works have been proposed to alleviate this phenomenon, whereas most of them either fall into the stability-plasticity dilemma or take too much computation or storage overhead. Inspired by the gradient boosting algorithm to gradually fit the residuals between the target model and the previous ensemble model, we propose a novel two-stage learning paradigm FOSTER, empowering the model to learn new categories adaptively. Specifically, we first dynamically expand new modules to fit the residuals between the target and the output of the original model. Next, we remove redundant parameters and feature dimensions through an effective distillation strategy to maintain the single backbone model. We validate our method FOSTER on CIFAR-100 and ImageNet-100/1000 under different settings. Experimental results show that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance. Code is available at: https://github.com/G-U-N/ECCV22-FOSTER.

Mechanistic interpretability seeks to understand the internal mechanisms of machine learning models, where localization -- identifying the important model components -- is a key step. Activation patching, also known as causal tracing or interchange intervention, is a standard technique for this task (Vig et al., 2020), but the literature contains many variants with little consensus on the choice of hyperparameters or methodology. In this work, we systematically examine the impact of methodological details in activation patching, including evaluation metrics and corruption methods. In several settings of localization and circuit discovery in language models, we find that varying these hyperparameters could lead to disparate interpretability results. Backed by empirical observations, we give conceptual arguments for why certain metrics or methods may be preferred. Finally, we provide recommendations for the best practices of activation patching going forwards.

Sequential learning paradigms pose challenges for gradient-based deep learning due to difficulties incorporating new data and retaining prior knowledge. While Gaussian processes elegantly tackle these problems, they struggle with scalability and handling rich inputs, such as images. To address these issues, we introduce a technique that converts neural networks from weight space to function space, through a dual parameterization. Our parameterization offers: (i) a way to scale function-space methods to large data sets via sparsification, (ii) retention of prior knowledge when access to past data is limited, and (iii) a mechanism to incorporate new data without retraining. Our experiments demonstrate that we can retain knowledge in continual learning and incorporate new data efficiently. We further show its strengths in uncertainty quantification and guiding exploration in model-based RL. Further information and code is available on the project website.

People learn throughout life. However, incrementally updating conventional neural networks leads to catastrophic forgetting. A common remedy is replay, which is inspired by how the brain consolidates memory. Replay involves fine-tuning a network on a mixture of new and old instances. While there is neuroscientific evidence that the brain replays compressed memories, existing methods for convolutional networks replay raw images. Here, we propose REMIND, a brain-inspired approach that enables efficient replay with compressed representations. REMIND is trained in an online manner, meaning it learns one example at a time, which is closer to how humans learn. Under the same constraints, REMIND outperforms other methods for incremental class learning on the ImageNet ILSVRC-2012 dataset. We probe REMIND's robustness to data ordering schemes known to induce catastrophic forgetting. We demonstrate REMIND's generality by pioneering online learning for Visual Question Answering (VQA).

Neural networks often suffer from catastrophic interference (CI): performance on previously learned tasks drops off significantly when learning a new task. This contrasts strongly with humans, who can sequentially learn new tasks without appreciably forgetting previous tasks. Prior work has explored various techniques for mitigating CI such as regularization, rehearsal, generative replay, and distillation methods. The current work takes a different approach, one guided by cognitive science research showing that in naturalistic environments, the probability of encountering a task decreases as a power-law of the time since it was last performed. We argue that a realistic evaluation of techniques for the mitigation of CI should be performed in simulated naturalistic learning environments. Thus, we evaluate the extent of mitigation of CI when training simple rehearsal-based methods in power-law environments similar to the ones humans face. Our work explores this novel rehearsal-based approach for a domain-incremental task: learning permutations in the MNIST task. We compare our rehearsal environment with other baselines to show its efficacy in promoting continual learning. Additionally, we investigate whether this environment shows forward facilitation, i.e., faster learning of later tasks. Next, we explore the robustness of our learning environment to the number of tasks, model size, and amount of data rehearsed after each task. Notably, our results show that the performance is comparable or superior to that of models trained using popular regularization methods and also to rehearsals in non-power-law environments. The benefits of this training paradigm include simplicity and the lack of a need for extra neural circuitry. In addition, because our method is orthogonal to other methods, future research can combine training in power-law environments with other continual learning mechanisms.

Recent text-to-image generative models have demonstrated an unparalleled ability to generate diverse and creative imagery guided by a target text prompt. While revolutionary, current state-of-the-art diffusion models may still fail in generating images that fully convey the semantics in the given text prompt. We analyze the publicly available Stable Diffusion model and assess the existence of catastrophic neglect, where the model fails to generate one or more of the subjects from the input prompt. Moreover, we find that in some cases the model also fails to correctly bind attributes (e.g., colors) to their corresponding subjects. To help mitigate these failure cases, we introduce the concept of Generative Semantic Nursing (GSN), where we seek to intervene in the generative process on the fly during inference time to improve the faithfulness of the generated images. Using an attention-based formulation of GSN, dubbed Attend-and-Excite, we guide the model to refine the cross-attention units to attend to all subject tokens in the text prompt and strengthen - or excite - their activations, encouraging the model to generate all subjects described in the text prompt. We compare our approach to alternative approaches and demonstrate that it conveys the desired concepts more faithfully across a range of text prompts.

The latest advancements in unsupervised learning of sentence embeddings predominantly involve employing contrastive learning-based (CL-based) fine-tuning over pre-trained language models. In this study, we analyze the latest sentence embedding methods by adopting representation rank as the primary tool of analysis. We first define Phase 1 and Phase 2 of fine-tuning based on when representation rank peaks. Utilizing these phases, we conduct a thorough analysis and obtain essential findings across key aspects, including alignment and uniformity, linguistic abilities, and correlation between performance and rank. For instance, we find that the dynamics of the key aspects can undergo significant changes as fine-tuning transitions from Phase 1 to Phase 2. Based on these findings, we experiment with a rank reduction (RR) strategy that facilitates rapid and stable fine-tuning of the latest CL-based methods. Through empirical investigations, we showcase the efficacy of RR in enhancing the performance and stability of five state-of-the-art sentence embedding methods.

Natural data is redundant yet predominant architectures tile computation uniformly across their input and output space. We propose the Recurrent Interface Networks (RINs), an attention-based architecture that decouples its core computation from the dimensionality of the data, enabling adaptive computation for more scalable generation of high-dimensional data. RINs focus the bulk of computation (i.e. global self-attention) on a set of latent tokens, using cross-attention to read and write (i.e. route) information between latent and data tokens. Stacking RIN blocks allows bottom-up (data to latent) and top-down (latent to data) feedback, leading to deeper and more expressive routing. While this routing introduces challenges, this is less problematic in recurrent computation settings where the task (and routing problem) changes gradually, such as iterative generation with diffusion models. We show how to leverage recurrence by conditioning the latent tokens at each forward pass of the reverse diffusion process with those from prior computation, i.e. latent self-conditioning. RINs yield state-of-the-art pixel diffusion models for image and video generation, scaling to 1024X1024 images without cascades or guidance, while being domain-agnostic and up to 10X more efficient than 2D and 3D U-Nets.

In-context learning is a powerful emergent ability in transformer models. Prior work in mechanistic interpretability has identified a circuit element that may be critical for in-context learning -- the induction head (IH), which performs a match-and-copy operation. During training of large transformers on natural language data, IHs emerge around the same time as a notable phase change in the loss. Despite the robust evidence for IHs and this interesting coincidence with the phase change, relatively little is known about the diversity and emergence dynamics of IHs. Why is there more than one IH, and how are they dependent on each other? Why do IHs appear all of a sudden, and what are the subcircuits that enable them to emerge? We answer these questions by studying IH emergence dynamics in a controlled setting by training on synthetic data. In doing so, we develop and share a novel optogenetics-inspired causal framework for modifying activations throughout training. Using this framework, we delineate the diverse and additive nature of IHs. By clamping subsets of activations throughout training, we then identify three underlying subcircuits that interact to drive IH formation, yielding the phase change. Furthermore, these subcircuits shed light on data-dependent properties of formation, such as phase change timing, already showing the promise of this more in-depth understanding of subcircuits that need to "go right" for an induction head.

A creative idea is often born from transforming, combining, and modifying ideas from existing visual examples capturing various concepts. However, one cannot simply copy the concept as a whole, and inspiration is achieved by examining certain aspects of the concept. Hence, it is often necessary to separate a concept into different aspects to provide new perspectives. In this paper, we propose a method to decompose a visual concept, represented as a set of images, into different visual aspects encoded in a hierarchical tree structure. We utilize large vision-language models and their rich latent space for concept decomposition and generation. Each node in the tree represents a sub-concept using a learned vector embedding injected into the latent space of a pretrained text-to-image model. We use a set of regularizations to guide the optimization of the embedding vectors encoded in the nodes to follow the hierarchical structure of the tree. Our method allows to explore and discover new concepts derived from the original one. The tree provides the possibility of endless visual sampling at each node, allowing the user to explore the hidden sub-concepts of the object of interest. The learned aspects in each node can be combined within and across trees to create new visual ideas, and can be used in natural language sentences to apply such aspects to new designs.

Can continuous diffusion models bring the same performance breakthrough on natural language they did for image generation? To circumvent the discrete nature of text data, we can simply project tokens in a continuous space of embeddings, as is standard in language modeling. We propose Self-conditioned Embedding Diffusion, a continuous diffusion mechanism that operates on token embeddings and allows to learn flexible and scalable diffusion models for both conditional and unconditional text generation. Through qualitative and quantitative evaluation, we show that our text diffusion models generate samples comparable with those produced by standard autoregressive language models - while being in theory more efficient on accelerator hardware at inference time. Our work paves the way for scaling up diffusion models for text, similarly to autoregressive models, and for improving performance with recent refinements to continuous diffusion.

Textural Inversion, a prompt learning method, learns a singular embedding for a new "word" to represent image style and appearance, allowing it to be integrated into natural language sentences to generate novel synthesised images. However, identifying and integrating multiple object-level concepts within one scene poses significant challenges even when embeddings for individual concepts are attainable. This is further confirmed by our empirical tests. To address this challenge, we introduce a framework for Multi-Concept Prompt Learning (MCPL), where multiple new "words" are simultaneously learned from a single sentence-image pair. To enhance the accuracy of word-concept correlation, we propose three regularisation techniques: Attention Masking (AttnMask) to concentrate learning on relevant areas; Prompts Contrastive Loss (PromptCL) to separate the embeddings of different concepts; and Bind adjective (Bind adj.) to associate new "words" with known words. We evaluate via image generation, editing, and attention visualisation with diverse images. Extensive quantitative comparisons demonstrate that our method can learn more semantically disentangled concepts with enhanced word-concept correlation. Additionally, we introduce a novel dataset and evaluation protocol tailored for this new task of learning object-level concepts.

Continual Learning aims to learn a single model on a sequence of tasks without having access to data from previous tasks. The biggest challenge in the domain still remains catastrophic forgetting: a loss in performance on seen classes of earlier tasks. Some existing methods rely on an expensive replay buffer to store a chunk of data from previous tasks. This, while promising, becomes expensive when the number of tasks becomes large or data can not be stored for privacy reasons. As an alternative, prompt-based methods have been proposed that store the task information in a learnable prompt pool. This prompt pool instructs a frozen image encoder on how to solve each task. While the model faces a disjoint set of classes in each task in this setting, we argue that these classes can be encoded to the same embedding space of a pre-trained language encoder. In this work, we propose Language Guidance for Prompt-based Continual Learning (LGCL) as a plug-in for prompt-based methods. LGCL is model agnostic and introduces language guidance at the task level in the prompt pool and at the class level on the output feature of the vision encoder. We show with extensive experimentation that LGCL consistently improves the performance of prompt-based continual learning methods to set a new state-of-the art. LGCL achieves these performance improvements without needing any additional learnable parameters.

Text-to-image models offer unprecedented freedom to guide creation through natural language. Yet, it is unclear how such freedom can be exercised to generate images of specific unique concepts, modify their appearance, or compose them in new roles and novel scenes. In other words, we ask: how can we use language-guided models to turn our cat into a painting, or imagine a new product based on our favorite toy? Here we present a simple approach that allows such creative freedom. Using only 3-5 images of a user-provided concept, like an object or a style, we learn to represent it through new "words" in the embedding space of a frozen text-to-image model. These "words" can be composed into natural language sentences, guiding personalized creation in an intuitive way. Notably, we find evidence that a single word embedding is sufficient for capturing unique and varied concepts. We compare our approach to a wide range of baselines, and demonstrate that it can more faithfully portray the concepts across a range of applications and tasks. Our code, data and new words will be available at: https://textual-inversion.github.io

Language models (LMs) are bound to their tokenizer, which maps raw text to a sequence of vocabulary items (tokens). This restricts their flexibility: for example, LMs trained primarily on English may still perform well in other natural and programming languages, but have vastly decreased efficiency due to their English-centric tokenizer. To mitigate this, we should be able to swap the original LM tokenizer with an arbitrary one, on the fly, without degrading performance. Hence, in this work we define a new problem: Zero-Shot Tokenizer Transfer (ZeTT). The challenge at the core of ZeTT is finding embeddings for the tokens in the vocabulary of the new tokenizer. Since prior heuristics for initializing embeddings often perform at chance level in a ZeTT setting, we propose a new solution: we train a hypernetwork taking a tokenizer as input and predicting the corresponding embeddings. We empirically demonstrate that the hypernetwork generalizes to new tokenizers both with encoder (e.g., XLM-R) and decoder LLMs (e.g., Mistral-7B). Our method comes close to the original models' performance in cross-lingual and coding tasks while markedly reducing the length of the tokenized sequence. We also find that the remaining gap can be quickly closed by continued training on less than 1B tokens. Finally, we show that a ZeTT hypernetwork trained for a base (L)LM can also be applied to fine-tuned variants without extra training. Overall, our results make substantial strides toward detaching LMs from their tokenizer.

Interpreting hierarchical structures latent in language is a key limitation of current language models (LMs). While previous research has implicitly leveraged these hierarchies to enhance LMs, approaches for their explicit encoding are yet to be explored. To address this, we introduce a novel approach to re-train transformer encoder-based LMs as Hierarchy Transformer encoders (HiTs), harnessing the expansive nature of hyperbolic space. Our method situates the output embedding space of pre-trained LMs within a Poincar\'e ball with a curvature that adapts to the embedding dimension, followed by re-training on hyperbolic cluster and centripetal losses. These losses are designed to effectively cluster related entities (input as texts) and organise them hierarchically. We evaluate HiTs against pre-trained and fine-tuned LMs, focusing on their capabilities in simulating transitive inference, predicting subsumptions, and transferring knowledge across hierarchies. The results demonstrate that HiTs consistently outperform both pre-trained and fine-tuned LMs in these tasks, underscoring the effectiveness and transferability of our re-trained hierarchy encoders.

Continual learning (CL) aims to empower models to learn new tasks without forgetting previously acquired knowledge. Most prior works concentrate on the techniques of architectures, replay data, regularization, \etc. However, the category name of each class is largely neglected. Existing methods commonly utilize the one-hot labels and randomly initialize the classifier head. We argue that the scarce semantic information conveyed by the one-hot labels hampers the effective knowledge transfer across tasks. In this paper, we revisit the role of the classifier head within the CL paradigm and replace the classifier with semantic knowledge from pretrained language models (PLMs). Specifically, we use PLMs to generate semantic targets for each class, which are frozen and serve as supervision signals during training. Such targets fully consider the semantic correlation between all classes across tasks. Empirical studies show that our approach mitigates forgetting by alleviating representation drifting and facilitating knowledge transfer across tasks. The proposed method is simple to implement and can seamlessly be plugged into existing methods with negligible adjustments. Extensive experiments based on eleven mainstream baselines demonstrate the effectiveness and generalizability of our approach to various protocols. For example, under the class-incremental learning setting on ImageNet-100, our method significantly improves the Top-1 accuracy by 3.2\% to 6.1\% while reducing the forgetting rate by 2.6\% to 13.1\%.

Embedding models are crucial for various natural language processing tasks but can be limited by factors such as limited vocabulary, lack of context, and grammatical errors. This paper proposes a novel approach to improve embedding performance by leveraging large language models (LLMs) to enrich and rewrite input text before the embedding process. By utilizing ChatGPT 3.5 to provide additional context, correct inaccuracies, and incorporate metadata, the proposed method aims to enhance the utility and accuracy of embedding models. The effectiveness of this approach is evaluated on three datasets: Banking77Classification, TwitterSemEval 2015, and Amazon Counter-factual Classification. Results demonstrate significant improvements over the baseline model on the TwitterSemEval 2015 dataset, with the best-performing prompt achieving a score of 85.34 compared to the previous best of 81.52 on the Massive Text Embedding Benchmark (MTEB) Leaderboard. However, performance on the other two datasets was less impressive, highlighting the importance of considering domain-specific characteristics. The findings suggest that LLM-based text enrichment has shown promising results to improve embedding performance, particularly in certain domains. Hence, numerous limitations in the process of embedding can be avoided.

Teaching large language models (LLMs) to generate text with citations to evidence sources can mitigate hallucinations and enhance verifiability in information-seeking systems. However, improving this capability requires high-quality attribution data, which is costly and labor-intensive. Inspired by recent advances in self-improvement that enhance LLMs without manual annotation, we present START, a Self-Taught AttRibuTion framework for iteratively improving the attribution capability of LLMs. First, to prevent models from stagnating due to initially insufficient supervision signals, START leverages the model to self-construct synthetic training data for warming up. To further self-improve the model's attribution ability, START iteratively utilizes fine-grained preference supervision signals constructed from its sampled responses to encourage robust, comprehensive, and attributable generation. Experiments on three open-domain question-answering datasets, covering long-form QA and multi-step reasoning, demonstrate significant performance gains of 25.13% on average without relying on human annotations and more advanced models. Further analysis reveals that START excels in aggregating information across multiple sources.

Word embeddings improve generalization over lexical features by placing each word in a lower-dimensional space, using distributional information obtained from unlabeled data. However, the effectiveness of word embeddings for downstream NLP tasks is limited by out-of-vocabulary (OOV) words, for which embeddings do not exist. In this paper, we present MIMICK, an approach to generating OOV word embeddings compositionally, by learning a function from spellings to distributional embeddings. Unlike prior work, MIMICK does not require re-training on the original word embedding corpus; instead, learning is performed at the type level. Intrinsic and extrinsic evaluations demonstrate the power of this simple approach. On 23 languages, MIMICK improves performance over a word-based baseline for tagging part-of-speech and morphosyntactic attributes. It is competitive with (and complementary to) a supervised character-based model in low-resource settings.

While static word embedding models are known to represent linguistic analogies as parallel lines in high-dimensional space, the underlying mechanism as to why they result in such geometric structures remains obscure. We find that an elementary contrastive-style method employed over distributional information performs competitively with popular word embedding models on analogy recovery tasks, while achieving dramatic speedups in training time. Further, we demonstrate that a contrastive loss is sufficient to create these parallel structures in word embeddings, and establish a precise relationship between the co-occurrence statistics and the geometric structure of the resulting word embeddings.

Current deep learning methods are regarded as favorable if they empirically perform well on dedicated test sets. This mentality is seamlessly reflected in the resurfacing area of continual learning, where consecutively arriving data is investigated. The core challenge is framed as protecting previously acquired representations from being catastrophically forgotten. However, comparison of individual methods is nevertheless performed in isolation from the real world by monitoring accumulated benchmark test set performance. The closed world assumption remains predominant, i.e. models are evaluated on data that is guaranteed to originate from the same distribution as used for training. This poses a massive challenge as neural networks are well known to provide overconfident false predictions on unknown and corrupted instances. In this work we critically survey the literature and argue that notable lessons from open set recognition, identifying unknown examples outside of the observed set, and the adjacent field of active learning, querying data to maximize the expected performance gain, are frequently overlooked in the deep learning era. Hence, we propose a consolidated view to bridge continual learning, active learning and open set recognition in deep neural networks. Finally, the established synergies are supported empirically, showing joint improvement in alleviating catastrophic forgetting, querying data, selecting task orders, while exhibiting robust open world application.

In this work, we propose Retentive Network (RetNet) as a foundation architecture for large language models, simultaneously achieving training parallelism, low-cost inference, and good performance. We theoretically derive the connection between recurrence and attention. Then we propose the retention mechanism for sequence modeling, which supports three computation paradigms, i.e., parallel, recurrent, and chunkwise recurrent. Specifically, the parallel representation allows for training parallelism. The recurrent representation enables low-cost O(1) inference, which improves decoding throughput, latency, and GPU memory without sacrificing performance. The chunkwise recurrent representation facilitates efficient long-sequence modeling with linear complexity, where each chunk is encoded parallelly while recurrently summarizing the chunks. Experimental results on language modeling show that RetNet achieves favorable scaling results, parallel training, low-cost deployment, and efficient inference. The intriguing properties make RetNet a strong successor to Transformer for large language models. Code will be available at https://aka.ms/retnet.

The mainstream paradigm behind continual learning has been to adapt the model parameters to non-stationary data distributions, where catastrophic forgetting is the central challenge. Typical methods rely on a rehearsal buffer or known task identity at test time to retrieve learned knowledge and address forgetting, while this work presents a new paradigm for continual learning that aims to train a more succinct memory system without accessing task identity at test time. Our method learns to dynamically prompt (L2P) a pre-trained model to learn tasks sequentially under different task transitions. In our proposed framework, prompts are small learnable parameters, which are maintained in a memory space. The objective is to optimize prompts to instruct the model prediction and explicitly manage task-invariant and task-specific knowledge while maintaining model plasticity. We conduct comprehensive experiments under popular image classification benchmarks with different challenging continual learning settings, where L2P consistently outperforms prior state-of-the-art methods. Surprisingly, L2P achieves competitive results against rehearsal-based methods even without a rehearsal buffer and is directly applicable to challenging task-agnostic continual learning. Source code is available at https://github.com/google-research/l2p.

Effective approaches that can scale embedding model depth (i.e. layers) and embedding size allow for the creation of models that are highly scalable across different computational resources and task requirements. While the recently proposed 2D Matryoshka training approach can efficiently produce a single embedding model such that its sub-layers and sub-dimensions can measure text similarity, its effectiveness is significantly worse than if smaller models were trained separately. To address this issue, we propose Starbucks, a new training strategy for Matryoshka-like embedding models, which encompasses both the fine-tuning and pre-training phases. For the fine-tuning phase, we discover that, rather than sampling a random sub-layer and sub-dimensions for each training steps, providing a fixed list of layer-dimension pairs, from small size to large sizes, and computing the loss across all pairs significantly improves the effectiveness of 2D Matryoshka embedding models, bringing them on par with their separately trained counterparts. To further enhance performance, we introduce a new pre-training strategy, which applies masked autoencoder language modelling to sub-layers and sub-dimensions during pre-training, resulting in a stronger backbone for subsequent fine-tuning of the embedding model. Experimental results on both semantic text similarity and retrieval benchmarks demonstrate that the proposed pre-training and fine-tuning strategies significantly improved the effectiveness over 2D Matryoshka models, enabling Starbucks models to perform more efficiently and effectively than separately trained models.

Diffusion models gain increasing popularity for their generative capabilities. Recently, there have been surging needs to generate customized images by inverting diffusion models from exemplar images. However, existing inversion methods mainly focus on capturing object appearances. How to invert object relations, another important pillar in the visual world, remains unexplored. In this work, we propose ReVersion for the Relation Inversion task, which aims to learn a specific relation (represented as "relation prompt") from exemplar images. Specifically, we learn a relation prompt from a frozen pre-trained text-to-image diffusion model. The learned relation prompt can then be applied to generate relation-specific images with new objects, backgrounds, and styles. Our key insight is the "preposition prior" - real-world relation prompts can be sparsely activated upon a set of basis prepositional words. Specifically, we propose a novel relation-steering contrastive learning scheme to impose two critical properties of the relation prompt: 1) The relation prompt should capture the interaction between objects, enforced by the preposition prior. 2) The relation prompt should be disentangled away from object appearances. We further devise relation-focal importance sampling to emphasize high-level interactions over low-level appearances (e.g., texture, color). To comprehensively evaluate this new task, we contribute ReVersion Benchmark, which provides various exemplar images with diverse relations. Extensive experiments validate the superiority of our approach over existing methods across a wide range of visual relations.

Personalized image generation has made significant strides in adapting content to novel concepts. However, a persistent challenge remains: balancing the accurate reconstruction of unseen concepts with the need for editability according to the prompt, especially when dealing with the complex nuances of facial features. In this study, we delve into the temporal dynamics of the text-to-image conditioning process, emphasizing the crucial role of stage partitioning in introducing new concepts. We present PersonaMagic, a stage-regulated generative technique designed for high-fidelity face customization. Using a simple MLP network, our method learns a series of embeddings within a specific timestep interval to capture face concepts. Additionally, we develop a Tandem Equilibrium mechanism that adjusts self-attention responses in the text encoder, balancing text description and identity preservation, improving both areas. Extensive experiments confirm the superiority of PersonaMagic over state-of-the-art methods in both qualitative and quantitative evaluations. Moreover, its robustness and flexibility are validated in non-facial domains, and it can also serve as a valuable plug-in for enhancing the performance of pretrained personalization models.

Brain decoding, a pivotal field in neuroscience, aims to reconstruct stimuli from acquired brain signals, primarily utilizing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Currently, brain decoding is confined to a per-subject-per-model paradigm, limiting its applicability to the same individual for whom the decoding model is trained. This constraint stems from three key challenges: 1) the inherent variability in input dimensions across subjects due to differences in brain size; 2) the unique intrinsic neural patterns, influencing how different individuals perceive and process sensory information; 3) limited data availability for new subjects in real-world scenarios hampers the performance of decoding models. In this paper, we present a novel approach, MindBridge, that achieves cross-subject brain decoding by employing only one model. Our proposed framework establishes a generic paradigm capable of addressing these challenges by introducing biological-inspired aggregation function and novel cyclic fMRI reconstruction mechanism for subject-invariant representation learning. Notably, by cycle reconstruction of fMRI, MindBridge can enable novel fMRI synthesis, which also can serve as pseudo data augmentation. Within the framework, we also devise a novel reset-tuning method for adapting a pretrained model to a new subject. Experimental results demonstrate MindBridge's ability to reconstruct images for multiple subjects, which is competitive with dedicated subject-specific models. Furthermore, with limited data for a new subject, we achieve a high level of decoding accuracy, surpassing that of subject-specific models. This advancement in cross-subject brain decoding suggests promising directions for wider applications in neuroscience and indicates potential for more efficient utilization of limited fMRI data in real-world scenarios. Project page: https://littlepure2333.github.io/MindBridge

Large language models (LLMs) are routinely pre-trained on billions of tokens, only to start the process over again once new data becomes available. A much more efficient solution is to continually pre-train these models, saving significant compute compared to re-training. However, the distribution shift induced by new data typically results in degraded performance on previous data or poor adaptation to the new data. In this work, we show that a simple and scalable combination of learning rate (LR) re-warming, LR re-decaying, and replay of previous data is sufficient to match the performance of fully re-training from scratch on all available data, as measured by final loss and language model (LM) evaluation benchmarks. Specifically, we show this for a weak but realistic distribution shift between two commonly used LLM pre-training datasets (EnglishrightarrowEnglish) and a stronger distribution shift (EnglishrightarrowGerman) at the 405M parameter model scale with large dataset sizes (hundreds of billions of tokens). Selecting the weak but realistic shift for larger-scale experiments, we also find that our continual learning strategies match the re-training baseline for a 10B parameter LLM. Our results demonstrate that LLMs can be successfully updated via simple and scalable continual learning strategies, matching the re-training baseline using only a fraction of the compute. Finally, inspired by previous work, we propose alternatives to the cosine learning rate schedule that help circumvent forgetting induced by LR re-warming and that are not bound to a fixed token budget.

Training recurrent neural networks (RNNs) is a high-dimensional process that requires updating numerous parameters. Therefore, it is often difficult to pinpoint the underlying learning mechanisms. To address this challenge, we propose to gain mechanistic insights into the phenomenon of abrupt learning by studying RNNs trained to perform diverse short-term memory tasks. In these tasks, RNN training begins with an initial search phase. Following a long period of plateau in accuracy, the values of the loss function suddenly drop, indicating abrupt learning. Analyzing the neural computation performed by these RNNs reveals geometric restructuring (GR) in their phase spaces prior to the drop. To promote these GR events, we introduce a temporal consistency regularization that accelerates (bioplausible) training, facilitates attractor formation, and enables efficient learning in strongly connected networks. Our findings offer testable predictions for neuroscientists and emphasize the need for goal-agnostic secondary mechanisms to facilitate learning in biological and artificial networks.

Continual Learning (CL) investigates how to train Deep Networks on a stream of tasks without incurring forgetting. CL settings proposed in literature assume that every incoming example is paired with ground-truth annotations. However, this clashes with many real-world applications: gathering labeled data, which is in itself tedious and expensive, becomes infeasible when data flow as a stream. This work explores Continual Semi-Supervised Learning (CSSL): here, only a small fraction of labeled input examples are shown to the learner. We assess how current CL methods (e.g.: EWC, LwF, iCaRL, ER, GDumb, DER) perform in this novel and challenging scenario, where overfitting entangles forgetting. Subsequently, we design a novel CSSL method that exploits metric learning and consistency regularization to leverage unlabeled examples while learning. We show that our proposal exhibits higher resilience to diminishing supervision and, even more surprisingly, relying only on 25% supervision suffices to outperform SOTA methods trained under full supervision.

Subject-driven text-to-image generation aims to generate customized images of the given subject based on the text descriptions, which has drawn increasing attention. Existing methods mainly resort to finetuning a pretrained generative model, where the identity-relevant information (e.g., the boy) and the identity-irrelevant information (e.g., the background or the pose of the boy) are entangled in the latent embedding space. However, the highly entangled latent embedding may lead to the failure of subject-driven text-to-image generation as follows: (i) the identity-irrelevant information hidden in the entangled embedding may dominate the generation process, resulting in the generated images heavily dependent on the irrelevant information while ignoring the given text descriptions; (ii) the identity-relevant information carried in the entangled embedding can not be appropriately preserved, resulting in identity change of the subject in the generated images. To tackle the problems, we propose DisenBooth, an identity-preserving disentangled tuning framework for subject-driven text-to-image generation. Specifically, DisenBooth finetunes the pretrained diffusion model in the denoising process. Different from previous works that utilize an entangled embedding to denoise each image, DisenBooth instead utilizes disentangled embeddings to respectively preserve the subject identity and capture the identity-irrelevant information. We further design the novel weak denoising and contrastive embedding auxiliary tuning objectives to achieve the disentanglement. Extensive experiments show that our proposed DisenBooth framework outperforms baseline models for subject-driven text-to-image generation with the identity-preserved embedding. Additionally, by combining the identity-preserved embedding and identity-irrelevant embedding, DisenBooth demonstrates more generation flexibility and controllability

Recent approaches to improving the extraction of text embeddings from autoregressive large language models (LLMs) have largely focused on improvements to data, backbone pretrained language models, or improving task-differentiation via instructions. In this work, we address an architectural limitation of autoregressive models: token embeddings cannot contain information from tokens that appear later in the input. To address this limitation, we propose a simple approach, "echo embeddings," in which we repeat the input twice in context and extract embeddings from the second occurrence. We show that echo embeddings of early tokens can encode information about later tokens, allowing us to maximally leverage high-quality LLMs for embeddings. On the MTEB leaderboard, echo embeddings improve over classical embeddings by over 9% zero-shot and by around 0.7% when fine-tuned. Echo embeddings with a Mistral-7B model achieve state-of-the-art compared to prior open source models that do not leverage synthetic fine-tuning data.

The ability to learn different tasks sequentially is essential to the development of artificial intelligence. In general, neural networks lack this capability, the major obstacle being catastrophic forgetting. It occurs when the incrementally available information from non-stationary data distributions is continually acquired, disrupting what the model has already learned. Our approach remembers old tasks by projecting the representations of new tasks close to that of old tasks while keeping the decision boundaries unchanged. We employ the center loss as a regularization penalty that enforces new tasks' features to have the same class centers as old tasks and makes the features highly discriminative. This, in turn, leads to the least forgetting of already learned information. This method is easy to implement, requires minimal computational and memory overhead, and allows the neural network to maintain high performance across many sequentially encountered tasks. We also demonstrate that using the center loss in conjunction with the memory replay outperforms other replay-based strategies. Along with standard MNIST variants for continual learning, we apply our method to continual domain adaptation scenarios with the Digits and PACS datasets. We demonstrate that our approach is scalable, effective, and gives competitive performance compared to state-of-the-art continual learning methods.

Zero-shot learning has gained popularity due to its potential to scale recognition models without requiring additional training data. This is usually achieved by associating categories with their semantic information like attributes. However, we believe that the potential offered by this paradigm is not yet fully exploited. In this work, we propose to utilize the structure of the space spanned by the attributes using a set of relations. We devise objective functions to preserve these relations in the embedding space, thereby inducing semanticity to the embedding space. Through extensive experimental evaluation on five benchmark datasets, we demonstrate that inducing semanticity to the embedding space is beneficial for zero-shot learning. The proposed approach outperforms the state-of-the-art on the standard zero-shot setting as well as the more realistic generalized zero-shot setting. We also demonstrate how the proposed approach can be useful for making approximate semantic inferences about an image belonging to a category for which attribute information is not available.

Transformer based language models exhibit intelligent behaviors such as understanding natural language, recognizing patterns, acquiring knowledge, reasoning, planning, reflecting and using tools. This paper explores how their underlying mechanics give rise to intelligent behaviors. Towards that end, we propose framing Transformer dynamics as movement through embedding space. Examining Transformers through this perspective reveals key insights, establishing a Theory of Transformers: 1) Intelligent behaviours map to paths in Embedding Space which, the Transformer random-walks through during inferencing. 2) LM training learns a probability distribution over all possible paths. `Intelligence' is learnt by assigning higher probabilities to paths representing intelligent behaviors. No learning can take place in-context; context only narrows the subset of paths sampled during decoding. 5) The Transformer is a self-mapping composition function, folding a context sequence into a context-vector such that it's proximity to a token-vector reflects its co-occurrence and conditioned probability. Thus, the physical arrangement of vectors in Embedding Space determines path probabilities. 6) Context vectors are composed by aggregating features of the sequence's tokens via a process we call the encoding walk. Attention contributes a - potentially redundant - association-bias to this process. 7) This process is comprised of two principal operation types: filtering (data independent) and aggregation (data dependent). This generalization unifies Transformers with other sequence models. Building upon this foundation, we formalize a popular semantic interpretation of embeddings into a ``concept-space theory'' and find some evidence of it's validity.

Recent advances in text-to-image diffusion models enable photorealistic image generation, but they also risk producing malicious content, such as NSFW images. To mitigate risk, concept erasure methods are studied to facilitate the model to unlearn specific concepts. However, current studies struggle to fully erase malicious concepts implicitly embedded in prompts (e.g., metaphorical expressions or adversarial prompts) while preserving the model's normal generation capability. To address this challenge, our study proposes TRCE, using a two-stage concept erasure strategy to achieve an effective trade-off between reliable erasure and knowledge preservation. Firstly, TRCE starts by erasing the malicious semantics implicitly embedded in textual prompts. By identifying a critical mapping objective(i.e., the [EoT] embedding), we optimize the cross-attention layers to map malicious prompts to contextually similar prompts but with safe concepts. This step prevents the model from being overly influenced by malicious semantics during the denoising process. Following this, considering the deterministic properties of the sampling trajectory of the diffusion model, TRCE further steers the early denoising prediction toward the safe direction and away from the unsafe one through contrastive learning, thus further avoiding the generation of malicious content. Finally, we conduct comprehensive evaluations of TRCE on multiple malicious concept erasure benchmarks, and the results demonstrate its effectiveness in erasing malicious concepts while better preserving the model's original generation ability. The code is available at: http://github.com/ddgoodgood/TRCE. CAUTION: This paper includes model-generated content that may contain offensive material.

Instruction-following is crucial for building AI agents with large language models (LLMs), as these models must adhere strictly to user-provided constraints and guidelines. However, LLMs often fail to follow even simple and clear instructions. To improve instruction-following behavior and prevent undesirable outputs, a deeper understanding of how LLMs' internal states relate to these outcomes is required. Our analysis of LLM internal states reveal a dimension in the input embedding space linked to successful instruction-following. We demonstrate that modifying representations along this dimension improves instruction-following success rates compared to random changes, without compromising response quality. Further investigation reveals that this dimension is more closely related to the phrasing of prompts rather than the inherent difficulty of the task or instructions. This discovery also suggests explanations for why LLMs sometimes fail to follow clear instructions and why prompt engineering is often effective, even when the content remains largely unchanged. This work provides insight into the internal workings of LLMs' instruction-following, paving the way for reliable LLM agents.

Using model weights pretrained on a high-resource language as a warm start can reduce the need for data and compute to obtain high-quality language models in low-resource languages. To accommodate the new language, the pretrained vocabulary and embeddings need to be adapted. Previous work on embedding initialization for such adapted vocabularies has mostly focused on monolingual source models. In this paper, we investigate the multilingual source model setting and propose FOCUS - Fast Overlapping Token Combinations Using Sparsemax, a novel embedding initialization method that outperforms previous work when adapting XLM-R. FOCUS represents newly added tokens as combinations of tokens in the overlap of the pretrained and new vocabularies. The overlapping tokens are selected based on semantic similarity in an auxiliary token embedding space. Our implementation of FOCUS is publicly available on GitHub.

Online continual learning (OCL) aims to continuously learn new data from a single pass over the online data stream. It generally suffers from the catastrophic forgetting issue. Existing replay-based methods effectively alleviate this issue by replaying part of old data in a proxy-based or contrastive-based replay manner. In this paper, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of these two replay manners and find they can be complementary. Inspired by this finding, we propose a novel replay-based method called proxy-based contrastive replay (PCR), which replaces anchor-to-sample pairs with anchor-to-proxy pairs in the contrastive-based loss to alleviate the phenomenon of forgetting. Based on PCR, we further develop a more advanced method named holistic proxy-based contrastive replay (HPCR), which consists of three components. The contrastive component conditionally incorporates anchor-to-sample pairs to PCR, learning more fine-grained semantic information with a large training batch. The second is a temperature component that decouples the temperature coefficient into two parts based on their impacts on the gradient and sets different values for them to learn more novel knowledge. The third is a distillation component that constrains the learning process to keep more historical knowledge. Experiments on four datasets consistently demonstrate the superiority of HPCR over various state-of-the-art methods.

Neural networks embed the geometric structure of a data manifold lying in a high-dimensional space into latent representations. Ideally, the distribution of the data points in the latent space should depend only on the task, the data, the loss, and other architecture-specific constraints. However, factors such as the random weights initialization, training hyperparameters, or other sources of randomness in the training phase may induce incoherent latent spaces that hinder any form of reuse. Nevertheless, we empirically observe that, under the same data and modeling choices, the angles between the encodings within distinct latent spaces do not change. In this work, we propose the latent similarity between each sample and a fixed set of anchors as an alternative data representation, demonstrating that it can enforce the desired invariances without any additional training. We show how neural architectures can leverage these relative representations to guarantee, in practice, invariance to latent isometries and rescalings, effectively enabling latent space communication: from zero-shot model stitching to latent space comparison between diverse settings. We extensively validate the generalization capability of our approach on different datasets, spanning various modalities (images, text, graphs), tasks (e.g., classification, reconstruction) and architectures (e.g., CNNs, GCNs, transformers).

Network embedding, which maps graphs to distributed representations, is a unified framework for various graph inference tasks. According to the topology properties (e.g., structural roles and community memberships of nodes) to be preserved, it can be categorized into the identity and position embedding. However, existing methods can only capture one type of property. Some approaches can support the inductive inference that generalizes the embedding model to new nodes or graphs but relies on the availability of attributes. Due to the complicated correlations between topology and attributes, it is unclear for some inductive methods which type of property they can capture. In this study, we explore a unified framework for the joint inductive inference of identity and position embeddings without attributes. An inductive random walk embedding (IRWE) method is proposed, which combines multiple attention units to handle the random walk on graph topology and simultaneously derives identity and position embeddings that are jointly optimized. In particular, we demonstrate that some random walk statistics can be informative features to characterize node identities and positions while supporting the inductive embedding inference. Experiments validate the superior performance of IRWE beyond various baselines for the transductive and inductive inference of identity and position embeddings.

We introduce Reprompting, an iterative sampling algorithm that searches for the Chain-of-Thought (CoT) recipes for a given task without human intervention. Through Gibbs sampling, we infer CoT recipes that work consistently well for a set of training samples. Our method iteratively samples new recipes using previously sampled solutions as parent prompts to solve other training problems. On five Big-Bench Hard tasks that require multi-step reasoning, Reprompting achieves consistently better performance than the zero-shot, few-shot, and human-written CoT baselines. Reprompting can also facilitate transfer of knowledge from a stronger model to a weaker model leading to substantially improved performance of the weaker model. Overall, Reprompting brings up to +17 point improvements over the previous state-of-the-art method that uses human-written CoT prompts.

Countless learning tasks require dealing with sequential data. Image captioning, speech synthesis, and music generation all require that a model produce outputs that are sequences. In other domains, such as time series prediction, video analysis, and musical information retrieval, a model must learn from inputs that are sequences. Interactive tasks, such as translating natural language, engaging in dialogue, and controlling a robot, often demand both capabilities. Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are connectionist models that capture the dynamics of sequences via cycles in the network of nodes. Unlike standard feedforward neural networks, recurrent networks retain a state that can represent information from an arbitrarily long context window. Although recurrent neural networks have traditionally been difficult to train, and often contain millions of parameters, recent advances in network architectures, optimization techniques, and parallel computation have enabled successful large-scale learning with them. In recent years, systems based on long short-term memory (LSTM) and bidirectional (BRNN) architectures have demonstrated ground-breaking performance on tasks as varied as image captioning, language translation, and handwriting recognition. In this survey, we review and synthesize the research that over the past three decades first yielded and then made practical these powerful learning models. When appropriate, we reconcile conflicting notation and nomenclature. Our goal is to provide a self-contained explication of the state of the art together with a historical perspective and references to primary research.

Text-driven video generation witnesses rapid progress. However, merely using text prompts is not enough to depict the desired subject appearance that accurately aligns with users' intents, especially for customized content creation. In this paper, we study the task of video generation with image prompts, which provide more accurate and direct content control beyond the text prompts. Specifically, we propose a feed-forward framework VideoBooth, with two dedicated designs: 1) We propose to embed image prompts in a coarse-to-fine manner. Coarse visual embeddings from image encoder provide high-level encodings of image prompts, while fine visual embeddings from the proposed attention injection module provide multi-scale and detailed encoding of image prompts. These two complementary embeddings can faithfully capture the desired appearance. 2) In the attention injection module at fine level, multi-scale image prompts are fed into different cross-frame attention layers as additional keys and values. This extra spatial information refines the details in the first frame and then it is propagated to the remaining frames, which maintains temporal consistency. Extensive experiments demonstrate that VideoBooth achieves state-of-the-art performance in generating customized high-quality videos with subjects specified in image prompts. Notably, VideoBooth is a generalizable framework where a single model works for a wide range of image prompts with feed-forward pass.

With a view to bridging the gap between deep learning and symbolic AI, we present a novel end-to-end neural network architecture that learns to form propositional representations with an explicitly relational structure from raw pixel data. In order to evaluate and analyse the architecture, we introduce a family of simple visual relational reasoning tasks of varying complexity. We show that the proposed architecture, when pre-trained on a curriculum of such tasks, learns to generate reusable representations that better facilitate subsequent learning on previously unseen tasks when compared to a number of baseline architectures. The workings of a successfully trained model are visualised to shed some light on how the architecture functions.

We demonstrate and investigate the remarkable robustness of Large Language Models by deleting and swapping adjacent layers. We find that deleting and swapping interventions retain 72-95\% of the original model's prediction accuracy without fine-tuning, whereas models with more layers exhibit more robustness. Based on the results of the layer-wise intervention and further experiments, we hypothesize the existence of four universal stages of inference across eight different models: detokenization, feature engineering, prediction ensembling, and residual sharpening. The first stage integrates local information, lifting raw token representations into higher-level contextual representations. Next is the iterative refinement of task and entity-specific features. Then, the second half of the model begins with a phase transition, where hidden representations align more with the vocabulary space due to specialized model components. Finally, the last layer sharpens the following token distribution by eliminating obsolete features that add noise to the prediction.

Personalized text-to-image generation has attracted unprecedented attention in the recent few years due to its unique capability of generating highly-personalized images via using the input concept dataset and novel textual prompt. However, previous methods solely focus on the performance of the reconstruction task, degrading its ability to combine with different textual prompt. Besides, optimizing in the high-dimensional embedding space usually leads to unnecessary time-consuming training process and slow convergence. To address these issues, we propose an efficient method to explore the target embedding in a textual subspace, drawing inspiration from the self-expressiveness property. Additionally, we propose an efficient selection strategy for determining the basis vectors of the textual subspace. The experimental evaluations demonstrate that the learned embedding can not only faithfully reconstruct input image, but also significantly improves its alignment with novel input textual prompt. Furthermore, we observe that optimizing in the textual subspace leads to an significant improvement of the robustness to the initial word, relaxing the constraint that requires users to input the most relevant initial word. Our method opens the door to more efficient representation learning for personalized text-to-image generation.

In recent years, domains such as natural language processing and image recognition have popularized the paradigm of using large datasets to pretrain representations that can be effectively transferred to downstream tasks. In this work we evaluate how such a paradigm should be done in imitation learning, where both pretraining and finetuning data are trajectories collected by experts interacting with an unknown environment. Namely, we consider a setting where the pretraining corpus consists of multitask demonstrations and the task for each demonstration is set by an unobserved latent context variable. The goal is to use the pretraining corpus to learn a low dimensional representation of the high dimensional (e.g., visual) observation space which can be transferred to a novel context for finetuning on a limited dataset of demonstrations. Among a variety of possible pretraining objectives, we argue that inverse dynamics modeling -- i.e., predicting an action given the observations appearing before and after it in the demonstration -- is well-suited to this setting. We provide empirical evidence of this claim through evaluations on a variety of simulated visuomotor manipulation problems. While previous work has attempted various theoretical explanations regarding the benefit of inverse dynamics modeling, we find that these arguments are insufficient to explain the empirical advantages often observed in our settings, and so we derive a novel analysis using a simple but general environment model.

With the growing popularity of RAG, the capabilities of embedding models are gaining increasing attention. Embedding models are primarily trained through contrastive loss learning, with negative examples being a key component. Previous work has proposed various hard negative mining strategies, but these strategies are typically employed as preprocessing steps. In this paper, we propose the conan-embedding model, which maximizes the utilization of more and higher-quality negative examples. Specifically, since the model's ability to handle preprocessed negative examples evolves during training, we propose dynamic hard negative mining method to expose the model to more challenging negative examples throughout the training process. Secondly, contrastive learning requires as many negative examples as possible but is limited by GPU memory constraints. Therefore, we use a Cross-GPU balancing Loss to provide more negative examples for embedding training and balance the batch size across multiple tasks. Moreover, we also discovered that the prompt-response pairs from LLMs can be used for embedding training. Our approach effectively enhances the capabilities of embedding models, currently ranking first on the Chinese leaderboard of Massive text embedding benchmark

In a conversation or a dialogue process, attention and intention play intrinsic roles. This paper proposes a neural network based approach that models the attention and intention processes. It essentially consists of three recurrent networks. The encoder network is a word-level model representing source side sentences. The intention network is a recurrent network that models the dynamics of the intention process. The decoder network is a recurrent network produces responses to the input from the source side. It is a language model that is dependent on the intention and has an attention mechanism to attend to particular source side words, when predicting a symbol in the response. The model is trained end-to-end without labeling data. Experiments show that this model generates natural responses to user inputs.

One of the main methods for computational interpretation of a text is mapping it into a vector in some embedding space. Such vectors can then be used for a variety of textual processing tasks. Recently, most embedding spaces are a product of training large language models (LLMs). One major drawback of this type of representation is their incomprehensibility to humans. Understanding the embedding space is crucial for several important needs, including the need to debug the embedding method and compare it to alternatives, and the need to detect biases hidden in the model. In this paper, we present a novel method of understanding embeddings by transforming a latent embedding space into a comprehensible conceptual space. We present an algorithm for deriving a conceptual space with dynamic on-demand granularity. We devise a new evaluation method, using either human rater or LLM-based raters, to show that the conceptualized vectors indeed represent the semantics of the original latent ones. We show the use of our method for various tasks, including comparing the semantics of alternative models and tracing the layers of the LLM. The code is available online https://github.com/adiSimhi/Interpreting-Embedding-Spaces-by-Conceptualization.

It has been observed that representations learned by distinct neural networks conceal structural similarities when the models are trained under similar inductive biases. From a geometric perspective, identifying the classes of transformations and the related invariances that connect these representations is fundamental to unlocking applications, such as merging, stitching, and reusing different neural modules. However, estimating task-specific transformations a priori can be challenging and expensive due to several factors (e.g., weights initialization, training hyperparameters, or data modality). To this end, we introduce a versatile method to directly incorporate a set of invariances into the representations, constructing a product space of invariant components on top of the latent representations without requiring prior knowledge about the optimal invariance to infuse. We validate our solution on classification and reconstruction tasks, observing consistent latent similarity and downstream performance improvements in a zero-shot stitching setting. The experimental analysis comprises three modalities (vision, text, and graphs), twelve pretrained foundational models, nine benchmarks, and several architectures trained from scratch.

Most Chinese Grapheme-to-Phoneme (G2P) systems employ a three-stage framework that first transforms input sequences into character embeddings, obtains linguistic information using language models, and then predicts the phonemes based on global context about the entire input sequence. However, linguistic knowledge alone is often inadequate. Language models frequently encode overly general structures of a sentence and fail to cover specific cases needed to use phonetic knowledge. Also, a handcrafted post-processing system is needed to address the problems relevant to the tone of the characters. However, the system exhibits inconsistency in the segmentation of word boundaries which consequently degrades the performance of the G2P system. To address these issues, we propose the Reinforcer that provides strong inductive bias for language models by emphasizing the phonological information between neighboring characters to help disambiguate pronunciations. Experimental results show that the Reinforcer boosts the cutting-edge architectures by a large margin. We also combine the Reinforcer with a large-scale pre-trained model and demonstrate the validity of using neighboring context in knowledge transfer scenarios.

With the unprecedented performance being achieved by text-to-image (T2I) diffusion models, T2I customization further empowers users to tailor the diffusion model to new concepts absent in the pre-training dataset, termed subject-driven generation. Moreover, extracting several new concepts from a single image enables the model to learn multiple concepts, and simultaneously decreases the difficulties of training data preparation, urging the disentanglement of multiple concepts to be a new challenge. However, existing models for disentanglement commonly require pre-determined masks or retain background elements. To this end, we propose an attention-guided method, AttenCraft, for multiple concept disentanglement. In particular, our method leverages self-attention and cross-attention maps to create accurate masks for each concept within a single initialization step, omitting any required mask preparation by humans or other models. The created masks are then applied to guide the cross-attention activation of each target concept during training and achieve concept disentanglement. Additionally, we introduce Uniform sampling and Reweighted sampling schemes to alleviate the non-synchronicity of feature acquisition from different concepts, and improve generation quality. Our method outperforms baseline models in terms of image-alignment, and behaves comparably on text-alignment. Finally, we showcase the applicability of AttenCraft to more complicated settings, such as an input image containing three concepts. The project is available at https://github.com/junjie-shentu/AttenCraft.

The premise of identifiable and causal representation learning is to improve the current representation learning paradigm in terms of generalizability or robustness. Despite recent progress in questions of identifiability, more theoretical results demonstrating concrete advantages of these methods for downstream tasks are needed. In this paper, we consider the task of intervention extrapolation: predicting how interventions affect an outcome, even when those interventions are not observed at training time, and show that identifiable representations can provide an effective solution to this task even if the interventions affect the outcome non-linearly. Our setup includes an outcome Y, observed features X, which are generated as a non-linear transformation of latent features Z, and exogenous action variables A, which influence Z. The objective of intervention extrapolation is to predict how interventions on A that lie outside the training support of A affect Y. Here, extrapolation becomes possible if the effect of A on Z is linear and the residual when regressing Z on A has full support. As Z is latent, we combine the task of intervention extrapolation with identifiable representation learning, which we call Rep4Ex: we aim to map the observed features X into a subspace that allows for non-linear extrapolation in A. We show that the hidden representation is identifiable up to an affine transformation in Z-space, which is sufficient for intervention extrapolation. The identifiability is characterized by a novel constraint describing the linearity assumption of A on Z. Based on this insight, we propose a method that enforces the linear invariance constraint and can be combined with any type of autoencoder. We validate our theoretical findings through synthetic experiments and show that our approach succeeds in predicting the effects of unseen interventions.

Text-to-image generative models can produce photo-realistic images for an extremely broad range of concepts, and their usage has proliferated widely among the general public. On the flip side, these models have numerous drawbacks, including their potential to generate images featuring sexually explicit content, mirror artistic styles without permission, or even hallucinate (or deepfake) the likenesses of celebrities. Consequently, various methods have been proposed in order to "erase" sensitive concepts from text-to-image models. In this work, we examine five recently proposed concept erasure methods, and show that targeted concepts are not fully excised from any of these methods. Specifically, we leverage the existence of special learned word embeddings that can retrieve "erased" concepts from the sanitized models with no alterations to their weights. Our results highlight the brittleness of post hoc concept erasure methods, and call into question their use in the algorithmic toolkit for AI safety.

Context-based fine-tuning methods, including prompting, in-context learning, soft prompting (also known as prompt tuning), and prefix-tuning, have gained popularity due to their ability to often match the performance of full fine-tuning with a fraction of the parameters. Despite their empirical successes, there is little theoretical understanding of how these techniques influence the internal computation of the model and their expressiveness limitations. We show that despite the continuous embedding space being more expressive than the discrete token space, soft-prompting and prefix-tuning are strictly less expressive than full fine-tuning, even with the same number of learnable parameters. Concretely, context-based fine-tuning cannot change the relative attention pattern over the content and can only bias the outputs of an attention layer in a fixed direction. This suggests that while techniques like prompting, in-context learning, soft prompting, and prefix-tuning can effectively elicit skills present in the pretrained model, they cannot learn novel tasks that require new attention patterns.

While large language models (LLMs) excel on generation tasks, their decoder-only architecture often limits their potential as embedding models if no further representation finetuning is applied. Does this contradict their claim of generalists? To answer the question, we take a closer look at Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) LLMs. Our study shows that the expert routers in MoE LLMs can serve as an off-the-shelf embedding model with promising performance on a diverse class of embedding-focused tasks, without requiring any finetuning. Moreover, our extensive analysis shows that the MoE routing weights (RW) is complementary to the hidden state (HS) of LLMs, a widely-used embedding. Compared to HS, we find that RW is more robust to the choice of prompts and focuses on high-level semantics. Motivated by the analysis, we propose MoEE combining RW and HS, which achieves better performance than using either separately. Our exploration of their combination and prompting strategy shed several novel insights, e.g., a weighted sum of RW and HS similarities outperforms the similarity on their concatenation. Our experiments are conducted on 6 embedding tasks with 20 datasets from the Massive Text Embedding Benchmark (MTEB). The results demonstrate the significant improvement brought by MoEE to LLM-based embedding without further finetuning.

Decoder-only large language model (LLM)-based embedding models are beginning to outperform BERT or T5-based embedding models in general-purpose text embedding tasks, including dense vector-based retrieval. In this work, we introduce the NV-Embed model with a variety of architectural designs and training procedures to significantly enhance the performance of LLM as a versatile embedding model, while maintaining its simplicity and reproducibility. For model architecture, we propose a latent attention layer to obtain pooled embeddings, which consistently improves retrieval and downstream task accuracy compared to mean pooling or using the last <EOS> token embedding from LLMs. To enhance representation learning, we remove the causal attention mask of LLMs during contrastive training. For model training, we introduce a two-stage contrastive instruction-tuning method. It first applies contrastive training with instructions on retrieval datasets, utilizing in-batch negatives and curated hard negative examples. At stage-2, it blends various non-retrieval datasets into instruction tuning, which not only enhances non-retrieval task accuracy but also improves retrieval performance. Combining these techniques, our NV-Embed model, using only publicly available data, has achieved a record-high score of 69.32, ranking No. 1 on the Massive Text Embedding Benchmark (MTEB) (as of May 24, 2024), with 56 tasks, encompassing retrieval, reranking, classification, clustering, and semantic textual similarity tasks. Notably, our model also attains the highest score of 59.36 on 15 retrieval tasks in the MTEB benchmark (also known as BEIR). We will open-source the model at: https://huggingface.co./nvidia/NV-Embed-v1.

This paper introduces the sparse modular addition task and examines how transformers learn it. We focus on transformers with embeddings in R^2 and introduce a visual sandbox that provides comprehensive visualizations of each layer throughout the training process. We reveal a type of circuit, called "clustering heads," which learns the problem's invariants. We analyze the training dynamics of these circuits, highlighting two-stage learning, loss spikes due to high curvature or normalization layers, and the effects of initialization and curriculum learning.

Despite the significant recent progress in deep generative models, the underlying structure of their latent spaces is still poorly understood, thereby making the task of performing semantically meaningful latent traversals an open research challenge. Most prior work has aimed to solve this challenge by modeling latent structures linearly, and finding corresponding linear directions which result in `disentangled' generations. In this work, we instead propose to model latent structures with a learned dynamic potential landscape, thereby performing latent traversals as the flow of samples down the landscape's gradient. Inspired by physics, optimal transport, and neuroscience, these potential landscapes are learned as physically realistic partial differential equations, thereby allowing them to flexibly vary over both space and time. To achieve disentanglement, multiple potentials are learned simultaneously, and are constrained by a classifier to be distinct and semantically self-consistent. Experimentally, we demonstrate that our method achieves both more qualitatively and quantitatively disentangled trajectories than state-of-the-art baselines. Further, we demonstrate that our method can be integrated as a regularization term during training, thereby acting as an inductive bias towards the learning of structured representations, ultimately improving model likelihood on similarly structured data.

When an image generation process is guided by both a text prompt and spatial cues, such as a set of bounding boxes, do these elements work in harmony, or does one dominate the other? Our analysis of a pretrained image diffusion model that integrates gated self-attention into the U-Net reveals that spatial grounding often outweighs textual grounding due to the sequential flow from gated self-attention to cross-attention. We demonstrate that such bias can be significantly mitigated without sacrificing accuracy in either grounding by simply rewiring the network architecture, changing from sequential to parallel for gated self-attention and cross-attention. This surprisingly simple yet effective solution does not require any fine-tuning of the network but significantly reduces the trade-off between the two groundings. Our experiments demonstrate significant improvements from the original GLIGEN to the rewired version in the trade-off between textual grounding and spatial grounding.

Many cognitive approaches to well-being, such as recognizing and reframing unhelpful thoughts, have received considerable empirical support over the past decades, yet still lack truly widespread adoption in self-help format. A barrier to that adoption is a lack of adequately specific and diverse dedicated practice material. This work examines whether current language models can be leveraged to both produce a virtually unlimited quantity of practice material illustrating standard unhelpful thought patterns matching specific given contexts, and generate suitable positive reframing proposals. We propose PATTERNREFRAME, a novel dataset of about 10k examples of thoughts containing unhelpful thought patterns conditioned on a given persona, accompanied by about 27k positive reframes. By using this dataset to train and/or evaluate current models, we show that existing models can already be powerful tools to help generate an abundance of tailored practice material and hypotheses, with no or minimal additional model training required.

Prompt tuning is a promising method to fine-tune a pre-trained language model without retraining its large-scale parameters. Instead, it attaches a soft prompt to the input text, whereby downstream tasks can be well adapted by merely learning the embeddings of prompt tokens. Nevertheless, existing methods still suffer from two challenges: (i) they are hard to balance accuracy and efficiency. A longer (shorter) soft prompt generally leads to a better(worse) accuracy but at the cost of more (less) training time. (ii)The performance may not be consistent when adapting to different downstream tasks. We attribute it to the same embedding space but responsible for different requirements of downstream tasks. To address these issues, we propose an Efficient Prompt Tuning method (EPT) by multi-space projection and prompt fusion. Specifically, it decomposes a given soft prompt into a shorter prompt and two low-rank matrices, significantly reducing the training time. Accuracy is also enhanced by leveraging low-rank matrices and the short prompt as additional knowledge sources to enrich the semantics of the original short prompt. In addition, we project the soft prompt into multiple subspaces to improve the performance consistency, and then adaptively learn the combination weights of different spaces through a gating network. Experiments on 13 natural language processing downstream tasks show that our method significantly and consistently outperforms 11 comparison methods with the relative percentage of improvements up to 12.9%, and training time decreased by 14%.

The success of pre-trained contextualized representations has prompted researchers to analyze them for the presence of linguistic information. Indeed, it is natural to assume that these pre-trained representations do encode some level of linguistic knowledge as they have brought about large empirical improvements on a wide variety of NLP tasks, which suggests they are learning true linguistic generalization. In this work, we focus on intrinsic probing, an analysis technique where the goal is not only to identify whether a representation encodes a linguistic attribute but also to pinpoint where this attribute is encoded. We propose a novel latent-variable formulation for constructing intrinsic probes and derive a tractable variational approximation to the log-likelihood. Our results show that our model is versatile and yields tighter mutual information estimates than two intrinsic probes previously proposed in the literature. Finally, we find empirical evidence that pre-trained representations develop a cross-lingually entangled notion of morphosyntax.

Transformer architectures rely on explicit position encodings in order to preserve a notion of word order. In this paper, we argue that existing work does not fully utilize position information. For example, the initial proposal of a sinusoid embedding is fixed and not learnable. In this paper, we first review absolute position embeddings and existing methods for relative position embeddings. We then propose new techniques that encourage increased interaction between query, key and relative position embeddings in the self-attention mechanism. Our most promising approach is a generalization of the absolute position embedding, improving results on SQuAD1.1 compared to previous position embeddings approaches. In addition, we address the inductive property of whether a position embedding can be robust enough to handle long sequences. We demonstrate empirically that our relative position embedding method is reasonably generalized and robust from the inductive perspective. Finally, we show that our proposed method can be adopted as a near drop-in replacement for improving the accuracy of large models with a small computational budget.

Continual learning refers to a dynamical framework in which a model receives a stream of non-stationary data over time and must adapt to new data while preserving previously acquired knowledge. Unluckily, neural networks fail to meet these two desiderata, incurring the so-called catastrophic forgetting phenomenon. Whereas a vast array of strategies have been proposed to attenuate forgetting in the computer vision domain, for speech-related tasks, on the other hand, there is a dearth of works. In this paper, we consider the joint use of rehearsal and knowledge distillation (KD) approaches for spoken language understanding under a class-incremental learning scenario. We report on multiple KD combinations at different levels in the network, showing that combining feature-level and predictions-level KDs leads to the best results. Finally, we provide an ablation study on the effect of the size of the rehearsal memory that corroborates the efficacy of our approach for low-resource devices.

Joint representation learning over multi-sourced knowledge graphs (KGs) yields transferable and expressive embeddings that improve downstream tasks. Entity alignment (EA) is a critical step in this process. Despite recent considerable research progress in embedding-based EA, how it works remains to be explored. In this paper, we provide a similarity flooding perspective to explain existing translation-based and aggregation-based EA models. We prove that the embedding learning process of these models actually seeks a fixpoint of pairwise similarities between entities. We also provide experimental evidence to support our theoretical analysis. We propose two simple but effective methods inspired by the fixpoint computation in similarity flooding, and demonstrate their effectiveness on benchmark datasets. Our work bridges the gap between recent embedding-based models and the conventional similarity flooding algorithm. It would improve our understanding of and increase our faith in embedding-based EA.

Strong inductive biases enable learning from little data and help generalization outside of the training distribution. Popular neural architectures such as Transformers lack strong structural inductive biases for seq2seq NLP tasks on their own. Consequently, they struggle with systematic generalization beyond the training distribution, e.g. with extrapolating to longer inputs, even when pre-trained on large amounts of text. We show how a structural inductive bias can be efficiently injected into a seq2seq model by pre-training it to simulate structural transformations on synthetic data. Specifically, we inject an inductive bias towards Finite State Transducers (FSTs) into a Transformer by pre-training it to simulate FSTs given their descriptions. Our experiments show that our method imparts the desired inductive bias, resulting in improved systematic generalization and better few-shot learning for FST-like tasks. Our analysis shows that fine-tuned models accurately capture the state dynamics of the unseen underlying FSTs, suggesting that the simulation process is internalized by the fine-tuned model.

Recent advances in text-to-image personalization have enabled high-quality and controllable image synthesis for user-provided concepts. However, existing methods still struggle to balance identity preservation with text alignment. Our approach is based on the fact that generating prompt-aligned images requires a precise semantic understanding of the prompt, which involves accurately processing the interactions between the new concept and its surrounding context tokens within the CLIP text encoder. To address this, we aim to embed the new concept properly into the input embedding space of the text encoder, allowing for seamless integration with existing tokens. We introduce Context Regularization (CoRe), which enhances the learning of the new concept's text embedding by regularizing its context tokens in the prompt. This is based on the insight that appropriate output vectors of the text encoder for the context tokens can only be achieved if the new concept's text embedding is correctly learned. CoRe can be applied to arbitrary prompts without requiring the generation of corresponding images, thus improving the generalization of the learned text embedding. Additionally, CoRe can serve as a test-time optimization technique to further enhance the generations for specific prompts. Comprehensive experiments demonstrate that our method outperforms several baseline methods in both identity preservation and text alignment. Code will be made publicly available.

Word and sentence embeddings are useful feature representations in natural language processing. However, intrinsic evaluation for embeddings lags far behind, and there has been no significant update since the past decade. Word and sentence similarity tasks have become the de facto evaluation method. It leads models to overfit to such evaluations, negatively impacting embedding models' development. This paper first points out the problems using semantic similarity as the gold standard for word and sentence embedding evaluations. Further, we propose a new intrinsic evaluation method called EvalRank, which shows a much stronger correlation with downstream tasks. Extensive experiments are conducted based on 60+ models and popular datasets to certify our judgments. Finally, the practical evaluation toolkit is released for future benchmarking purposes.

Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs) can reason effectively over both textual and visual inputs, but they tend to hallucinate syntactically coherent yet visually ungrounded contents. In this paper, we investigate the internal dynamics of hallucination by examining the tokens logits rankings throughout the generation process, revealing three key patterns in how LVLMs process information: (1) gradual visual information loss -- visually grounded tokens gradually become less favored throughout generation, and (2) early excitation -- semantically meaningful tokens achieve peak activation in the layers earlier than the final layer. (3) hidden genuine information -- visually grounded tokens though not being eventually decided still retain relatively high rankings at inference. Based on these insights, we propose VISTA (Visual Information Steering with Token-logit Augmentation), a training-free inference-time intervention framework that reduces hallucination while promoting genuine information. VISTA works by combining two complementary approaches: reinforcing visual information in activation space and leveraging early layer activations to promote semantically meaningful decoding. Compared to existing methods, VISTA requires no external supervision and is applicable to various decoding strategies. Extensive experiments show that VISTA on average reduces hallucination by abount 40% on evaluated open-ended generation task, and it consistently outperforms existing methods on four benchmarks across four architectures under three decoding strategies.

We explore the use of Residual Vector Quantization (RVQ) for high-fidelity generation in vector-quantized generative models. This quantization technique maintains higher data fidelity by employing more in-depth tokens. However, increasing the token number in generative models leads to slower inference speeds. To this end, we introduce ResGen, an efficient RVQ-based discrete diffusion model that generates high-fidelity samples without compromising sampling speed. Our key idea is a direct prediction of vector embedding of collective tokens rather than individual ones. Moreover, we demonstrate that our proposed token masking and multi-token prediction method can be formulated within a principled probabilistic framework using a discrete diffusion process and variational inference. We validate the efficacy and generalizability of the proposed method on two challenging tasks across different modalities: conditional image generation} on ImageNet 256x256 and zero-shot text-to-speech synthesis. Experimental results demonstrate that ResGen outperforms autoregressive counterparts in both tasks, delivering superior performance without compromising sampling speed. Furthermore, as we scale the depth of RVQ, our generative models exhibit enhanced generation fidelity or faster sampling speeds compared to similarly sized baseline models. The project page can be found at https://resgen-genai.github.io

Multimodal Continual Instruction Tuning (MCIT) enables Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) to meet continuously emerging requirements without expensive retraining. MCIT faces two major obstacles: catastrophic forgetting (where old knowledge is forgotten) and negative forward transfer (where the performance of future tasks is degraded). Although existing methods have greatly alleviated catastrophic forgetting, they still suffer from negative forward transfer. We discover a large discrepancy in different input embeddings by performing singular value decomposition (SVD) on input embeddings. This discrepancy results in the model learning irrelevant information for old and pre-trained tasks, leading to catastrophic forgetting and negative forward transfer. To address these issues, we propose Prompt Tuning with Positive Forward Transfer (Fwd-Prompt), a prompt-based method that projects the prompt gradient to the residual space to minimize interference between tasks and to the pre-trained subspace for reusing pre-trained knowledge. Our experiments demonstrate that Fwd-Prompt achieves state-of-the-art performance while updating fewer parameters and requiring no old samples. Our research illuminates the potential of continuously adapting MLLMs to new tasks under the instruction tuning paradigm and encourages future studies to explore MCIT.

A number of different architectures and loss functions have been applied to the problem of self-supervised learning (SSL), with the goal of developing embeddings that provide the best possible pre-training for as-yet-unknown, lightly supervised downstream tasks. One of these SSL criteria is to maximize the entropy of a set of embeddings in some compact space. But the goal of maximizing the embedding entropy often depends--whether explicitly or implicitly--upon high dimensional entropy estimates, which typically perform poorly in more than a few dimensions. In this paper, we motivate an effective entropy maximization criterion (E2MC), defined in terms of easy-to-estimate, low-dimensional constraints. We demonstrate that using it to continue training an already-trained SSL model for only a handful of epochs leads to a consistent and, in some cases, significant improvement in downstream performance. We perform careful ablation studies to show that the improved performance is due to the proposed add-on criterion. We also show that continued pre-training with alternative criteria does not lead to notable improvements, and in some cases, even degrades performance.

In this work we identify the dormant neuron phenomenon in deep reinforcement learning, where an agent's network suffers from an increasing number of inactive neurons, thereby affecting network expressivity. We demonstrate the presence of this phenomenon across a variety of algorithms and environments, and highlight its effect on learning. To address this issue, we propose a simple and effective method (ReDo) that Recycles Dormant neurons throughout training. Our experiments demonstrate that ReDo maintains the expressive power of networks by reducing the number of dormant neurons and results in improved performance.

This work aims to build a text embedder that can capture characteristics of texts specified by user instructions. Despite its tremendous potential to deploy user-oriented embeddings, none of previous approaches provides a concrete solution for it. This paper offers a new viewpoint, which treats the instruction as a question about the input text and encodes the expected answers to obtain the representation accordingly. Intuitively, texts with the same (implicit) semantics would share similar answers following the instruction, thus leading to more similar embeddings. Specifically, we propose InBedder that instantiates this embed-via-answering idea by only fine-tuning language models on abstractive question answering tasks. InBedder demonstrates significantly improved instruction-following capabilities according to our proposed instruction awareness tests and instruction robustness tests, when applied to both large language models (LLMs) (e.g., llama-2-7b) and smaller encoder-based LMs (e.g., roberta-large). Additionally, our qualitative analysis of clustering outcomes, achieved by applying different instructions to the same corpus, demonstrates a high degree of interpretability.

Incorporating modular designs into neural networks demonstrates superior out-of-generalization, learning efficiency, etc. Existing modular neural networks are generally explicit because their modular architectures are pre-defined, and individual modules are expected to implement distinct functions. Conversely, recent works reveal that there exist implicit modular structures in standard pre-trained transformers, namely Emergent Modularity. They indicate that such modular structures exhibit during the early pre-training phase and are totally spontaneous. However, most transformers are still treated as monolithic models with their modular natures underutilized. Therefore, given the excellent properties of explicit modular architecture, we explore whether and how dense pre-trained transformers can benefit from emergent modular structures. To study this question, we construct Emergent Mixture-of-Experts (EMoE). Without introducing additional parameters, EMoE can be seen as the modular counterpart of the original model and can be effortlessly incorporated into downstream tuning. Extensive experiments (we tune 1785 models) on various downstream tasks (vision and language) and models (22M to1.5B) demonstrate that EMoE effectively boosts in-domain and out-of-domain generalization abilities. Further analysis and ablation study suggest that EMoE mitigates negative knowledge transfer and is robust to various configurations. Code is available at https://github.com/qiuzh20/EMoE

Knowledge bases (KBs) and text often contain complementary knowledge: KBs store structured knowledge that can support long range reasoning, while text stores more comprehensive and timely knowledge in an unstructured way. Separately embedding the individual knowledge sources into vector spaces has demonstrated tremendous successes in encoding the respective knowledge, but how to jointly embed and reason with both knowledge sources to fully leverage the complementary information is still largely an open problem. We conduct a large-scale, systematic investigation of aligning KB and text embeddings for joint reasoning. We set up a novel evaluation framework with two evaluation tasks, few-shot link prediction and analogical reasoning, and evaluate an array of KB-text embedding alignment methods. We also demonstrate how such alignment can infuse textual information into KB embeddings for more accurate link prediction on emerging entities and events, using COVID-19 as a case study.

Modern generative models demonstrate impressive capabilities, likely stemming from an ability to identify and manipulate abstract concepts underlying their training data. However, fundamental questions remain: what determines the concepts a model learns, the order in which it learns them, and its ability to manipulate those concepts? To address these questions, we propose analyzing a model's learning dynamics via a framework we call the concept space, where each axis represents an independent concept underlying the data generating process. By characterizing learning dynamics in this space, we identify how the speed at which a concept is learned, and hence the order of concept learning, is controlled by properties of the data we term concept signal. Further, we observe moments of sudden turns in the direction of a model's learning dynamics in concept space. Surprisingly, these points precisely correspond to the emergence of hidden capabilities, i.e., where latent interventions show the model possesses the capability to manipulate a concept, but these capabilities cannot yet be elicited via naive input prompting. While our results focus on synthetically defined toy datasets, we hypothesize a general claim on emergence of hidden capabilities may hold: generative models possess latent capabilities that emerge suddenly and consistently during training, though a model might not exhibit these capabilities under naive input prompting.

Text-to-image generation models can create high-quality images from input prompts. However, they struggle to support the consistent generation of identity-preserving requirements for storytelling. Existing approaches to this problem typically require extensive training in large datasets or additional modifications to the original model architectures. This limits their applicability across different domains and diverse diffusion model configurations. In this paper, we first observe the inherent capability of language models, coined context consistency, to comprehend identity through context with a single prompt. Drawing inspiration from the inherent context consistency, we propose a novel training-free method for consistent text-to-image (T2I) generation, termed "One-Prompt-One-Story" (1Prompt1Story). Our approach 1Prompt1Story concatenates all prompts into a single input for T2I diffusion models, initially preserving character identities. We then refine the generation process using two novel techniques: Singular-Value Reweighting and Identity-Preserving Cross-Attention, ensuring better alignment with the input description for each frame. In our experiments, we compare our method against various existing consistent T2I generation approaches to demonstrate its effectiveness through quantitative metrics and qualitative assessments. Code is available at https://github.com/byliutao/1Prompt1Story.

Customized text-to-image generation, which aims to learn user-specified concepts with a few images, has drawn significant attention recently. However, existing methods usually suffer from overfitting issues and entangle the subject-unrelated information (e.g., background and pose) with the learned concept, limiting the potential to compose concept into new scenes. To address these issues, we propose the DETEX, a novel approach that learns the disentangled concept embedding for flexible customized text-to-image generation. Unlike conventional methods that learn a single concept embedding from the given images, our DETEX represents each image using multiple word embeddings during training, i.e., a learnable image-shared subject embedding and several image-specific subject-unrelated embeddings. To decouple irrelevant attributes (i.e., background and pose) from the subject embedding, we further present several attribute mappers that encode each image as several image-specific subject-unrelated embeddings. To encourage these unrelated embeddings to capture the irrelevant information, we incorporate them with corresponding attribute words and propose a joint training strategy to facilitate the disentanglement. During inference, we only use the subject embedding for image generation, while selectively using image-specific embeddings to retain image-specified attributes. Extensive experiments demonstrate that the subject embedding obtained by our method can faithfully represent the target concept, while showing superior editability compared to the state-of-the-art methods. Our code will be made published available.

In recent years, NLP practitioners have converged on the following practice: (i) import an off-the-shelf pretrained (masked) language model; (ii) append a multilayer perceptron atop the CLS token's hidden representation (with randomly initialized weights); and (iii) fine-tune the entire model on a downstream task (MLP-FT). This procedure has produced massive gains on standard NLP benchmarks, but these models remain brittle, even to mild adversarial perturbations. In this work, we demonstrate surprising gains in adversarial robustness enjoyed by Model-tuning Via Prompts (MVP), an alternative method of adapting to downstream tasks. Rather than appending an MLP head to make output prediction, MVP appends a prompt template to the input, and makes prediction via text infilling/completion. Across 5 NLP datasets, 4 adversarial attacks, and 3 different models, MVP improves performance against adversarial substitutions by an average of 8% over standard methods and even outperforms adversarial training-based state-of-art defenses by 3.5%. By combining MVP with adversarial training, we achieve further improvements in adversarial robustness while maintaining performance on unperturbed examples. Finally, we conduct ablations to investigate the mechanism underlying these gains. Notably, we find that the main causes of vulnerability of MLP-FT can be attributed to the misalignment between pre-training and fine-tuning tasks, and the randomly initialized MLP parameters.

Text embeddings are essential for many tasks, such as document retrieval, clustering, and semantic similarity assessment. In this paper, we study how to contrastively train text embedding models in a compute-optimal fashion, given a suite of pre-trained decoder-only language models. Our innovation is an algorithm that produces optimal configurations of model sizes, data quantities, and fine-tuning methods for text-embedding models at different computational budget levels. The resulting recipe, which we obtain through extensive experiments, can be used by practitioners to make informed design choices for their embedding models. Specifically, our findings suggest that full fine-tuning and low-rank adaptation fine-tuning produce optimal models at lower and higher computational budgets respectively.

Effectively training language models on long inputs poses many technical challenges. As a cost consideration, languages models are pretrained on a fixed sequence length before being adapted to longer sequences. We explore various methods for adapting models to longer inputs by training on segmented sequences and an interpolation-based method for extending absolute positional embeddings. We develop a training procedure to extend the input context size of pretrained models with no architectural changes and no additional memory costs than training on the original input lengths. By sub-sampling segments from long inputs while maintaining their original position the model is able to learn new positional interactions. Our method benefits both models trained with absolute positional embeddings, by extending their input contexts, as well as popular relative positional embedding methods showing a reduced perplexity on sequences longer than they were trained on. We demonstrate our method can extend input contexts by a factor of 4x while improving perplexity.

Text embedding has become a foundational technology in natural language processing (NLP) during the deep learning era, driving advancements across a wide array of downstream tasks. While many natural language understanding challenges can now be modeled using generative paradigms and leverage the robust generative and comprehension capabilities of large language models (LLMs), numerous practical applications, such as semantic matching, clustering, and information retrieval, continue to rely on text embeddings for their efficiency and effectiveness. In this survey, we categorize the interplay between LLMs and text embeddings into three overarching themes: (1) LLM-augmented text embedding, enhancing traditional embedding methods with LLMs; (2) LLMs as text embedders, utilizing their innate capabilities for embedding generation; and (3) Text embedding understanding with LLMs, leveraging LLMs to analyze and interpret embeddings. By organizing these efforts based on interaction patterns rather than specific downstream applications, we offer a novel and systematic overview of contributions from various research and application domains in the era of LLMs. Furthermore, we highlight the unresolved challenges that persisted in the pre-LLM era with pre-trained language models (PLMs) and explore the emerging obstacles brought forth by LLMs. Building on this analysis, we outline prospective directions for the evolution of text embedding, addressing both theoretical and practical opportunities in the rapidly advancing landscape of NLP.

Modern language models can imitate complex patterns through few-shot learning, enabling them to complete challenging tasks without fine-tuning. However, imitation can also lead models to reproduce inaccuracies or harmful content if present in the context. We study harmful imitation through the lens of a model's internal representations, and identify two related phenomena: "overthinking" and "false induction heads". The first phenomenon, overthinking, appears when we decode predictions from intermediate layers, given correct vs. incorrect few-shot demonstrations. At early layers, both demonstrations induce similar model behavior, but the behavior diverges sharply at some "critical layer", after which the accuracy given incorrect demonstrations progressively decreases. The second phenomenon, false induction heads, are a possible mechanistic cause of overthinking: these are heads in late layers that attend to and copy false information from previous demonstrations, and whose ablation reduces overthinking. Beyond scientific understanding, our results suggest that studying intermediate model computations could be a promising avenue for understanding and guarding against harmful model behaviors.

Humans learn continually throughout their lifespan by accumulating diverse knowledge and fine-tuning it for future tasks. When presented with a similar goal, neural networks suffer from catastrophic forgetting if data distributions across sequential tasks are not stationary over the course of learning. An effective approach to address such continual learning (CL) problems is to use hypernetworks which generate task dependent weights for a target network. However, the continual learning performance of existing hypernetwork based approaches are affected by the assumption of independence of the weights across the layers in order to maintain parameter efficiency. To address this limitation, we propose a novel approach that uses a dependency preserving hypernetwork to generate weights for the target network while also maintaining the parameter efficiency. We propose to use recurrent neural network (RNN) based hypernetwork that can generate layer weights efficiently while allowing for dependencies across them. In addition, we propose novel regularisation and network growth techniques for the RNN based hypernetwork to further improve the continual learning performance. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed methods, we conducted experiments on several image classification continual learning tasks and settings. We found that the proposed methods based on the RNN hypernetworks outperformed the baselines in all these CL settings and tasks.

Humans distill complex experiences into fundamental abstractions that enable rapid learning and adaptation. Similarly, autoregressive transformers exhibit adaptive learning through in-context learning (ICL), which begs the question of how. In this paper, we propose concept encoding-decoding mechanism to explain ICL by studying how transformers form and use internal abstractions in their representations. On synthetic ICL tasks, we analyze the training dynamics of a small transformer and report the coupled emergence of concept encoding and decoding. As the model learns to encode different latent concepts (e.g., ``Finding the first noun in a sentence.") into distinct, separable representations, it concureently builds conditional decoding algorithms and improve its ICL performance. We validate the existence of this mechanism across pretrained models of varying scales (Gemma-2 2B/9B/27B, Llama-3.1 8B/70B). Further, through mechanistic interventions and controlled finetuning, we demonstrate that the quality of concept encoding is causally related and predictive of ICL performance. Our empirical insights shed light into better understanding the success and failure modes of large language models via their representations.

It is notoriously difficult to train Transformers on small datasets; typically, large pre-trained models are instead used as the starting point. We explore the weights of such pre-trained Transformers (particularly for vision) to attempt to find reasons for this discrepancy. Surprisingly, we find that simply initializing the weights of self-attention layers so that they "look" more like their pre-trained counterparts allows us to train vanilla Transformers faster and to higher final accuracies, particularly on vision tasks such as CIFAR-10 and ImageNet classification, where we see gains in accuracy of over 5% and 4%, respectively. Our initialization scheme is closed form, learning-free, and very simple: we set the product of the query and key weights to be approximately the identity, and the product of the value and projection weights to approximately the negative identity. As this mimics the patterns we saw in pre-trained Transformers, we call the technique "mimetic initialization".

In an effort to understand the meaning of the intermediate representations captured by deep networks, recent papers have tried to associate specific semantic concepts to individual neural network filter responses, where interesting correlations are often found, largely by focusing on extremal filter responses. In this paper, we show that this approach can favor easy-to-interpret cases that are not necessarily representative of the average behavior of a representation. A more realistic but harder-to-study hypothesis is that semantic representations are distributed, and thus filters must be studied in conjunction. In order to investigate this idea while enabling systematic visualization and quantification of multiple filter responses, we introduce the Net2Vec framework, in which semantic concepts are mapped to vectorial embeddings based on corresponding filter responses. By studying such embeddings, we are able to show that 1., in most cases, multiple filters are required to code for a concept, that 2., often filters are not concept specific and help encode multiple concepts, and that 3., compared to single filter activations, filter embeddings are able to better characterize the meaning of a representation and its relationship to other concepts.

We propose a simple technique for encouraging generative RNNs to plan ahead. We train a "backward" recurrent network to generate a given sequence in reverse order, and we encourage states of the forward model to predict cotemporal states of the backward model. The backward network is used only during training, and plays no role during sampling or inference. We hypothesize that our approach eases modeling of long-term dependencies by implicitly forcing the forward states to hold information about the longer-term future (as contained in the backward states). We show empirically that our approach achieves 9% relative improvement for a speech recognition task, and achieves significant improvement on a COCO caption generation task.

Word embeddings that map words into a fixed-dimensional vector space are the backbone of modern NLP. Most word embedding methods encode semantic information. However, phonetic information, which is important for some tasks, is often overlooked. In this work, we develop several novel methods which leverage articulatory features to build phonetically informed word embeddings, and present a set of phonetic word embeddings to encourage their community development, evaluation and use. While several methods for learning phonetic word embeddings already exist, there is a lack of consistency in evaluating their effectiveness. Thus, we also proposes several ways to evaluate both intrinsic aspects of phonetic word embeddings, such as word retrieval and correlation with sound similarity, and extrinsic performances, such as rhyme and cognate detection and sound analogies. We hope that our suite of tasks will promote reproducibility and provide direction for future research on phonetic word embeddings.

Despite the growing use of transformer models in computer vision, a mechanistic understanding of these networks is still needed. This work introduces a method to reverse-engineer Vision Transformers trained to solve image classification tasks. Inspired by previous research in NLP, we demonstrate how the inner representations at any level of the hierarchy can be projected onto the learned class embedding space to uncover how these networks build categorical representations for their predictions. We use our framework to show how image tokens develop class-specific representations that depend on attention mechanisms and contextual information, and give insights on how self-attention and MLP layers differentially contribute to this categorical composition. We additionally demonstrate that this method (1) can be used to determine the parts of an image that would be important for detecting the class of interest, and (2) exhibits significant advantages over traditional linear probing approaches. Taken together, our results position our proposed framework as a powerful tool for mechanistic interpretability and explainability research.

Large Lanugage Models (LLMs) are gaining increasing popularity in a variety of use cases, from language understanding and writing to assistance in application development. One of the most important aspects for optimal funcionality of LLMs is embedding layers. Word embeddings are distributed representations of words in a continuous vector space. In the context of LLMs, words or tokens from the input text are transformed into high-dimensional vectors using unique algorithms specific to the model. Our research examines the embedding algorithms from leading companies in the industry, such as OpenAI, Google's PaLM, and BERT. Using medical data, we have analyzed similarity scores of each embedding layer, observing differences in performance among each algorithm. To enhance each model and provide an additional encoding layer, we also implemented Siamese Neural Networks. After observing changes in performance with the addition of the model, we measured the carbon footage per epoch of training. The carbon footprint associated with large language models (LLMs) is a significant concern, and should be taken into consideration when selecting algorithms for a variety of use cases. Overall, our research compared the accuracy different, leading embedding algorithms and their carbon footage, allowing for a holistic review of each embedding algorithm.

Language models have the ability to perform in-context learning (ICL), allowing them to flexibly adapt their behavior based on context. This contrasts with in-weights learning, where information is statically encoded in model parameters from iterated observations of the data. Despite this apparent ability to learn in-context, language models are known to struggle when faced with unseen or rarely seen tokens. Hence, we study structural in-context learning, which we define as the ability of a model to execute in-context learning on arbitrary tokens -- so called because the model must generalize on the basis of e.g. sentence structure or task structure, rather than semantic content encoded in token embeddings. An ideal model would be able to do both: flexibly deploy in-weights operations (in order to robustly accommodate ambiguous or unknown contexts using encoded semantic information) and structural in-context operations (in order to accommodate novel tokens). We study structural in-context algorithms in a simple part-of-speech setting using both practical and toy models. We find that active forgetting, a technique that was recently introduced to help models generalize to new languages, forces models to adopt structural in-context learning solutions. Finally, we introduce temporary forgetting, a straightforward extension of active forgetting that enables one to control how much a model relies on in-weights vs. in-context solutions. Importantly, temporary forgetting allows us to induce a dual process strategy where in-context and in-weights solutions coexist within a single model.

Recent advances in text-to-image diffusion models have enabled the photorealistic generation of images from text prompts. Despite the great progress, existing models still struggle to generate compositional multi-concept images naturally, limiting their ability to visualize human imagination. While several recent works have attempted to address this issue, they either introduce additional training or adopt guidance at inference time. In this work, we consider a more ambitious goal: natural multi-concept generation using a pre-trained diffusion model, and with almost no extra cost. To achieve this goal, we identify the limitations in the text embeddings used for the pre-trained text-to-image diffusion models. Specifically, we observe concept dominance and non-localized contribution that severely degrade multi-concept generation performance. We further design a minimal low-cost solution that overcomes the above issues by tweaking (not re-training) the text embeddings for more realistic multi-concept text-to-image generation. Our Correction by Similarities method tweaks the embedding of concepts by collecting semantic features from most similar tokens to localize the contribution. To avoid mixing features of concepts, we also apply Cross-Token Non-Maximum Suppression, which excludes the overlap of contributions from different concepts. Experiments show that our approach outperforms previous methods in text-to-image, image manipulation, and personalization tasks, despite not introducing additional training or inference costs to the diffusion steps.

The study of language emergence aims to understand how human languages are shaped by perceptual grounding and communicative intent. Computational approaches to emergent communication (EC) predominantly consider referential games in limited domains and analyze the learned protocol within the game framework. As a result, it remains unclear how the emergent languages from these settings connect to natural languages or provide benefits in real-world language processing tasks, where statistical models trained on large text corpora dominate. In this work, we propose a novel way to establish such a link by corpus transfer, i.e. pretraining on a corpus of emergent language for downstream natural language tasks, which is in contrast to prior work that directly transfers speaker and listener parameters. Our approach showcases non-trivial transfer benefits for two different tasks -- language modeling and image captioning. For example, in a low-resource setup (modeling 2 million natural language tokens), pre-training on an emergent language corpus with just 2 million tokens reduces model perplexity by 24.6% on average across ten natural languages. We also introduce a novel metric to predict the transferability of an emergent language by translating emergent messages to natural language captions grounded on the same images. We find that our translation-based metric highly correlates with the downstream performance on modeling natural languages (for instance rho=0.83 on Hebrew), while topographic similarity, a popular metric in previous work, shows surprisingly low correlation (rho=0.003), hinting that simple properties like attribute disentanglement from synthetic domains might not capture the full complexities of natural language. Our findings also indicate potential benefits of moving language emergence forward with natural language resources and models.

Answering multi-hop reasoning questions requires retrieving and synthesizing information from diverse sources. Large Language Models (LLMs) struggle to perform such reasoning consistently. Here we propose an approach to pinpoint and rectify multi-hop reasoning failures through targeted memory injections on LLM attention heads. First, we analyze the per-layer activations of GPT-2 models in response to single and multi-hop prompts. We then propose a mechanism that allows users to inject pertinent prompt-specific information, which we refer to as "memories," at critical LLM locations during inference. By thus enabling the LLM to incorporate additional relevant information during inference, we enhance the quality of multi-hop prompt completions. We show empirically that a simple, efficient, and targeted memory injection into a key attention layer can often increase the probability of the desired next token in multi-hop tasks, by up to 424%.

Continual learning aims to enable a single model to learn a sequence of tasks without catastrophic forgetting. Top-performing methods usually require a rehearsal buffer to store past pristine examples for experience replay, which, however, limits their practical value due to privacy and memory constraints. In this work, we present a simple yet effective framework, DualPrompt, which learns a tiny set of parameters, called prompts, to properly instruct a pre-trained model to learn tasks arriving sequentially without buffering past examples. DualPrompt presents a novel approach to attach complementary prompts to the pre-trained backbone, and then formulates the objective as learning task-invariant and task-specific "instructions". With extensive experimental validation, DualPrompt consistently sets state-of-the-art performance under the challenging class-incremental setting. In particular, DualPrompt outperforms recent advanced continual learning methods with relatively large buffer sizes. We also introduce a more challenging benchmark, Split ImageNet-R, to help generalize rehearsal-free continual learning research. Source code is available at https://github.com/google-research/l2p.

We propose SCONE (Scalable, Contextualized, Offloaded, N-gram Embedding), a method for extending input embedding layers to enhance language model performance as layer size scales. To avoid increased decoding costs, SCONE retains the original vocabulary while introducing embeddings for a set of frequent n-grams. These embeddings provide contextualized representation for each input token and are learned with a separate model during training. During inference, they are precomputed and stored in off-accelerator memory with minimal impact on inference speed. SCONE enables two new scaling strategies: increasing the number of cached n-gram embeddings and scaling the model used to learn them, all while maintaining fixed inference-time FLOPS. We show that scaling both aspects allows SCONE to outperform a 1.9B parameter baseline across diverse corpora, while using only half the inference-time FLOPS.

Most of the dominant approaches to continual learning are based on either memory replay, parameter isolation, or regularization techniques that require task boundaries to calculate task statistics. We propose a static architecture-based method that doesn't use any of these. We show that we can improve the continual learning performance by replacing the final layer of our networks with our pairwise interaction layer. The pairwise interaction layer uses sparse representations from a Winner-take-all style activation function to find the relevant correlations in the hidden layer representations. The networks using this architecture show competitive performance in MNIST and FashionMNIST-based continual image classification experiments. We demonstrate this in an online streaming continual learning setup where the learning system cannot access task labels or boundaries.

This work lists and describes the main recent strategies for building fixed-length, dense and distributed representations for words, based on the distributional hypothesis. These representations are now commonly called word embeddings and, in addition to encoding surprisingly good syntactic and semantic information, have been proven useful as extra features in many downstream NLP tasks.

Knowledge Distillation (KD) consists of transferring “knowledge” from one machine learning model (the teacher) to another (the student). Commonly, the teacher is a high-capacity model with formidable performance, while the student is more compact. By transferring knowledge, one hopes to benefit from the student’s compactness, without sacrificing too much performance. We study KD from a new perspective: rather than compressing models, we train students parameterized identically to their teachers. Surprisingly, these Born-Again Networks (BANs), outperform their teachers significantly, both on computer vision and language modeling tasks. Our experiments with BANs based on DenseNets demonstrate state-of-the-art performance on the CIFAR-10 (3.5%) and CIFAR-100 (15.5%) datasets, by validation error. Additional experiments explore two distillation objectives: (i) Confidence-Weighted by Teacher Max (CWTM) and (ii) Dark Knowledge with Permuted Predictions (DKPP). Both methods elucidate the essential components of KD, demonstrating the effect of the teacher outputs on both predicted and non-predicted classes.

The ever-growing availability of unlabeled data presents both opportunities and challenges for training artificial intelligence systems. While self-supervised learning (SSL) has emerged as a powerful paradigm for extracting meaningful representations from vast amounts of unlabeled data, existing methods still struggle to adapt to the non-stationary, non-IID nature of real-world data streams without forgetting previously learned knowledge. Recent works have adopted a repeated cosine annealing schedule for large-scale continual pre-training; however, these schedules (1) inherently cause forgetting during the re-warming phase and (2) have not been systematically compared to existing continual SSL methods. In this work, we systematically compare the widely used cosine schedule with the recently proposed infinite learning rate schedule and empirically find the latter to be a more effective alternative. Our extensive empirical evaluation across diverse image and language datasets demonstrates that the infinite learning rate schedule consistently enhances continual pre-training performance compared to a repeated cosine decay without being restricted to a fixed iteration budget. For instance, in a small-scale MAE pre-training setup, it outperforms several strong baselines from the literature. We then scale up our experiments to larger MAE pre-training and autoregressive language model pre-training. Our results show that the infinite learning rate schedule remains effective at scale, surpassing repeated cosine decay for both MAE pre-training and zero-shot LM benchmarks.

Mainstream 3D representation learning approaches are built upon contrastive or generative modeling pretext tasks, where great improvements in performance on various downstream tasks have been achieved. However, we find these two paradigms have different characteristics: (i) contrastive models are data-hungry that suffer from a representation over-fitting issue; (ii) generative models have a data filling issue that shows inferior data scaling capacity compared to contrastive models. This motivates us to learn 3D representations by sharing the merits of both paradigms, which is non-trivial due to the pattern difference between the two paradigms. In this paper, we propose Contrast with Reconstruct (ReCon) that unifies these two paradigms. ReCon is trained to learn from both generative modeling teachers and single/cross-modal contrastive teachers through ensemble distillation, where the generative student guides the contrastive student. An encoder-decoder style ReCon-block is proposed that transfers knowledge through cross attention with stop-gradient, which avoids pretraining over-fitting and pattern difference issues. ReCon achieves a new state-of-the-art in 3D representation learning, e.g., 91.26% accuracy on ScanObjectNN. Codes have been released at https://github.com/qizekun/ReCon.

Our understanding of the visual world is centered around various concept axes, characterizing different aspects of visual entities. While different concept axes can be easily specified by language, e.g. color, the exact visual nuances along each axis often exceed the limitations of linguistic articulations, e.g. a particular style of painting. In this work, our goal is to learn a language-informed visual concept representation, by simply distilling large pre-trained vision-language models. Specifically, we train a set of concept encoders to encode the information pertinent to a set of language-informed concept axes, with an objective of reproducing the input image through a pre-trained Text-to-Image (T2I) model. To encourage better disentanglement of different concept encoders, we anchor the concept embeddings to a set of text embeddings obtained from a pre-trained Visual Question Answering (VQA) model. At inference time, the model extracts concept embeddings along various axes from new test images, which can be remixed to generate images with novel compositions of visual concepts. With a lightweight test-time finetuning procedure, it can also generalize to novel concepts unseen at training.

Catastrophic forgetting remains a significant challenge to continual learning for decades. While recent works have proposed effective methods to mitigate this problem, they mainly focus on the algorithmic side. Meanwhile, we do not fully understand what architectural properties of neural networks lead to catastrophic forgetting. This study aims to fill this gap by studying the role of activation functions in the training dynamics of neural networks and their impact on catastrophic forgetting. Our study reveals that, besides sparse representations, the gradient sparsity of activation functions also plays an important role in reducing forgetting. Based on this insight, we propose a new class of activation functions, elephant activation functions, that can generate both sparse representations and sparse gradients. We show that by simply replacing classical activation functions with elephant activation functions, we can significantly improve the resilience of neural networks to catastrophic forgetting. Our method has broad applicability and benefits for continual learning in regression, class incremental learning, and reinforcement learning tasks. Specifically, we achieves excellent performance on Split MNIST dataset in just one single pass, without using replay buffer, task boundary information, or pre-training.

We investigate the capabilities of transformer large language models (LLMs) on relational reasoning tasks involving abstract symbols. Such tasks have long been studied in the neuroscience literature as fundamental building blocks for more complex abilities in programming, mathematics, and verbal reasoning. For (i) regression tasks, we prove that transformers generalize when trained, but require astonishingly large quantities of training data. For (ii) next-token-prediction tasks with symbolic labels, we show an "inverse scaling law": transformers fail to generalize as their embedding dimension increases. For both settings (i) and (ii), we propose subtle transformer modifications which can reduce the amount of data needed by adding two trainable parameters per head.

While Language Models have become workhorses for NLP, their interplay with textual knowledge graphs (KGs) - structured memories of general or domain knowledge - is actively researched. Current embedding methodologies for such graphs typically either (i) linearize graphs for embedding them using sequential Language Models (LMs), which underutilize structural information, or (ii) use Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) to preserve graph structure, while GNNs cannot represent textual features as well as a pre-trained LM could. In this work we introduce a novel language model, the Graph Language Model (GLM), that integrates the strengths of both approaches, while mitigating their weaknesses. The GLM parameters are initialized from a pretrained LM, to facilitate nuanced understanding of individual concepts and triplets. Simultaneously, its architectural design incorporates graph biases, thereby promoting effective knowledge distribution within the graph. Empirical evaluations on relation classification tasks on ConceptNet subgraphs reveal that GLM embeddings surpass both LM- and GNN-based baselines in supervised and zero-shot settings.

We present MindEye, a novel fMRI-to-image approach to retrieve and reconstruct viewed images from brain activity. Our model comprises two parallel submodules that are specialized for retrieval (using contrastive learning) and reconstruction (using a diffusion prior). MindEye can map fMRI brain activity to any high dimensional multimodal latent space, like CLIP image space, enabling image reconstruction using generative models that accept embeddings from this latent space. We comprehensively compare our approach with other existing methods, using both qualitative side-by-side comparisons and quantitative evaluations, and show that MindEye achieves state-of-the-art performance in both reconstruction and retrieval tasks. In particular, MindEye can retrieve the exact original image even among highly similar candidates indicating that its brain embeddings retain fine-grained image-specific information. This allows us to accurately retrieve images even from large-scale databases like LAION-5B. We demonstrate through ablations that MindEye's performance improvements over previous methods result from specialized submodules for retrieval and reconstruction, improved training techniques, and training models with orders of magnitude more parameters. Furthermore, we show that MindEye can better preserve low-level image features in the reconstructions by using img2img, with outputs from a separate autoencoder. All code is available on GitHub.

Pre-trained language models have been found to capture a surprisingly rich amount of lexical knowledge, ranging from commonsense properties of everyday concepts to detailed factual knowledge about named entities. Among others, this makes it possible to distill high-quality word vectors from pre-trained language models. However, it is currently unclear to what extent it is possible to distill relation embeddings, i.e. vectors that characterize the relationship between two words. Such relation embeddings are appealing because they can, in principle, encode relational knowledge in a more fine-grained way than is possible with knowledge graphs. To obtain relation embeddings from a pre-trained language model, we encode word pairs using a (manually or automatically generated) prompt, and we fine-tune the language model such that relationally similar word pairs yield similar output vectors. We find that the resulting relation embeddings are highly competitive on analogy (unsupervised) and relation classification (supervised) benchmarks, even without any task-specific fine-tuning. Source code to reproduce our experimental results and the model checkpoints are available in the following repository: https://github.com/asahi417/relbert

Transformers with causal attention can solve tasks that require positional information without using positional encodings. In this work, we propose and investigate a new hypothesis about how positional information can be stored without using explicit positional encoding. We observe that nearby embeddings are more similar to each other than faraway embeddings, allowing the transformer to potentially reconstruct the positions of tokens. We show that this pattern can occur in both the trained and the randomly initialized Transformer models with causal attention and no positional encodings over a common range of hyperparameters.

There often is a dilemma between ease of optimization and robust out-of-distribution (OoD) generalization. For instance, many OoD methods rely on penalty terms whose optimization is challenging. They are either too strong to optimize reliably or too weak to achieve their goals. We propose to initialize the networks with a rich representation containing a palette of potentially useful features, ready to be used by even simple models. On the one hand, a rich representation provides a good initialization for the optimizer. On the other hand, it also provides an inductive bias that helps OoD generalization. Such a representation is constructed with the Rich Feature Construction (RFC) algorithm, also called the Bonsai algorithm, which consists of a succession of training episodes. During discovery episodes, we craft a multi-objective optimization criterion and its associated datasets in a manner that prevents the network from using the features constructed in the previous iterations. During synthesis episodes, we use knowledge distillation to force the network to simultaneously represent all the previously discovered features. Initializing the networks with Bonsai representations consistently helps six OoD methods achieve top performance on ColoredMNIST benchmark. The same technique substantially outperforms comparable results on the Wilds Camelyon17 task, eliminates the high result variance that plagues other methods, and makes hyperparameter tuning and model selection more reliable.

Despite the advancements in in-context learning (ICL) for large language models (LLMs), current research centers on specific prompt engineering, such as demonstration selection, with the expectation that a single iteration of demonstrations processing can generalize effectively to a given test sample. However, this perspective overlooks the potential benefits derived from multiple iterations involving demonstrations, a practice aligning more closely with the iterative decision-making process exhibited by humans, who often learn through analogy. In this study, we introduce a novel two-stage framework to boost ICL in LLMs. Specifically, our framework delineates the ICL process into two distinct stages: Deep-Thinking and test stages. The Deep-Thinking stage incorporates a unique attention mechanism, i.e., iterative enhanced attention, which enables multiple rounds of information accumulation. This mechanism operates by manipulating the Key-Value matrices without training, fostering enhanced understanding capabilities in LLMs by thinking demonstrations multiple times. We evaluated Deep-Thinking across a range of benchmarks and LLMs, showing its superior performance over vanilla ICL methods and its effectiveness in challenging tasks where demonstration selection is infeasible.

Catastrophic forgetting has been a major challenge in continual learning, where the model needs to learn new tasks with limited or no access to data from previously seen tasks. To tackle this challenge, methods based on knowledge distillation in feature space have been proposed and shown to reduce forgetting. However, most feature distillation methods directly constrain the new features to match the old ones, overlooking the need for plasticity. To achieve a better stability-plasticity trade-off, we propose Backward Feature Projection (BFP), a method for continual learning that allows the new features to change up to a learnable linear transformation of the old features. BFP preserves the linear separability of the old classes while allowing the emergence of new feature directions to accommodate new classes. BFP can be integrated with existing experience replay methods and boost performance by a significant margin. We also demonstrate that BFP helps learn a better representation space, in which linear separability is well preserved during continual learning and linear probing achieves high classification accuracy. The code can be found at https://github.com/rvl-lab-utoronto/BFP

We investigate compositional structures in data embeddings from pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs). Traditionally, compositionality has been associated with algebraic operations on embeddings of words from a pre-existing vocabulary. In contrast, we seek to approximate representations from an encoder as combinations of a smaller set of vectors in the embedding space. These vectors can be seen as "ideal words" for generating concepts directly within the embedding space of the model. We first present a framework for understanding compositional structures from a geometric perspective. We then explain what these compositional structures entail probabilistically in the case of VLM embeddings, providing intuitions for why they arise in practice. Finally, we empirically explore these structures in CLIP's embeddings and we evaluate their usefulness for solving different vision-language tasks such as classification, debiasing, and retrieval. Our results show that simple linear algebraic operations on embedding vectors can be used as compositional and interpretable methods for regulating the behavior of VLMs.

The evolution of large language models (LLMs) toward artificial superhuman intelligence (ASI) hinges on data reproduction, a cyclical process in which models generate, curate and retrain on novel data to refine capabilities. Current methods, however, risk getting stuck in a data reproduction trap: optimizing outputs within fixed human-generated distributions in a closed loop leads to stagnation, as models merely recombine existing knowledge rather than explore new frontiers. In this paper, we propose language games as a pathway to expanded data reproduction, breaking this cycle through three mechanisms: (1) role fluidity, which enhances data diversity and coverage by enabling multi-agent systems to dynamically shift roles across tasks; (2) reward variety, embedding multiple feedback criteria that can drive complex intelligent behaviors; and (3) rule plasticity, iteratively evolving interaction constraints to foster learnability, thereby injecting continual novelty. By scaling language games into global sociotechnical ecosystems, human-AI co-evolution generates unbounded data streams that drive open-ended exploration. This framework redefines data reproduction not as a closed loop but as an engine for superhuman intelligence.

From extracting features to generating text, the outputs of large language models (LLMs) typically rely on their final layers, following the conventional wisdom that earlier layers capture only low-level cues. However, our analysis shows that intermediate layers can encode even richer representations, often improving performance on a wide range of downstream tasks. To explain and quantify these hidden-layer properties, we propose a unified framework of representation quality metrics based on information theory, geometry, and invariance to input perturbations. Our framework highlights how each model layer balances information compression and signal preservation, revealing why mid-depth embeddings can exceed the last layer's performance. Through extensive experiments on 32 text-embedding tasks and comparisons across model architectures (transformers, state-space models) and domains (language, vision), we demonstrate that intermediate layers consistently provide stronger features. These findings challenge the standard focus on final-layer embeddings and open new directions for model analysis and optimization, including strategic use of mid-layer representations for more robust and accurate AI systems.

Language grounding to vision is an active field of research aiming to enrich text-based representations of word meanings by leveraging perceptual knowledge from vision. Despite many attempts at language grounding, it is still unclear how to effectively inject visual knowledge into the word embeddings of a language in such a way that a proper balance of textual and visual knowledge is maintained. Some common concerns are the following. Is visual grounding beneficial for abstract words or is its contribution only limited to concrete words? What is the optimal way of bridging the gap between text and vision? How much do we gain by visually grounding textual embeddings? The present study addresses these questions by proposing a simple yet very effective grounding approach for pre-trained word embeddings. Our model aligns textual embeddings with vision while largely preserving the distributional statistics that characterize word use in text corpora. By applying a learned alignment, we are able to generate visually grounded embeddings for unseen words, including abstract words. A series of evaluations on word similarity benchmarks shows that visual grounding is beneficial not only for concrete words, but also for abstract words. We also show that our method for visual grounding offers advantages for contextualized embeddings, but only when these are trained on corpora of relatively modest size. Code and grounded embeddings for English are available at https://github.com/Hazel1994/Visually_Grounded_Word_Embeddings_2.

Recent personalization methods for diffusion models, such as Dreambooth, allow fine-tuning pre-trained models to generate new concepts. However, applying these techniques across multiple tasks in order to include, e.g., several new objects or styles, leads to mutual interference between their adapters. While recent studies attempt to mitigate this issue by combining trained adapters across tasks after fine-tuning, we adopt a more rigorous regime and investigate the personalization of large diffusion models under a continual learning scenario, where such interference leads to catastrophic forgetting of previous knowledge. To that end, we evaluate the na\"ive continual fine-tuning of customized models and compare this approach with three methods for consecutive adapters' training: sequentially merging new adapters, merging orthogonally initialized adapters, and updating only relevant parameters according to the task. In our experiments, we show that the proposed approaches mitigate forgetting when compared to the na\"ive approach.

Large language models (LLMs) can store a vast amount of world knowledge, often extractable via question-answering (e.g., "What is Abraham Lincoln's birthday?"). However, do they answer such questions based on exposure to similar questions during training (i.e., cheating), or by genuinely learning to extract knowledge from sources like Wikipedia? In this paper, we investigate this issue using a controlled biography dataset. We find a strong correlation between the model's ability to extract knowledge and various diversity measures of the training data. Essentially, for knowledge to be reliably extracted, it must be sufficiently augmented (e.g., through paraphrasing, sentence shuffling) during pretraining. Without such augmentation, knowledge may be memorized but not extractable, leading to 0% accuracy, regardless of subsequent instruction fine-tuning. To understand why this occurs, we employ (nearly) linear probing to demonstrate a strong connection between the observed correlation and how the model internally encodes knowledge -- whether it is linearly encoded in the hidden embeddings of entity names or distributed across other token embeddings in the training text. This paper provides several key recommendations for LLM pretraining in the industry: (1) rewrite the pretraining data -- using small, auxiliary models -- to provide knowledge augmentation, and (2) incorporate more instruction-finetuning data into the pretraining stage before it becomes too late.

Despite exceptional capabilities in knowledge-intensive tasks, Large Language Models (LLMs) face a critical gap in understanding how they internalize new knowledge, particularly how to structurally embed acquired knowledge in their neural computations. We address this issue through the lens of knowledge circuit evolution, identifying computational subgraphs that facilitate knowledge storage and processing. Our systematic analysis of circuit evolution throughout continual pre-training reveals several key findings: (1) the acquisition of new knowledge is influenced by its relevance to pre-existing knowledge; (2) the evolution of knowledge circuits exhibits a distinct phase shift from formation to optimization; (3) the evolution of knowledge circuits follows a deep-to-shallow pattern. These insights not only advance our theoretical understanding of the mechanisms of new knowledge acquisition in LLMs, but also provide potential implications for improving continual pre-training strategies to enhance model performance. Code and data will be available at https://github.com/zjunlp/DynamicKnowledgeCircuits.

Visual storytelling aims to generate compelling narratives from image sequences. Existing models often focus on enhancing the representation of the image sequence, e.g., with external knowledge sources or advanced graph structures. Despite recent progress, the stories are often repetitive, illogical, and lacking in detail. To mitigate these issues, we present a novel framework which integrates visual representations with pretrained language models and planning. Our model translates the image sequence into a visual prefix, a sequence of continuous embeddings which language models can interpret. It also leverages a sequence of question-answer pairs as a blueprint plan for selecting salient visual concepts and determining how they should be assembled into a narrative. Automatic and human evaluation on the VIST benchmark (Huang et al., 2016) demonstrates that blueprint-based models generate stories that are more coherent, interesting, and natural compared to competitive baselines and state-of-the-art systems.

Deep neural networks are susceptible to adversarial attacks, which can compromise their performance and accuracy. Adversarial Training (AT) has emerged as a popular approach for protecting neural networks against such attacks. However, a key challenge of AT is robust overfitting, where the network's robust performance on test data deteriorates with further training, thus hindering generalization. Motivated by the concept of active forgetting in the brain, we introduce a novel learning paradigm called "Forget to Mitigate Overfitting (FOMO)". FOMO alternates between the forgetting phase, which randomly forgets a subset of weights and regulates the model's information through weight reinitialization, and the relearning phase, which emphasizes learning generalizable features. Our experiments on benchmark datasets and adversarial attacks show that FOMO alleviates robust overfitting by significantly reducing the gap between the best and last robust test accuracy while improving the state-of-the-art robustness. Furthermore, FOMO provides a better trade-off between standard and robust accuracy, outperforming baseline adversarial methods. Finally, our framework is robust to AutoAttacks and increases generalization in many real-world scenarios.

Recent work demonstrated Transformers' ability to efficiently copy strings of exponential sizes, distinguishing them from other architectures. We present the Causal Relation Network (CausalRN), an all-MLP sequence modeling architecture that can match Transformers on the copying task. Extending Relation Networks (RNs), we implemented key innovations to support autoregressive sequence modeling while maintaining computational feasibility. We discovered that exponentially-activated RNs are reducible to linear time complexity, and pre-activation normalization induces an infinitely growing memory pool, similar to a KV cache. In ablation study, we found both exponential activation and pre-activation normalization are indispensable for Transformer-level copying. Our findings provide new insights into what actually constitutes strong in-context retrieval.

As the application space of language models continues to evolve, a natural question to ask is how we can quickly adapt models to new tasks. We approach this classic question from a continual learning perspective, in which we aim to continue fine-tuning models trained on past tasks on new tasks, with the goal of "transferring" relevant knowledge. However, this strategy also runs the risk of doing more harm than good, i.e., negative transfer. In this paper, we construct a new benchmark of task sequences that target different possible transfer scenarios one might face, such as a sequence of tasks with high potential of positive transfer, high potential for negative transfer, no expected effect, or a mixture of each. An ideal learner should be able to maximally exploit information from all tasks that have any potential for positive transfer, while also avoiding the negative effects of any distracting tasks that may confuse it. We then propose a simple, yet effective, learner that satisfies many of our desiderata simply by leveraging a selective strategy for initializing new models from past task checkpoints. Still, limitations remain, and we hope this benchmark can help the community to further build and analyze such learners.

Mechanistic interpretability aims to understand model behaviors in terms of specific, interpretable features, often hypothesized to manifest as low-dimensional subspaces of activations. Specifically, recent studies have explored subspace interventions (such as activation patching) as a way to simultaneously manipulate model behavior and attribute the features behind it to given subspaces. In this work, we demonstrate that these two aims diverge, potentially leading to an illusory sense of interpretability. Counterintuitively, even if a subspace intervention makes the model's output behave as if the value of a feature was changed, this effect may be achieved by activating a dormant parallel pathway leveraging another subspace that is causally disconnected from model outputs. We demonstrate this phenomenon in a distilled mathematical example, in two real-world domains (the indirect object identification task and factual recall), and present evidence for its prevalence in practice. In the context of factual recall, we further show a link to rank-1 fact editing, providing a mechanistic explanation for previous work observing an inconsistency between fact editing performance and fact localization. However, this does not imply that activation patching of subspaces is intrinsically unfit for interpretability. To contextualize our findings, we also show what a success case looks like in a task (indirect object identification) where prior manual circuit analysis informs an understanding of the location of a feature. We explore the additional evidence needed to argue that a patched subspace is faithful.

The Superficial Alignment Hypothesis posits that almost all of a language model's abilities and knowledge are learned during pre-training, while post-training is about giving a model the right style and format. We re-examine these claims by empirically studying the scaling behavior of post-training with increasing finetuning examples and evaluating them using objective task-specific standardized benchmarks. Through experiments with the Llama-3, Mistral, and Llama-2 model families of multiple sizes, we observe that, similar to the pre-training scaling laws, post-training task performance scales as a power law against the number of finetuning examples. This power law relationship holds across a broad array of capabilities, including mathematical reasoning, coding, instruction following, and multihop-reasoning. In addition, for tasks like math and multihop reasoning, we observe that a handful of examples merely align the model stylistically but do not saturate performance on the benchmarks. Model performance is instead correlated with its reasoning ability and it improves significantly with more examples, illustrating the need for holistic evaluation programs leveraging objective benchmarks in addition to measurement of alignment to human preferences. We also observe that language models are not necessarily limited to using knowledge learned during pre-training. With appropriate post-training, a model's ability to integrate new knowledge greatly improves on downstream tasks like multihop question-answering. Taken together, these results shed new light on the Superficial Alignment Hypothesis, suggesting that it is, at best, an over-simplification.

The pre-training of masked language models (MLMs) consumes massive computation to achieve good results on downstream NLP tasks, resulting in a large carbon footprint. In the vanilla MLM, the virtual tokens, [MASK]s, act as placeholders and gather the contextualized information from unmasked tokens to restore the corrupted information. It raises the question of whether we can append [MASK]s at a later layer, to reduce the sequence length for earlier layers and make the pre-training more efficient. We show: (1) [MASK]s can indeed be appended at a later layer, being disentangled from the word embedding; (2) The gathering of contextualized information from unmasked tokens can be conducted with a few layers. By further increasing the masking rate from 15% to 50%, we can pre-train RoBERTa-base and RoBERTa-large from scratch with only 78% and 68% of the original computational budget without any degradation on the GLUE benchmark. When pre-training with the original budget, our method outperforms RoBERTa for 6 out of 8 GLUE tasks, on average by 0.4%.

Diffusion models have shown impressive performance in many domains, including image generation, time series prediction, and reinforcement learning. The algorithm demonstrates superior performance over the traditional GAN and transformer based methods. However, the model's capability to follow natural language instructions (e.g., spatial relationships between objects, generating complex scenes) is still unsatisfactory. This has been an important research area to enhance such capability. Prior works adopt reinforcement learning to adjust the behavior of the diffusion models. However, RL methods not only require careful reward design and complex hyperparameter tuning, but also fails to incorporate rich natural language feedback. In this work, we propose iterative prompt relabeling (IP-RLDF), a novel algorithm that aligns images to text through iterative image sampling and prompt relabeling. IP-RLDF first samples a batch of images conditioned on the text, then relabels the text prompts of unmatched text-image pairs with classifier feedback. We conduct thorough experiments on three different models, including SDv2, GLIGEN, and SDXL, testing their capability to generate images following instructions. With IP-RLDF, we improved up to 15.22% (absolute improvement) on the challenging spatial relation VISOR benchmark, demonstrating superior performance compared to previous RL methods.

Large language models (LLMs), while transformative for NLP, come with significant computational demands, underlining the need for efficient, training-free compression. Notably, the reliability of perplexity as a benchmark for compressed model efficacy is in question, as our tests using LLaMA-7B and OPT-6.7b reveal a significant performance drop in several realistic downstream tasks, underscoring the disparity between perplexity as a performance indicator and real-world performance. Investigation into the trade-off between resource-intensive post-compression re-training highlights the prospect of prompt-driven recovery as a lightweight adaption tool. However, existing studies, confined mainly to perplexity evaluations and simple tasks, fail to offer unequivocal confidence in the scalability and generalizability of prompting. We tackle this uncertainty in two key ways. First, we uncover the vulnerability of naive prompts in LLM compression as an over-reliance on a singular prompt per input. In response, we propose inference-time dynamic prompting (IDP), a mechanism that autonomously chooses from a set of curated prompts based on the context of each individual input. Second, we delve into a scientific understanding of why ``prompting might be all you need post-LLM compression". Our findings suggest that compression doesn't irretrievably erase LLM model knowledge but displace it, necessitating a new inference path. IDP effectively redirects this path, enabling the model to tap into its inherent yet displaced knowledge and thereby recover performance. Empirical tests affirm the value of IDP, demonstrating an average performance improvement of 1.24% across nine varied tasks spanning multiple knowledge domains.

Language model (LM) pre-training is useful in many language processing tasks. But can pre-trained LMs be further leveraged for more general machine learning problems? We propose an approach for using LMs to scaffold learning and generalization in general sequential decision-making problems. In this approach, goals and observations are represented as a sequence of embeddings, and a policy network initialized with a pre-trained LM predicts the next action. We demonstrate that this framework enables effective combinatorial generalization across different environments and supervisory modalities. We begin by assuming access to a set of expert demonstrations, and show that initializing policies with LMs and fine-tuning them via behavior cloning improves task completion rates by 43.6% in the VirtualHome environment. Next, we integrate an active data gathering procedure in which agents iteratively interact with the environment, relabel past "failed" experiences with new goals, and update their policies in a self-supervised loop. Active data gathering further improves combinatorial generalization, outperforming the best baseline by 25.1%. Finally, we explain these results by investigating three possible factors underlying the effectiveness of the LM-based policy. We find that sequential input representations (vs. fixed-dimensional feature vectors) and LM-based weight initialization are both important for generalization. Surprisingly, however, the format of the policy inputs encoding (e.g. as a natural language string vs. an arbitrary sequential encoding) has little influence. Together, these results suggest that language modeling induces representations that are useful for modeling not just language, but also goals and plans; these representations can aid learning and generalization even outside of language processing.

Recent progress in text-to-image (T2I) models enables high-quality image generation with flexible textual control. To utilize the abundant visual priors in the off-the-shelf T2I models, a series of methods try to invert an image to proper embedding that aligns with the semantic space of the T2I model. However, these image-to-text (I2T) inversion methods typically need multiple source images containing the same concept or struggle with the imbalance between editing flexibility and visual fidelity. In this work, we point out that the critical problem lies in the foreground-background entanglement when learning an intended concept, and propose a simple and effective baseline for single-image I2T inversion, named SingleInsert. SingleInsert adopts a two-stage scheme. In the first stage, we regulate the learned embedding to concentrate on the foreground area without being associated with the irrelevant background. In the second stage, we finetune the T2I model for better visual resemblance and devise a semantic loss to prevent the language drift problem. With the proposed techniques, SingleInsert excels in single concept generation with high visual fidelity while allowing flexible editing. Additionally, SingleInsert can perform single-image novel view synthesis and multiple concepts composition without requiring joint training. To facilitate evaluation, we design an editing prompt list and introduce a metric named Editing Success Rate (ESR) for quantitative assessment of editing flexibility. Our project page is: https://jarrentwu1031.github.io/SingleInsert-web/

We report the presence of a simple neural mechanism that represents an input-output function as a vector within autoregressive transformer language models (LMs). Using causal mediation analysis on a diverse range of in-context-learning (ICL) tasks, we find that a small number attention heads transport a compact representation of the demonstrated task, which we call a function vector (FV). FVs are robust to changes in context, i.e., they trigger execution of the task on inputs such as zero-shot and natural text settings that do not resemble the ICL contexts from which they are collected. We test FVs across a range of tasks, models, and layers and find strong causal effects across settings in middle layers. We investigate the internal structure of FVs and find while that they often contain information that encodes the output space of the function, this information alone is not sufficient to reconstruct an FV. Finally, we test semantic vector composition in FVs, and find that to some extent they can be summed to create vectors that trigger new complex tasks. Taken together, our findings suggest that LLMs contain internal abstractions of general-purpose functions that can be invoked in a variety of contexts.

We investigate the internal structure of language model computations using causal analysis and demonstrate two motifs: (1) a form of adaptive computation where ablations of one attention layer of a language model cause another layer to compensate (which we term the Hydra effect) and (2) a counterbalancing function of late MLP layers that act to downregulate the maximum-likelihood token. Our ablation studies demonstrate that language model layers are typically relatively loosely coupled (ablations to one layer only affect a small number of downstream layers). Surprisingly, these effects occur even in language models trained without any form of dropout. We analyse these effects in the context of factual recall and consider their implications for circuit-level attribution in language models.

Computer vision models suffer from a phenomenon known as catastrophic forgetting when learning novel concepts from continuously shifting training data. Typical solutions for this continual learning problem require extensive rehearsal of previously seen data, which increases memory costs and may violate data privacy. Recently, the emergence of large-scale pre-trained vision transformer models has enabled prompting approaches as an alternative to data-rehearsal. These approaches rely on a key-query mechanism to generate prompts and have been found to be highly resistant to catastrophic forgetting in the well-established rehearsal-free continual learning setting. However, the key mechanism of these methods is not trained end-to-end with the task sequence. Our experiments show that this leads to a reduction in their plasticity, hence sacrificing new task accuracy, and inability to benefit from expanded parameter capacity. We instead propose to learn a set of prompt components which are assembled with input-conditioned weights to produce input-conditioned prompts, resulting in a novel attention-based end-to-end key-query scheme. Our experiments show that we outperform the current SOTA method DualPrompt on established benchmarks by as much as 4.5% in average final accuracy. We also outperform the state of art by as much as 4.4% accuracy on a continual learning benchmark which contains both class-incremental and domain-incremental task shifts, corresponding to many practical settings. Our code is available at https://github.com/GT-RIPL/CODA-Prompt

Text embeddings are vital for tasks such as text retrieval and semantic textual similarity (STS). Recently, the advent of pretrained language models, along with unified benchmarks like the Massive Text Embedding Benchmark (MTEB), has facilitated the development of versatile general-purpose text embedding models. Advanced embedding models are typically developed using large-scale multi-task data and joint training across multiple tasks. However, our experimental analysis reveals two significant drawbacks of joint training: 1) Task Conflict: Gradients from different tasks interfere with each other, leading to negative transfer. 2) Data Imbalance: Disproportionate data distribution introduces biases that negatively impact performance across tasks. To overcome these challenges, we explore model merging-a technique that combines independently trained models to mitigate gradient conflicts and balance data distribution. We introduce a novel method, Self Positioning, which efficiently searches for optimal model combinations within the interpolation space of task vectors using stochastic gradient descent. Our experiments demonstrate that Self Positioning significantly enhances multi-task performance on the MTEB dataset, achieving an absolute improvement of 0.7 points. It outperforms traditional resampling methods while reducing computational costs. This work offers a robust approach to building generalized text embedding models with superior performance across diverse embedding-related tasks.

Continual learning enables incremental learning of new tasks without forgetting those previously learned, resulting in positive knowledge transfer that can enhance performance on both new and old tasks. However, continual learning poses new challenges for interpretability, as the rationale behind model predictions may change over time, leading to interpretability concept drift. We address this problem by proposing Interpretable Class-InCremental LEarning (ICICLE), an exemplar-free approach that adopts a prototypical part-based approach. It consists of three crucial novelties: interpretability regularization that distills previously learned concepts while preserving user-friendly positive reasoning; proximity-based prototype initialization strategy dedicated to the fine-grained setting; and task-recency bias compensation devoted to prototypical parts. Our experimental results demonstrate that ICICLE reduces the interpretability concept drift and outperforms the existing exemplar-free methods of common class-incremental learning when applied to concept-based models.

In this paper we present two deep-learning systems that competed at SemEval-2018 Task 3 "Irony detection in English tweets". We design and ensemble two independent models, based on recurrent neural networks (Bi-LSTM), which operate at the word and character level, in order to capture both the semantic and syntactic information in tweets. Our models are augmented with a self-attention mechanism, in order to identify the most informative words. The embedding layer of our word-level model is initialized with word2vec word embeddings, pretrained on a collection of 550 million English tweets. We did not utilize any handcrafted features, lexicons or external datasets as prior information and our models are trained end-to-end using back propagation on constrained data. Furthermore, we provide visualizations of tweets with annotations for the salient tokens of the attention layer that can help to interpret the inner workings of the proposed models. We ranked 2nd out of 42 teams in Subtask A and 2nd out of 31 teams in Subtask B. However, post-task-completion enhancements of our models achieve state-of-the-art results ranking 1st for both subtasks.

Lifelong learning has attracted much attention, but existing works still struggle to fight catastrophic forgetting and accumulate knowledge over long stretches of incremental learning. In this work, we propose PODNet, a model inspired by representation learning. By carefully balancing the compromise between remembering the old classes and learning new ones, PODNet fights catastrophic forgetting, even over very long runs of small incremental tasks --a setting so far unexplored by current works. PODNet innovates on existing art with an efficient spatial-based distillation-loss applied throughout the model and a representation comprising multiple proxy vectors for each class. We validate those innovations thoroughly, comparing PODNet with three state-of-the-art models on three datasets: CIFAR100, ImageNet100, and ImageNet1000. Our results showcase a significant advantage of PODNet over existing art, with accuracy gains of 12.10, 6.51, and 2.85 percentage points, respectively. Code is available at https://github.com/arthurdouillard/incremental_learning.pytorch

Continual learning aims to emulate the human ability to continually accumulate knowledge over sequential tasks. The main challenge is to maintain performance on previously learned tasks after learning new tasks, i.e., to avoid catastrophic forgetting. We propose a Channel-wise Lightweight Reprogramming (CLR) approach that helps convolutional neural networks (CNNs) overcome catastrophic forgetting during continual learning. We show that a CNN model trained on an old task (or self-supervised proxy task) could be ``reprogrammed" to solve a new task by using our proposed lightweight (very cheap) reprogramming parameter. With the help of CLR, we have a better stability-plasticity trade-off to solve continual learning problems: To maintain stability and retain previous task ability, we use a common task-agnostic immutable part as the shared ``anchor" parameter set. We then add task-specific lightweight reprogramming parameters to reinterpret the outputs of the immutable parts, to enable plasticity and integrate new knowledge. To learn sequential tasks, we only train the lightweight reprogramming parameters to learn each new task. Reprogramming parameters are task-specific and exclusive to each task, which makes our method immune to catastrophic forgetting. To minimize the parameter requirement of reprogramming to learn new tasks, we make reprogramming lightweight by only adjusting essential kernels and learning channel-wise linear mappings from anchor parameters to task-specific domain knowledge. We show that, for general CNNs, the CLR parameter increase is less than 0.6\% for any new task. Our method outperforms 13 state-of-the-art continual learning baselines on a new challenging sequence of 53 image classification datasets. Code and data are available at https://github.com/gyhandy/Channel-wise-Lightweight-Reprogramming

Pretraining multilingual language models from scratch requires considerable computational resources and substantial training data. Therefore, a more efficient method is to adapt existing pretrained language models (PLMs) to new languages via vocabulary extension and continued pretraining. However, this method usually randomly initializes the embeddings of new subwords and introduces substantially more embedding parameters to the language model, thus weakening the efficiency. To address these issues, we propose a novel framework: One For All (\textsc{Ofa}), which wisely initializes the embeddings of unseen subwords from target languages and thus can adapt a PLM to multiple languages efficiently and effectively. Ofa takes advantage of external well-aligned multilingual word embeddings and injects the alignment knowledge into the new embeddings. In addition, Ofa applies matrix factorization and replaces the cumbersome embeddings with two lower-dimensional matrices, which significantly reduces the number of parameters while not sacrificing the performance. Through extensive experiments, we show models initialized by Ofa are efficient and outperform several baselines. Ofa not only accelerates the convergence of continued pretraining, which is friendly to a limited computation budget, but also improves the zero-shot crosslingual transfer on a wide range of downstream tasks. We make our code and models publicly available.

Recently, text-to-image diffusion models have demonstrated impressive ability to generate high-quality images conditioned on the textual input. However, these models struggle to accurately adhere to textual instructions regarding spatial layout information. While previous research has primarily focused on aligning cross-attention maps with layout conditions, they overlook the impact of the initialization noise on the layout guidance. To achieve better layout control, we propose leveraging a spatial-aware initialization noise during the denoising process. Specifically, we find that the inverted reference image with finite inversion steps contains valuable spatial awareness regarding the object's position, resulting in similar layouts in the generated images. Based on this observation, we develop an open-vocabulary framework to customize a spatial-aware initialization noise for each layout condition. Without modifying other modules except the initialization noise, our approach can be seamlessly integrated as a plug-and-play module within other training-free layout guidance frameworks. We evaluate our approach quantitatively and qualitatively on the available Stable Diffusion model and COCO dataset. Equipped with the spatial-aware latent initialization, our method significantly improves the effectiveness of layout guidance while preserving high-quality content.

Large-scale text-to-image diffusion models excel in generating high-quality images from textual inputs, yet concerns arise as research indicates their tendency to memorize and replicate training data, raising We also addressed the issue of memorization in diffusion models, where models tend to replicate exact training samples raising copyright infringement and privacy issues. Efforts within the text-to-image community to address memorization explore causes such as data duplication, replicated captions, or trigger tokens, proposing per-prompt inference-time or training-time mitigation strategies. In this paper, we focus on the feed-forward layers and begin by contrasting neuron activations of a set of memorized and non-memorized prompts. Experiments reveal a surprising finding: many different sets of memorized prompts significantly activate a common subspace in the model, demonstrating, for the first time, that memorization in the diffusion models lies in a special subspace. Subsequently, we introduce a novel post-hoc method for editing pre-trained models, whereby memorization is mitigated through the straightforward pruning of weights in specialized subspaces, avoiding the need to disrupt the training or inference process as seen in prior research. Finally, we demonstrate the robustness of the pruned model against training data extraction attacks, thereby unveiling new avenues for a practical and one-for-all solution to memorization.

Pre-trained language models demonstrate general intelligence and common sense, but long inputs quickly become a bottleneck for memorizing information at inference time. We resurface a simple method, Memorizing Transformers (Wu et al., 2022), that gives the model access to a bank of pre-computed memories. We show that it is possible to fix many of the shortcomings of the original method, such as the need for fine-tuning, by critically assessing how positional encodings should be updated for the keys and values retrieved. This intuitive method uses the model's own key/query system to select and attend to the most relevant memories at each generation step, rather than using external embeddings. We demonstrate the importance of external information being retrieved in a majority of decoder layers, contrary to previous work. We open source a new counterfactual long-range retrieval benchmark, and show that Extended Mind Transformers outperform today's state of the art by 6% on average.

Increasing the number of parameters in language models is a common strategy to enhance their performance. However, smaller language models remain valuable due to their lower operational costs. Despite their advantages, smaller models frequently underperform compared to their larger counterparts, even when provided with equivalent data and computational resources. Specifically, their performance tends to degrade in the late pretraining phase. This is anecdotally attributed to their reduced representational capacity. Yet, the exact causes of this performance degradation remain unclear. We use the Pythia model suite to analyse the training dynamics that underlie this phenomenon. Across different model sizes, we investigate the convergence of the Attention and MLP activations to their final state and examine how the effective rank of their parameters influences this process. We find that nearly all layers in larger models stabilise early in training - within the first 20% - whereas layers in smaller models exhibit slower and less stable convergence, especially when their parameters have lower effective rank. By linking the convergence of layers' activations to their parameters' effective rank, our analyses can guide future work to address inefficiencies in the learning dynamics of small models.

Multimodal learning typically relies on the assumption that all modalities are fully available during both the training and inference phases. However, in real-world scenarios, consistently acquiring complete multimodal data presents significant challenges due to various factors. This often leads to the issue of missing modalities, where data for certain modalities are absent, posing considerable obstacles not only for the availability of multimodal pretrained models but also for their fine-tuning and the preservation of robustness in downstream tasks. To address these challenges, we propose a novel framework integrating parameter-efficient fine-tuning of unimodal pretrained models with a self-supervised joint-embedding learning method. This framework enables the model to predict the embedding of a missing modality in the representation space during inference. Our method effectively predicts the missing embedding through prompt tuning, leveraging information from available modalities. We evaluate our approach on several multimodal benchmark datasets and demonstrate its effectiveness and robustness across various scenarios of missing modalities.

In this paper we present a deep-learning model that competed at SemEval-2018 Task 2 "Multilingual Emoji Prediction". We participated in subtask A, in which we are called to predict the most likely associated emoji in English tweets. The proposed architecture relies on a Long Short-Term Memory network, augmented with an attention mechanism, that conditions the weight of each word, on a "context vector" which is taken as the aggregation of a tweet's meaning. Moreover, we initialize the embedding layer of our model, with word2vec word embeddings, pretrained on a dataset of 550 million English tweets. Finally, our model does not rely on hand-crafted features or lexicons and is trained end-to-end with back-propagation. We ranked 2nd out of 48 teams.

In various fields of knowledge creation, including science, new ideas often build on pre-existing information. In this work, we explore this concept within the context of language models. Specifically, we explore the potential of self-training models on their own outputs, akin to how humans learn and build on their previous thoughts and actions. While this approach is intuitively appealing, our research reveals its practical limitations. We find that extended self-training of the GPT-2 model leads to a significant degradation in performance, resulting in repetitive and collapsed token output.

The recent tremendous success of unsupervised word embeddings in a multitude of applications raises the obvious question if similar methods could be derived to improve embeddings (i.e. semantic representations) of word sequences as well. We present a simple but efficient unsupervised objective to train distributed representations of sentences. Our method outperforms the state-of-the-art unsupervised models on most benchmark tasks, highlighting the robustness of the produced general-purpose sentence embeddings.

Deep learning approaches to natural language processing have made great strides in recent years. While these models produce symbols that convey vast amounts of diverse knowledge, it is unclear how such symbols are grounded in data from the world. In this paper, we explore the development of a private language for visual data representation by training emergent language (EL) encoders/decoders in both i) a traditional referential game environment and ii) a contrastive learning environment utilizing a within-class matching training paradigm. An additional classification layer utilizing neural machine translation and random forest classification was used to transform symbolic representations (sequences of integer symbols) to class labels. These methods were applied in two experiments focusing on object recognition and action recognition. For object recognition, a set of sketches produced by human participants from real imagery was used (Sketchy dataset) and for action recognition, 2D trajectories were generated from 3D motion capture systems (MOVI dataset). In order to interpret the symbols produced for data in each experiment, gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM) methods were used to identify pixel regions indicating semantic features which contribute evidence towards symbols in learned languages. Additionally, a t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) method was used to investigate embeddings learned by CNN feature extractors.