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{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

I'm middle-aged, never smoked, had my ears blown out in the war, get a case of the sads pretty regular, and eat mostly garbage. What are my risk factors for dementia? What does cognitive engagement have to do with it?

high blood pressure People who have consistent high blood pressure (hypertension) in mid-life (ages 45 to 65) are more likely to develop dementia compared to those with normal blood pressure. High blood pressure can increase the risk of developing dementia, particularly vascular dementia, because of its effect on the heart, the arteries, and blood circulation. Smoking The evidence is strong and consistent that smokers are at a higher risk of developing dementia vs. non-smokers or ex-smokers. It’s never too late to quit! Smokers who quit can reduce their risk of developing dementia. diabetes People with type 2 diabetes in mid-life (ages 45 to 65) are at an increased risk of developing dementia, particularly Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia. Obesity Obesity in mid-life (ages 45 to 65) increases the risk of developing dementia. Obesity also increases the risk of developing other risk factors such as type 2 diabetes. lack of physical activity Physical inactivity in later life (ages 65 and up) increases the risk of developing dementia. poor diet An unhealthy diet, high in saturated fat, sugar, and salt, can increase the risk of developing many illnesses, including dementia and cardiovascular disease. high alcohol consumption Drinking excessively (more than 12 drinks per week), can increase your risk of developing dementia low cognitive engagement Cognitive engagement is thought to support the development of a “cognitive reserve”. This is the idea that people who actively use their brains throughout their lives may be more protected against brain cell damage caused by dementia. depression People who experience depression in mid- or later life have a higher risk of developing dementia. However, the relationship between depression and dementia is still unclear. Many researchers believe that depression is a risk factor for dementia, whereas others believe it may be an early symptom of the disease, or both. traumatic brain injury People who experience severe or repeated head injuries are at increased risk of developing dementia. Brain injuries may trigger a process that might eventually lead to dementia. This particularly affects athletes in boxing, soccer, hockey, and football, which often have repeated head injuries. Falls are the leading cause of traumatic brain injury. Falling is especially dangerous for older adults. hearing loss Mild levels of hearing loss increase the risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Though it is still unclear how exactly it affects cognitive decline, hearing loss can lead to social isolation, loss of independence, and problems with everyday activities. social isolation Social isolation can increase the risk of hypertension, coronary heart disease, depression, and dementia. Staying socially active may reduce the risk of dementia. Social interaction may also help slow down the progression of the disease. air pollution The relationship between air pollution and dementia is still unclear. However, it’s estimated that those living close to busy roads have a higher risk of dementia because they may be exposed to higher levels of air pollution from vehicle emissions. It’s never too soon, or too late, to make changes that will maintain or improve your brain health. Learn more about managing some of these risk factors.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== I'm middle-aged, never smoked, had my ears blown out in the war, get a case of the sads pretty regular, and eat mostly garbage. What are my risk factors for dementia? What does cognitive engagement have to do with it? {passage 0} ========== high blood pressure People who have consistent high blood pressure (hypertension) in mid-life (ages 45 to 65) are more likely to develop dementia compared to those with normal blood pressure. High blood pressure can increase the risk of developing dementia, particularly vascular dementia, because of its effect on the heart, the arteries, and blood circulation. Smoking The evidence is strong and consistent that smokers are at a higher risk of developing dementia vs. non-smokers or ex-smokers. It’s never too late to quit! Smokers who quit can reduce their risk of developing dementia. diabetes People with type 2 diabetes in mid-life (ages 45 to 65) are at an increased risk of developing dementia, particularly Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia. Obesity Obesity in mid-life (ages 45 to 65) increases the risk of developing dementia. Obesity also increases the risk of developing other risk factors such as type 2 diabetes. lack of physical activity Physical inactivity in later life (ages 65 and up) increases the risk of developing dementia. poor diet An unhealthy diet, high in saturated fat, sugar, and salt, can increase the risk of developing many illnesses, including dementia and cardiovascular disease. high alcohol consumption Drinking excessively (more than 12 drinks per week), can increase your risk of developing dementia low cognitive engagement Cognitive engagement is thought to support the development of a “cognitive reserve”. This is the idea that people who actively use their brains throughout their lives may be more protected against brain cell damage caused by dementia. depression People who experience depression in mid- or later life have a higher risk of developing dementia. However, the relationship between depression and dementia is still unclear. Many researchers believe that depression is a risk factor for dementia, whereas others believe it may be an early symptom of the disease, or both. traumatic brain injury People who experience severe or repeated head injuries are at increased risk of developing dementia. Brain injuries may trigger a process that might eventually lead to dementia. This particularly affects athletes in boxing, soccer, hockey, and football, which often have repeated head injuries. Falls are the leading cause of traumatic brain injury. Falling is especially dangerous for older adults. hearing loss Mild levels of hearing loss increase the risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Though it is still unclear how exactly it affects cognitive decline, hearing loss can lead to social isolation, loss of independence, and problems with everyday activities. social isolation Social isolation can increase the risk of hypertension, coronary heart disease, depression, and dementia. Staying socially active may reduce the risk of dementia. Social interaction may also help slow down the progression of the disease. air pollution The relationship between air pollution and dementia is still unclear. However, it’s estimated that those living close to busy roads have a higher risk of dementia because they may be exposed to higher levels of air pollution from vehicle emissions. It’s never too soon, or too late, to make changes that will maintain or improve your brain health. Learn more about managing some of these risk factors. https://alzheimer.ca/en/about-dementia/how-can-i-reduce-risk-dementia/risk-factors-dementia?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjw3P-2BhAEEiwA3yPhwN2aQl6V8InKOUxaehsfGBSWmuIpGEoeJdWNsl5fH_T9LOUlOk7-gxoCHcYQAvD_BwE

You formulate answers based solely on the material provided by the user without reference to external facts or knowledge.

Can you list all the knife brands that sell knives suitable for sharpening at a 14-degree angle? List them according to the minimum angle at which their knives can be sharpened, starting with the smallest.

Knife sharpening angles Manufacturer´s recommendations The recommended angle of your knife is often written on the knife’s packaging. If you don’t find it there you can often find it on the manufacturer’s website. Below you’ll find the angle recommendations from some “well-known” knife manufacturers. Please note that despite the fact that the vast majority of knives are dual-bevel, knife manufacturers list their edge angles based on the number of degrees of a single bevel. For example, dual bevel listed as 15 degrees is actually two 15-degree angles, or 30 degrees total. Therefore, all angles in this document is listed as single bevel angles. Cangshan Cangshan knives are sharpened to an Asian-style 16-degree edge. Learn more at their website. Chroma A Chroma knife should be sharpened to 10-20 degrees. Learn more at their website. F. DICK (Friedr. DICK) Dick recommends 15-20 degrees for their DICK Hoof Knives. Learn more at their website. Fischer-Bargoin Fischer-Bargoin recommends an angle of 15-20 degrees. Learn more at their website. Global Global recommends an angle of 10-15 degrees. Learn more at their website. Korin Korin knives recommends a 10-20 degrees angle on their Western style knives. For their traditional Japanese knife see please go to the website. Learn more at their website. MAC MAC knives have factory edges of 15 degrees. Their recommendation is 10-15 degrees. Learn more at their website. Messermeister Messermeister Elité and Park Plaza knives have a 15-degree angle. Learn more at their website. Starting in 2018, the Four Seasons knife collection now features a 15-degree angle. Learn more at their website. Shun and Kai Shun recommends a 16-degree angle of Shun and Kai double-beveled knives. Learn more at their website. Victorinox Victorinox indicates the total cutting angle. Sharpening a Victorinox should be between 30 to 40 degrees, which is 15-20 degrees on each side. Learn more at their website. Wüsthof The sharpening angle for standard blades is 14 degrees, and for Asian-style blades (Santokus, Nakiris, Chai Daos) it’s 10 degrees. Learn more at their website. Zwilling J. A. Henckels and Miyabi The angle between the blade and the steel should be approximately 15 degrees for ZWILLING knives. Santoku knives and all MIYABI and Kramer made by ZWILLING knives need to be 9-12 degrees. Learn more at their website. Set the existing knife angle using Tormek Marker Method If you want to repeat an existing angle but don’t know the angle of your knife, the easiest way is to use the Tormek Marker Method with a black permanent marker. By following three simple steps you can quickly get the correct angle. 1. Color the bevel, mount the knife in the jig and place it onto the Universal Support. 2. Turn the grinding wheel by hand and check where the coloring is removed, 3. Raise or lower the Universal Support until the coloring is removed from the tip to the heel. Now, the angle is just right and it’s time to start sharpening!

You formulate answers based solely on the material provided by the user without reference to external facts or knowledge. Can you list all the knife brands that sell knives suitable for sharpening at a 14-degree angle? List them according to the minimum angle at which their knives can be sharpened, starting with the smallest. Knife sharpening angles Manufacturer´s recommendations The recommended angle of your knife is often written on the knife’s packaging. If you don’t find it there you can often find it on the manufacturer’s website. Below you’ll find the angle recommendations from some “well-known” knife manufacturers. Please note that despite the fact that the vast majority of knives are dual-bevel, knife manufacturers list their edge angles based on the number of degrees of a single bevel. For example, dual bevel listed as 15 degrees is actually two 15-degree angles, or 30 degrees total. Therefore, all angles in this document is listed as single bevel angles. Cangshan Cangshan knives are sharpened to an Asian-style 16-degree edge. Learn more at their website. Chroma A Chroma knife should be sharpened to 10-20 degrees. Learn more at their website. F. DICK (Friedr. DICK) Dick recommends 15-20 degrees for their DICK Hoof Knives. Learn more at their website. Fischer-Bargoin Fischer-Bargoin recommends an angle of 15-20 degrees. Learn more at their website. Global Global recommends an angle of 10-15 degrees. Learn more at their website. Korin Korin knives recommends a 10-20 degrees angle on their Western style knives. For their traditional Japanese knife see please go to the website. Learn more at their website. MAC MAC knives have factory edges of 15 degrees. Their recommendation is 10-15 degrees. Learn more at their website. Messermeister Messermeister Elité and Park Plaza knives have a 15-degree angle. Learn more at their website. Starting in 2018, the Four Seasons knife collection now features a 15-degree angle. Learn more at their website. Shun and Kai Shun recommends a 16-degree angle of Shun and Kai double-beveled knives. Learn more at their website. Victorinox Victorinox indicates the total cutting angle. Sharpening a Victorinox should be between 30 to 40 degrees, which is 15-20 degrees on each side. Learn more at their website. Wüsthof The sharpening angle for standard blades is 14 degrees, and for Asian-style blades (Santokus, Nakiris, Chai Daos) it’s 10 degrees. Learn more at their website. Zwilling J. A. Henckels and Miyabi The angle between the blade and the steel should be approximately 15 degrees for ZWILLING knives. Santoku knives and all MIYABI and Kramer made by ZWILLING knives need to be 9-12 degrees. Learn more at their website. Set the existing knife angle using Tormek Marker Method If you want to repeat an existing angle but don’t know the angle of your knife, the easiest way is to use the Tormek Marker Method with a black permanent marker. By following three simple steps you can quickly get the correct angle. 1. Color the bevel, mount the knife in the jig and place it onto the Universal Support. 2. Turn the grinding wheel by hand and check where the coloring is removed, 3. Raise or lower the Universal Support until the coloring is removed from the tip to the heel. Now, the angle is just right and it’s time to start sharpening!

Provide your response in a professional and formal tone. Use the information given in the document without referring to external sources or requiring additional context. Avoid using technical jargon or acronyms that are not explained within the document.

What are some tips on saving money?

Money Management Tips: 55 Ways to Save Money Recreation and Entertainment: 1. Instead of paying for a fitness club membership fee, buy some weights or go to the ARC. 2. Don’t smoke. Cigarettes are expensive and the money adds up quickly. Also you’ll be fined if you smoke near school facilities. 3. Wait until after half-time at sport events and get in for free! 4. When eating out, look for coupons or special deals- many restaurants offer them! Also, order water. Drinks are highly overpriced. 5. At the beginning of the semester, many local businesses give out coupon books. Grab one! 6. There are hundreds of free activities on campus. Join clubs, attend student concerts, or go to church-sponsored events for cheap fun. There is usually food involved, too! 7. Illinites, student activities, happen at the Illini Union every Friday night for free. 8. Experience some more cultures while in college and attend a show at Krannert. Student tickets are $10 or less. It’s FREE sometimes! 9. If you’re throwing a party, have your guests pay a little money or bring things to offset your cost. 10. Don’t purchase a book unless you think you really want to keep it. You can check out books for free at libraries. 11. Rent movies with a group of friends or go to second-run theaters for $1 or $2 a ticket. 12. Bring your student ID when you go out for a movie. Most theaters will give discount for students. Food and Basic Needs: 13. Be a savvy consumer. Before making a major purchase, do some researches on the product quality through Consumer Reports magazine. 14. Sometimes the cheaper product works just as well as the expensive one. 15. Ask for generic medications at the pharmacy. 16. Ladies, ditch the salon and get your hair done at a cosmetology school. 17. Buying in bulk is usually a good option, but try to shop for items by the per unit price. Often times, the biggest options is not the best way to get the most of your money. 18. Scout out garage/yard sales for housewares, furniture, and stuff to decorate your college dorm or apartment. At the beginning of each semester, the YMCA has a dump and run where they sell items collected from various dorms and apartment on campus. 19. Make things for gifts- it’s cheaper and the time you invest shows you care. 20. Take advantage of sales by buying holiday and birthday gifts throughout the year. 21. Get a job at a place where you already spend a lot of money, so you can get employee discounts. 22. Use mail-in rebates or coupons for groceries or health and beauty items. 23. Don’t buy bottled water. Buy a water filtration pitcher. 24. Don’t buy something just because it is one sale. Consider it’s a need for you before buying. 25. If you shop at a favorite store, apply for their discount card if they have one. Modified by Joe Pleshar, Yuanhang Fan, and Maggie Benson, Peer Educators of Spring 2015. University of Illinois Extension Financial Wellness for College Students Program. Source: National Student Loan Program’s Budget Handout #6: “Money Management Options: 75 Ways to Save Money”, 2002. Money Management Tips: 55 Ways to Save Money 26. Make home cooked meals. A home cooked stead dinner is often cheaper than a fast food binge. Eating at home will save you a lot of money! 27. Pack a lunch instead of eating out. Clothing: 28. Buy clothes at the end of the season when they’re on sales. 29. If you don’t wear certain clothes anymore, take them to a consignment shop or sell them online. You can get part of the profit and free up room in your closet. 30. Share dresses and tuxes with friends for special occasions. 31. If you buy more than one of something, like 2 or 3 shirts, always ask for a discount. 32. Invest in durable clothes, shoes, etc. rather than buying many cheap pairs. Budgeting/ Spending Plan: 33. Set goals for your spending and saving. 34. Keep track of your spending to avoid overspent. There are apps for that! 35. Don’t use a credit card if it will lead you to make more purchases! On average, people have credit cards spend 34% more. 36. Before going out to spend, set a limit for yourself and stick to it! 37. Wait at least two hours before making a big purchase to be sure it’s something you really need. Transportation: 38. Obey traffic laws. Speeding tickets will cost more than just the ticket. It will raise your insurance premiums. 39. Keep your tires inflated properly- you’ll get better gas mileage. 40. Get good grades. Insurance companies offer low rates to student with 3.0+ GPA. 41. Carpool with friend! 42. Search for dependable cards that offer good gas mileage. 43. Drive an older car- the insurance payments and taxes will be less. 44. Walk, bike, or ride to school- it’s good for you to saves on gas. 45. Look around for cheapest gas price before filling up. There are apps for that! Savings: 46. Only use ATM’s of your bank. Other bank’s ATM fees add up! 47. Always put part of our paycheck into a savings account. 48. Spare change adds up! Get a piggy bank or change jar and don’t underestimate the value of your spare changes. 49. Volunteer! If you’re busy, you can’t spend month and it’s a resume booster, too! It’s always make you feel good to help and give back to the community. 50. Use plastic grocery bags for trash can liners. Conserving Resources: 51. Turn off the water while brushing your teeth. 52. Unplug electronics when you aren’t using them. Even while turned off, they still use up costly energy. 53. Use items like shampoo, toothpaste, and paper towels sparingly- enough to do the job without waste. 54. Pay your bills online. Save paper and money on stamps. 55. Ask your landlord to seal gaps between door and windows to prevent heat leaks over the winter. Modified by Joe Pleshar, Yuanhang Fan, and Maggie Benson, Peer Educators of Spring 2015. University of Illinois Extension Financial Wellness for College Students Program. Source: National Student Loan Program’s Budget Handout #6: “Money Management Options: 75 Ways to Save Money”, 2002. 

Provide your response in a professional and formal tone. Use the information given in the document without referring to external sources or requiring additional context. Avoid using technical jargon or acronyms that are not explained within the document. What are some tips on saving money? Money Management Tips: 55 Ways to Save Money Recreation and Entertainment: 1. Instead of paying for a fitness club membership fee, buy some weights or go to the ARC. 2. Don’t smoke. Cigarettes are expensive and the money adds up quickly. Also you’ll be fined if you smoke near school facilities. 3. Wait until after half-time at sport events and get in for free! 4. When eating out, look for coupons or special deals- many restaurants offer them! Also, order water. Drinks are highly overpriced. 5. At the beginning of the semester, many local businesses give out coupon books. Grab one! 6. There are hundreds of free activities on campus. Join clubs, attend student concerts, or go to church-sponsored events for cheap fun. There is usually food involved, too! 7. Illinites, student activities, happen at the Illini Union every Friday night for free. 8. Experience some more cultures while in college and attend a show at Krannert. Student tickets are $10 or less. It’s FREE sometimes! 9. If you’re throwing a party, have your guests pay a little money or bring things to offset your cost. 10. Don’t purchase a book unless you think you really want to keep it. You can check out books for free at libraries. 11. Rent movies with a group of friends or go to second-run theaters for $1 or $2 a ticket. 12. Bring your student ID when you go out for a movie. Most theaters will give discount for students. Food and Basic Needs: 13. Be a savvy consumer. Before making a major purchase, do some researches on the product quality through Consumer Reports magazine. 14. Sometimes the cheaper product works just as well as the expensive one. 15. Ask for generic medications at the pharmacy. 16. Ladies, ditch the salon and get your hair done at a cosmetology school. 17. Buying in bulk is usually a good option, but try to shop for items by the per unit price. Often times, the biggest options is not the best way to get the most of your money. 18. Scout out garage/yard sales for housewares, furniture, and stuff to decorate your college dorm or apartment. At the beginning of each semester, the YMCA has a dump and run where they sell items collected from various dorms and apartment on campus. 19. Make things for gifts- it’s cheaper and the time you invest shows you care. 20. Take advantage of sales by buying holiday and birthday gifts throughout the year. 21. Get a job at a place where you already spend a lot of money, so you can get employee discounts. 22. Use mail-in rebates or coupons for groceries or health and beauty items. 23. Don’t buy bottled water. Buy a water filtration pitcher. 24. Don’t buy something just because it is one sale. Consider it’s a need for you before buying. 25. If you shop at a favorite store, apply for their discount card if they have one. Modified by Joe Pleshar, Yuanhang Fan, and Maggie Benson, Peer Educators of Spring 2015. University of Illinois Extension Financial Wellness for College Students Program. Source: National Student Loan Program’s Budget Handout #6: “Money Management Options: 75 Ways to Save Money”, 2002. Money Management Tips: 55 Ways to Save Money 26. Make home cooked meals. A home cooked stead dinner is often cheaper than a fast food binge. Eating at home will save you a lot of money! 27. Pack a lunch instead of eating out. Clothing: 28. Buy clothes at the end of the season when they’re on sales. 29. If you don’t wear certain clothes anymore, take them to a consignment shop or sell them online. You can get part of the profit and free up room in your closet. 30. Share dresses and tuxes with friends for special occasions. 31. If you buy more than one of something, like 2 or 3 shirts, always ask for a discount. 32. Invest in durable clothes, shoes, etc. rather than buying many cheap pairs. Budgeting/ Spending Plan: 33. Set goals for your spending and saving. 34. Keep track of your spending to avoid overspent. There are apps for that! 35. Don’t use a credit card if it will lead you to make more purchases! On average, people have credit cards spend 34% more. 36. Before going out to spend, set a limit for yourself and stick to it! 37. Wait at least two hours before making a big purchase to be sure it’s something you really need. Transportation: 38. Obey traffic laws. Speeding tickets will cost more than just the ticket. It will raise your insurance premiums. 39. Keep your tires inflated properly- you’ll get better gas mileage. 40. Get good grades. Insurance companies offer low rates to student with 3.0+ GPA. 41. Carpool with friend! 42. Search for dependable cards that offer good gas mileage. 43. Drive an older car- the insurance payments and taxes will be less. 44. Walk, bike, or ride to school- it’s good for you to saves on gas. 45. Look around for cheapest gas price before filling up. There are apps for that! Savings: 46. Only use ATM’s of your bank. Other bank’s ATM fees add up! 47. Always put part of our paycheck into a savings account. 48. Spare change adds up! Get a piggy bank or change jar and don’t underestimate the value of your spare changes. 49. Volunteer! If you’re busy, you can’t spend month and it’s a resume booster, too! It’s always make you feel good to help and give back to the community. 50. Use plastic grocery bags for trash can liners. Conserving Resources: 51. Turn off the water while brushing your teeth. 52. Unplug electronics when you aren’t using them. Even while turned off, they still use up costly energy. 53. Use items like shampoo, toothpaste, and paper towels sparingly- enough to do the job without waste. 54. Pay your bills online. Save paper and money on stamps. 55. Ask your landlord to seal gaps between door and windows to prevent heat leaks over the winter. Modified by Joe Pleshar, Yuanhang Fan, and Maggie Benson, Peer Educators of Spring 2015. University of Illinois Extension Financial Wellness for College Students Program. Source: National Student Loan Program’s Budget Handout #6: “Money Management Options: 75 Ways to Save Money”, 2002. 

You must only use the context to answer the question. You must respond in a bullet point list. The list can be divided into sections.

What are all the contexts when it is right for testing for leptospirosis in dogs specifically?

Description of the disease: Leptospirosis is a transmissible disease of animals and humans caused by infection with any of the pathogenic members of the genus Leptospira. Acute leptospirosis should be suspected in the following cases: sudden onset of agalactia (in adult milking cattle and sheep); icterus and haemoglobinuria, especially in young animals; meningitis; and acute renal failure or jaundice in dogs. Chronic leptospirosis should be considered in the following cases: abortion, stillbirth, birth of weak offspring (may be premature); infertility; chronic renal failure or chronic active hepatitis in dogs; and cases of periodic ophthalmia in horses.

System instruction: You must only use the context to answer the question. You must respond in a bullet point list. The list can be divided into sections. Question: What are all the contexts when it is right for testing for leptospirosis in dogs specifically? Context: Description of the disease: Leptospirosis is a transmissible disease of animals and humans caused by infection with any of the pathogenic members of the genus Leptospira. Acute leptospirosis should be suspected in the following cases: sudden onset of agalactia (in adult milking cattle and sheep); icterus and haemoglobinuria, especially in young animals; meningitis; and acute renal failure or jaundice in dogs. Chronic leptospirosis should be considered in the following cases: abortion, stillbirth, birth of weak offspring (may be premature); infertility; chronic renal failure or chronic active hepatitis in dogs; and cases of periodic ophthalmia in horses.

Do not use any information other than that contained in the context block to answer the question. Use concise, easy-to-understand language.

can you summarise all the important information relevant to Annex 1 nationals and refugees?

This Regulation provides for full harmonisation as regards the third countries whose nationals are subject to a requirement to be in possession of a visa for the crossing of Member States' external borders (also referred to herein as ‘the visa requirement’) and those whose nationals are exempt from that requirement. The determination of the third countries whose nationals are subject to, or exempt from, the visa requirement should be made on the basis of a considered, case-by-case assessment of a variety of criteria. That assessment should be made periodically and could lead to legislative proposals to amend Annex I to this Regulation, which lists the third countries whose nationals are required to be in possession of a visa when crossing the external borders of the Member States, and Annex II to this Regulation, which lists the third countries whose nationals are exempt from the requirement to be in possession of a visa when crossing the external borders of the Member States for stays of no more than 90 days in any 180-day period, notwithstanding the possibility of having country-specific amendments to those Annexes in particular circumstances, for instance as a result of a visa liberalisation process or as the ultimate consequence of a temporary suspension of the exemption from the visa requirement (also referred to herein as ‘the visa exemption’). The composition of the lists of third countries in Annexes I and II should be, and should remain, consistent with the criteria set out in this Regulation. References to third countries in respect of which the situation has changed as regards those criteria should be transferred from one Annex to the other. Developments in international law entailing changes in the status or designation of certain States or entities should be reflected in Annexes I and II. As the Agreement on the European Economic Area exempts nationals of Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway from the visa requirement, those countries should not be included in the list in Annex II. Since the Agreement between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Swiss Confederation, of the other part, on the free movement of persons provides for free movement without visas for nationals of Switzerland and of the Member States, Switzerland should not be included in the list in Annex II. As regards recognised refugees and stateless persons, without prejudice to obligations under international agreements signed by the Member States and in particular the European Agreement on the Abolition of Visas for Refugees of the Council of Europe, signed at Strasbourg on 20 April 1959, the decision as to the visa requirement or exemption should be based on the third country in which those persons reside and which issued their travel documents. However, given the differences in the national law applicable to recognised refugees and to stateless persons, Member States should be able to decide whether those categories of persons should be exempted, where the third country in which those persons reside and which issued their travel documents is a third country whose nationals are exempt from the visa requirement.

system instruction: [Do not use any information other than that contained in the context block to answer the question. Use concise, easy-to-understand language.] question: [can you summarise all the important information relevant to Annex 1 nationals and refugees?] context block: [This Regulation provides for full harmonisation as regards the third countries whose nationals are subject to a requirement to be in possession of a visa for the crossing of Member States' external borders (also referred to herein as ‘the visa requirement’) and those whose nationals are exempt from that requirement. The determination of the third countries whose nationals are subject to, or exempt from, the visa requirement should be made on the basis of a considered, case-by-case assessment of a variety of criteria. That assessment should be made periodically and could lead to legislative proposals to amend Annex I to this Regulation, which lists the third countries whose nationals are required to be in possession of a visa when crossing the external borders of the Member States, and Annex II to this Regulation, which lists the third countries whose nationals are exempt from the requirement to be in possession of a visa when crossing the external borders of the Member States for stays of no more than 90 days in any 180-day period, notwithstanding the possibility of having country-specific amendments to those Annexes in particular circumstances, for instance as a result of a visa liberalisation process or as the ultimate consequence of a temporary suspension of the exemption from the visa requirement (also referred to herein as ‘the visa exemption’). The composition of the lists of third countries in Annexes I and II should be, and should remain, consistent with the criteria set out in this Regulation. References to third countries in respect of which the situation has changed as regards those criteria should be transferred from one Annex to the other. Developments in international law entailing changes in the status or designation of certain States or entities should be reflected in Annexes I and II. As the Agreement on the European Economic Area exempts nationals of Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway from the visa requirement, those countries should not be included in the list in Annex II. Since the Agreement between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Swiss Confederation, of the other part, on the free movement of persons provides for free movement without visas for nationals of Switzerland and of the Member States, Switzerland should not be included in the list in Annex II. As regards recognised refugees and stateless persons, without prejudice to obligations under international agreements signed by the Member States and in particular the European Agreement on the Abolition of Visas for Refugees of the Council of Europe, signed at Strasbourg on 20 April 1959, the decision as to the visa requirement or exemption should be based on the third country in which those persons reside and which issued their travel documents. However, given the differences in the national law applicable to recognised refugees and to stateless persons, Member States should be able to decide whether those categories of persons should be exempted, where the third country in which those persons reside and which issued their travel documents is a third country whose nationals are exempt from the visa requirement.]

This task requires you to answer questions based solely on the information provided in the prompt. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge. Limit your response to 100 words. Do not use bullet points. Limit your answer to six sentences.

Summarize the five overarching principles of tax policy.

2.1 Overarching principles of tax policy In a context where many governments have to cope with less revenue, increasing expenditures and resulting fiscal constraints, raising revenue remains the most important function of taxes, which serve as the primary means for financing public goods such as maintenance of law and order and public infrastructure. Assuming a certain level of revenue that needs to be raised, which depends on the broader economic and fiscal policies of the country concerned, there are a number of broad tax policy considerations that have traditionally guided the development of taxation systems. These include neutrality, efficiency, certainty and simplicity, effectiveness and fairness, as well as flexibility. In the context of work leading up to the Report on the Taxation of Electronic Commerce (see Annex A for further detail), these overarching principles were the basis for the 1998 Ottawa Ministerial Conference, and are since then referred to as the Ottawa Taxation Framework Conditions. At the time, these principles were deemed appropriate for an evaluation of the taxation issues related to e-commerce. Although most of the new business models identified in Chapter 4 did not exist yet at the time, these principles, with modification, continue to be relevant in the digital economy, as discussed in Chapter 8. In addition to these well-recognised principles, equity is an important consideration for the design of tax policy. • Neutrality: Taxation should seek to be neutral and equitable between forms of business activities. A neutral tax will contribute to efficiency by ensuring that optimal allocation of the means of production is achieved. A distortion, and the corresponding deadweight loss, will occur when changes in price trigger different changes in supply and demand than would occur in the absence of tax. In this sense, neutrality also entails that the tax system raises revenue while minimising discrimination in favour of, or against, any particular economic choice. This implies that the same principles of taxation should apply to all forms of business, while addressing specific features that may otherwise undermine an equal and neutral application of those principles. • Efficiency: Compliance costs to business and administration costs for governments should be minimised as far as possible. • Certainty and simplicity: Tax rules should be clear and simple to understand, so that taxpayers know where they stand. A simple tax system makes it easier for individuals and businesses to understand their obligations and entitlements. As a result, businesses are more likely to make optimal decisions and respond to intended policy choices. Complexity also favours aggressive tax planning, which may trigger deadweight losses for the economy. ADDRESSING THE TAX CHALLENGES OF THE DIGITAL ECONOMY © OECD 2014 2. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION – 31 • Effectiveness and fairness: Taxation should produce the right amount of tax at the right time, while avoiding both double taxation and unintentional non-taxation. In addition, the potential for evasion and avoidance should be minimised. Prior discussions in the Technical Advisory Groups (TAGs) considered that if there is a class of taxpayers that are technically subject to a tax, but are never required to pay the tax due to inability to enforce it, then the taxpaying public may view the tax as unfair and ineffective. As a result, the practical enforceability of tax rules is an important consideration for policy makers. In addition, because it influences the collectability and the administerability of taxes, enforceability is crucial to ensure efficiency of the tax system. • Flexibility: Taxation systems should be flexible and dynamic enough to ensure they keep pace with technological and commercial developments. It is important that a tax system is dynamic and flexible enough to meet the current revenue needs of governments while adapting to changing needs on an ongoing basis. This means that the structural features of the system should be durable in a changing policy context, yet flexible and dynamic enough to allow governments to respond as required to keep pace with technological and commercial developments, taking into account that future developments will often be difficult to predict. Equity is also an important consideration within a tax policy framework. Equity has two main elements; horizontal equity and vertical equity. Horizontal equity suggests that taxpayers in similar circumstances should bear a similar tax burden. Vertical equity is a normative concept, whose definition can differ from one user to another. According to some, it suggests that taxpayers in better circumstances should bear a larger part of the tax burden as a proportion of their income. In practice, the interpretation of vertical equity depends on the extent to which countries want to diminish income variation and whether it should be applied to income earned in a specific period or to lifetime income. Equity is traditionally delivered through the design of the personal tax and transfer systems. Equity may also refer to inter-nation equity. As a theory, inter-nation equity is concerned with the allocation of national gain and loss in the international context and aims to ensure that each country receives an equitable share of tax revenues from cross-border transactions (OECD, 2001). The tax policy principle of inter-nation equity has been an important consideration in the debate on the division of taxing rights between source and residence countries. At the time of the Ottawa work on the taxation of electronic commerce, this important concern was recognised by stating that “any adaptation of the existing international taxation principles should be ADDRESSING THE TAX CHALLENGES OF THE DIGITAL ECONOMY © OECD 2014 32 – 2. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION structured to maintain fiscal sovereignty of countries, […] to achieve a fair sharing of the tax base from electronic commerce between countries…” (OECD, 2001: 228). Tax policy choices often reflect decisions by policy makers on the relative importance of each of these principles and will also reflect wider economic and social policy considerations outside the field of tax.

This task requires you to answer questions based solely on the information provided in the prompt. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge. Limit your response to 100 words. Do not use bullet points. Limit your answer to six sentences. Summarize the five overarching principles of tax policy. 2.1 Overarching principles of tax policy In a context where many governments have to cope with less revenue, increasing expenditures and resulting fiscal constraints, raising revenue remains the most important function of taxes, which serve as the primary means for financing public goods such as maintenance of law and order and public infrastructure. Assuming a certain level of revenue that needs to be raised, which depends on the broader economic and fiscal policies of the country concerned, there are a number of broad tax policy considerations that have traditionally guided the development of taxation systems. These include neutrality, efficiency, certainty and simplicity, effectiveness and fairness, as well as flexibility. In the context of work leading up to the Report on the Taxation of Electronic Commerce (see Annex A for further detail), these overarching principles were the basis for the 1998 Ottawa Ministerial Conference, and are since then referred to as the Ottawa Taxation Framework Conditions. At the time, these principles were deemed appropriate for an evaluation of the taxation issues related to e-commerce. Although most of the new business models identified in Chapter 4 did not exist yet at the time, these principles, with modification, continue to be relevant in the digital economy, as discussed in Chapter 8. In addition to these well-recognised principles, equity is an important consideration for the design of tax policy. • Neutrality: Taxation should seek to be neutral and equitable between forms of business activities. A neutral tax will contribute to efficiency by ensuring that optimal allocation of the means of production is achieved. A distortion, and the corresponding deadweight loss, will occur when changes in price trigger different changes in supply and demand than would occur in the absence of tax. In this sense, neutrality also entails that the tax system raises revenue while minimising discrimination in favour of, or against, any particular economic choice. This implies that the same principles of taxation should apply to all forms of business, while addressing specific features that may otherwise undermine an equal and neutral application of those principles. • Efficiency: Compliance costs to business and administration costs for governments should be minimised as far as possible. • Certainty and simplicity: Tax rules should be clear and simple to understand, so that taxpayers know where they stand. A simple tax system makes it easier for individuals and businesses to understand their obligations and entitlements. As a result, businesses are more likely to make optimal decisions and respond to intended policy choices. Complexity also favours aggressive tax planning, which may trigger deadweight losses for the economy. ADDRESSING THE TAX CHALLENGES OF THE DIGITAL ECONOMY © OECD 2014 2. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION – 31 • Effectiveness and fairness: Taxation should produce the right amount of tax at the right time, while avoiding both double taxation and unintentional non-taxation. In addition, the potential for evasion and avoidance should be minimised. Prior discussions in the Technical Advisory Groups (TAGs) considered that if there is a class of taxpayers that are technically subject to a tax, but are never required to pay the tax due to inability to enforce it, then the taxpaying public may view the tax as unfair and ineffective. As a result, the practical enforceability of tax rules is an important consideration for policy makers. In addition, because it influences the collectability and the administerability of taxes, enforceability is crucial to ensure efficiency of the tax system. • Flexibility: Taxation systems should be flexible and dynamic enough to ensure they keep pace with technological and commercial developments. It is important that a tax system is dynamic and flexible enough to meet the current revenue needs of governments while adapting to changing needs on an ongoing basis. This means that the structural features of the system should be durable in a changing policy context, yet flexible and dynamic enough to allow governments to respond as required to keep pace with technological and commercial developments, taking into account that future developments will often be difficult to predict. Equity is also an important consideration within a tax policy framework. Equity has two main elements; horizontal equity and vertical equity. Horizontal equity suggests that taxpayers in similar circumstances should bear a similar tax burden. Vertical equity is a normative concept, whose definition can differ from one user to another. According to some, it suggests that taxpayers in better circumstances should bear a larger part of the tax burden as a proportion of their income. In practice, the interpretation of vertical equity depends on the extent to which countries want to diminish income variation and whether it should be applied to income earned in a specific period or to lifetime income. Equity is traditionally delivered through the design of the personal tax and transfer systems. Equity may also refer to inter-nation equity. As a theory, inter-nation equity is concerned with the allocation of national gain and loss in the international context and aims to ensure that each country receives an equitable share of tax revenues from cross-border transactions (OECD, 2001). The tax policy principle of inter-nation equity has been an important consideration in the debate on the division of taxing rights between source and residence countries. At the time of the Ottawa work on the taxation of electronic commerce, this important concern was recognised by stating that “any adaptation of the existing international taxation principles should be ADDRESSING THE TAX CHALLENGES OF THE DIGITAL ECONOMY © OECD 2014 32 – 2. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION structured to maintain fiscal sovereignty of countries, […] to achieve a fair sharing of the tax base from electronic commerce between countries…” (OECD, 2001: 228). Tax policy choices often reflect decisions by policy makers on the relative importance of each of these principles and will also reflect wider economic and social policy considerations outside the field of tax.

Only use the provided text to answer the question. Do not use outside resources. The entire answer should be short.

According to the provided text, what is the typical maximum range for Infrared (IR)?

**Robotics Sensors and Actuators** Robot Sensors • Sensors are devices that can sense and measure physical properties of the environment, • e.g. temperature, luminance, resistance to touch, weight, size, etc. • The key phenomenon is transduction • Transduction (engineering) is a process that converts one type of energy to another • They deliver low-­‐level information about the environment the robot is working in. – Return an incomplete description of the world • This information is noisy (imprecise). • Cannot be modelled completely: – Reading = f(env) where f is the model of the sensor – Finding the inverse: • ill posed problem (solution not uniquely deEined) • collapsing of dimensionality leads to ambiguity Types of Sensor • General classification: – active versus passive • Active: emit energy in environment – More robust, less efEicient • Passive: passively receive energy from env. – Less intrusive, but depends on env. e.g. light for camera • Example: stereo vision versus range Einder. – contact versus non-­‐contact Sensors • Proprioceptive Sensors (monitor state of robot) – IMU (accels & gyros) – Wheel encoders – Doppler radar … • Exteroceptive Sensors (monitor environment) – Cameras (single, stereo, omni, FLIR …) – Laser scanner – MW radar – Sonar – Tactile… Sensor Characteristics All sensors are characterized by various properties that describe their capabilities – Sensitivity: (change of output) ÷ (change of input) – Linearity: constancy of (output ÷ input) • Exception: logarithmic response cameras == wider dynamic range. – Measurement/Dynamic range: difference between min. and max. Response Time: time required for a change in input to cause a change in the output – Accuracy: difference between measured & actual – Repeatability: difference between repeated measures – Resolution: smallest observable increment – Bandwidth: result of high resolution or cycle time Types of Sensor Specific examples – tactile – close-­‐range proximity – angular position – infrared – Sonar – laser (various types) – radar – compasses, gyroscopes – Force – GPS – vision Tactile Sensors There are many different technologies – e.g. contact closure, magnetic, piezoelectric, etc. • For mobile robots these can be classiEied as – tactile feelers (antennae) often some form of metal wire passing through a wire loop -­‐ can be active (powered to mechanically search for surfaces) § tactile bumpers solid bar / plate acts on some form of contact switch e.g. mirror deElecting light beam, pressure bladder, wire loops, etc. § Pressure-­‐sensitive rubber with scanning array Vibrassae/whiskers of rats – Surface texture information. – Distance of deElection. – Blind people using a cane. Proximity Sensors Tactile sensors allow obstacle detection – proximity sensors needed for true obstacle avoidance • Several technologies can detect the presence of particular Eields without mechanical contact – magnetic reed switches • two thin magnetic strips of opposite polarity not quite touching • an external magnetic Eield closes the strip & makes contact Hall effect sensors • small voltage generated across a conductor carrying current – inductive sensors, capacitive sensors • inductive sensors can detect presence of metallic objects • capacitive sensors can detect metallic or dielectric materials Infrared Sensors Infrared sensors are probably the simplest type of non-­contact sensor – widely used in mobile robotics to avoid obstacles • They work by – emitting infrared light • to differentiate emitted IR from ambient IR (e.g. lights, sun, etc.), the signal is modulated with a low frequency (100 Hz) – detecting any reElections off nearby surfaces • In certain environments, with careful calibration, IR sensors can be used for measuring the distance to the object – requires uniform surface colours and structures Infrared Sensors (Sharp) Measures the return angle of the infrared beam. Infrared Problems If the IR signal is detected, it is safe to assume that an object is present • However, the absence of reElected IR does not mean that no object is present! – “Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.” C. Sagan – certain dark colours (black) are almost invisible to IR – IR sensors are not absolutely safe for object detection • In realistic situations (different colours & types of objects) there is no accurate distance information – it is best to avoid objects as soon as possible • IR are short range – typical maximum range is 50 to 100 cm Sonar Sensors • The fundamental principle of robot sonar sensors is the same as that used by bats – emit a chirp (e.g. 1.2 milliseconds) • a short powerful pulse of a range of frequencies of sound – its reElection off nearby surfaces is detected • As the speed of sound in air is known (≈ 330 m·s-­‐1) the distance to the object can be computed from the elapsed time between chirp and echo – minimum distance = 165 tchirp (e.g. 21 cm at 1.2 ms) – maximum distance = 165 twait (e.g. 165 m at 1 s) • Usually referred to as ultrasonic sensors Sonar Problems • There are a number of problems and uncertainties associated with readings from sonar sensors – it is difEicult to be sure in which direction an object is because the 3D sonar beam spreads out as it travels – specular re5lections give rise to erroneous readings • the sonar beam hits a smooth surface at a shallow angle and so reElects away from the sensor • only when an object further away reElects the beam back does the sensor obtain a reading -­‐ but distance is incorrect – arrays of sonar sensors can experience crosstalk • one sensor detects the reElected beam of another sensor – the speed of sound varies with air temp. and pressure • a 16° C temp. change can cause a 30cm error at 10m Laser Range Finders • Laser range Einders commonly used to measure the distance, velocity and acceleration of objects – also known as laser radar or lidar • The operating principle is the same as sonar – a short pulse of (laser) light is emitted – the time elapsed between emission and detection is used to determine distance (using the speed of light) • Due to the shorter wavelengths of lasers, the chance of specular reElections is much less – accuracies of millimetres (16 -­‐ 50mm) over 100m – 1D beam is usually swept to give a 2D planar beam • May not detect transparent surfaces (e.g. glass!) or dark objects RADAR • Radar usually uses electromagnetic energy in the 1 -­‐ 12.5 GHz frequency range – this corresponds to wavelengths of 30 cm -­‐ 2 cm • microwave energy – unaffected by fog, rain, dust, haze and smoke • It may use a pulsed time-­‐of-­‐Elight methodology of sonar and lidar, but may also use other methods – continuous-­‐wave phase detection – continuous-­‐wave frequency modulation • Continuous-­‐wave systems make use of Doppler effect to measure relative velocity of the target Angular Position: Rotary Encoder • Potentiometer – Used in the Servo on the boebots • Optical Disks (Relative) – Counting the slots – Direction by having pars of emitters/receivers out of phase: Quadrature decoding – Can spin very fast: 500 kHz • Optical Disks (Absolute) – Grey encoding for absolute: • 0:0000, 1:1000, 2:1100, 3:0100, 4:0110, • 5:1110, 6:1010, 7:0010, 8:0011 • 9:1011, 10:1111, 11:0111, 12:0101, 13:1101, 14:1001, 15:0001 Compass Sensors • Compass sensors measure the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic Eield – some birds use the vertical component too • The earth’s magnetic Eield is very weak and non-­‐uniform, and changes over time – indoors there are likely to be many other Eield sources • steel girders, reinforced concrete, power lines, motors, etc. – an accurate absolute reference is unlikely, but the Eield is approx. constant, so can be used for local reference Gyroscopes • A gyroscope is a spinning wheel with most of its mass concentrated in the outer periphery – e.g. a bicycle wheel • Due to the law of conservation of momentum – the spinning wheel will stay in its original orientation – a force is required to rotate the gyroscope • A gyro. can thus be used to maintain orientation or to measure the rate and direction of rotation • In fact there are different types of mechanical gyro. – and even optical gyro’s with no moving parts! • these can be used in e.g. space probes to maintain orientation Ring Gyro's • Use standing waves set up – between mirrors (laser ring gyro) – within a Eiber optic cable (Eibre optic ring gyro) • Measure rotation by observing beats in standing wave as the mirrors "rotate through it". IMU's • Gyro, accelerometer combination. • Typical designs (e.g. 3DM-­‐GX1™) use tri-­‐axial gyros to track dynamic orientation and tri-­‐axial DC accelerometers along with the tri-­‐axial magnetometers to track static orientation. • The embedded microprocessors contains programmable Eilter algorithms, which blend these static and dynamic responses in real-­‐time. GPS • GPS uses a constellation of between 24 and 32 Medium Earth Orbit satellites. • Satellite broadcast their position + time. • Use travel time of 4 satellites and trilateration. • Suffers from “canyon” effect in cities. WiFi • Using the SSID and database. Odor Sensing Smell is ubiquitous in nature … both as a active and a passive sensor. Why is it so important? Advantages: evanescent, controllable, multi-­‐valued, useful. What is an actuator? • Device for moving or controlling a system. • “Robot Muscles Hydraulic Actuators • Pros: – Powerful – Fast – Stiff • Cons – Messy – Maintenance – External Pump Pneumatic Actuators • Pros: – Powerful – Cheap • Cons – Soft/Compliant – External Compressor Shape Memory Alloy Actuators • Works by warming and cooling Nitinol wires. • Pros: – Light – Powerful • Cons: – Slow (cooling) Electric Actuators • Pros – Better position precision – Well understood – No separate power source – Cheap • Cons – Heavy – Weaker/slower than hydraulics – Cooling issue • Stepper motors • DC motors – Servos • Continuous • Position • Others (not discussed) – Linear actuators – AC motors

<System Instruction> Only use the provided text to answer the question. Do not use outside resources. The entire answer should be short. ---------------- <Question> According to the provided text, what is the typical maximum range for Infrared (IR)? ---------------- <Text> **Robotics Sensors and Actuators** Robot Sensors • Sensors are devices that can sense and measure physical properties of the environment, • e.g. temperature, luminance, resistance to touch, weight, size, etc. • The key phenomenon is transduction • Transduction (engineering) is a process that converts one type of energy to another • They deliver low-­‐level information about the environment the robot is working in. – Return an incomplete description of the world • This information is noisy (imprecise). • Cannot be modelled completely: – Reading = f(env) where f is the model of the sensor – Finding the inverse: • ill posed problem (solution not uniquely deEined) • collapsing of dimensionality leads to ambiguity Types of Sensor • General classification: – active versus passive • Active: emit energy in environment – More robust, less efEicient • Passive: passively receive energy from env. – Less intrusive, but depends on env. e.g. light for camera • Example: stereo vision versus range Einder. – contact versus non-­‐contact Sensors • Proprioceptive Sensors (monitor state of robot) – IMU (accels & gyros) – Wheel encoders – Doppler radar … • Exteroceptive Sensors (monitor environment) – Cameras (single, stereo, omni, FLIR …) – Laser scanner – MW radar – Sonar – Tactile… Sensor Characteristics All sensors are characterized by various properties that describe their capabilities – Sensitivity: (change of output) ÷ (change of input) – Linearity: constancy of (output ÷ input) • Exception: logarithmic response cameras == wider dynamic range. – Measurement/Dynamic range: difference between min. and max. Response Time: time required for a change in input to cause a change in the output – Accuracy: difference between measured & actual – Repeatability: difference between repeated measures – Resolution: smallest observable increment – Bandwidth: result of high resolution or cycle time Types of Sensor Specific examples – tactile – close-­‐range proximity – angular position – infrared – Sonar – laser (various types) – radar – compasses, gyroscopes – Force – GPS – vision Tactile Sensors There are many different technologies – e.g. contact closure, magnetic, piezoelectric, etc. • For mobile robots these can be classiEied as – tactile feelers (antennae) often some form of metal wire passing through a wire loop -­‐ can be active (powered to mechanically search for surfaces) § tactile bumpers solid bar / plate acts on some form of contact switch e.g. mirror deElecting light beam, pressure bladder, wire loops, etc. § Pressure-­‐sensitive rubber with scanning array Vibrassae/whiskers of rats – Surface texture information. – Distance of deElection. – Blind people using a cane. Proximity Sensors Tactile sensors allow obstacle detection – proximity sensors needed for true obstacle avoidance • Several technologies can detect the presence of particular Eields without mechanical contact – magnetic reed switches • two thin magnetic strips of opposite polarity not quite touching • an external magnetic Eield closes the strip & makes contact Hall effect sensors • small voltage generated across a conductor carrying current – inductive sensors, capacitive sensors • inductive sensors can detect presence of metallic objects • capacitive sensors can detect metallic or dielectric materials Infrared Sensors Infrared sensors are probably the simplest type of non-­contact sensor – widely used in mobile robotics to avoid obstacles • They work by – emitting infrared light • to differentiate emitted IR from ambient IR (e.g. lights, sun, etc.), the signal is modulated with a low frequency (100 Hz) – detecting any reElections off nearby surfaces • In certain environments, with careful calibration, IR sensors can be used for measuring the distance to the object – requires uniform surface colours and structures Infrared Sensors (Sharp) Measures the return angle of the infrared beam. Infrared Problems If the IR signal is detected, it is safe to assume that an object is present • However, the absence of reElected IR does not mean that no object is present! – “Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.” C. Sagan – certain dark colours (black) are almost invisible to IR – IR sensors are not absolutely safe for object detection • In realistic situations (different colours & types of objects) there is no accurate distance information – it is best to avoid objects as soon as possible • IR are short range – typical maximum range is 50 to 100 cm Sonar Sensors • The fundamental principle of robot sonar sensors is the same as that used by bats – emit a chirp (e.g. 1.2 milliseconds) • a short powerful pulse of a range of frequencies of sound – its reElection off nearby surfaces is detected • As the speed of sound in air is known (≈ 330 m·s-­‐1) the distance to the object can be computed from the elapsed time between chirp and echo – minimum distance = 165 tchirp (e.g. 21 cm at 1.2 ms) – maximum distance = 165 twait (e.g. 165 m at 1 s) • Usually referred to as ultrasonic sensors Sonar Problems • There are a number of problems and uncertainties associated with readings from sonar sensors – it is difEicult to be sure in which direction an object is because the 3D sonar beam spreads out as it travels – specular re5lections give rise to erroneous readings • the sonar beam hits a smooth surface at a shallow angle and so reElects away from the sensor • only when an object further away reElects the beam back does the sensor obtain a reading -­‐ but distance is incorrect – arrays of sonar sensors can experience crosstalk • one sensor detects the reElected beam of another sensor – the speed of sound varies with air temp. and pressure • a 16° C temp. change can cause a 30cm error at 10m Laser Range Finders • Laser range Einders commonly used to measure the distance, velocity and acceleration of objects – also known as laser radar or lidar • The operating principle is the same as sonar – a short pulse of (laser) light is emitted – the time elapsed between emission and detection is used to determine distance (using the speed of light) • Due to the shorter wavelengths of lasers, the chance of specular reElections is much less – accuracies of millimetres (16 -­‐ 50mm) over 100m – 1D beam is usually swept to give a 2D planar beam • May not detect transparent surfaces (e.g. glass!) or dark objects RADAR • Radar usually uses electromagnetic energy in the 1 -­‐ 12.5 GHz frequency range – this corresponds to wavelengths of 30 cm -­‐ 2 cm • microwave energy – unaffected by fog, rain, dust, haze and smoke • It may use a pulsed time-­‐of-­‐Elight methodology of sonar and lidar, but may also use other methods – continuous-­‐wave phase detection – continuous-­‐wave frequency modulation • Continuous-­‐wave systems make use of Doppler effect to measure relative velocity of the target Angular Position: Rotary Encoder • Potentiometer – Used in the Servo on the boebots • Optical Disks (Relative) – Counting the slots – Direction by having pars of emitters/receivers out of phase: Quadrature decoding – Can spin very fast: 500 kHz • Optical Disks (Absolute) – Grey encoding for absolute: • 0:0000, 1:1000, 2:1100, 3:0100, 4:0110, • 5:1110, 6:1010, 7:0010, 8:0011 • 9:1011, 10:1111, 11:0111, 12:0101, 13:1101, 14:1001, 15:0001 Compass Sensors • Compass sensors measure the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic Eield – some birds use the vertical component too • The earth’s magnetic Eield is very weak and non-­‐uniform, and changes over time – indoors there are likely to be many other Eield sources • steel girders, reinforced concrete, power lines, motors, etc. – an accurate absolute reference is unlikely, but the Eield is approx. constant, so can be used for local reference Gyroscopes • A gyroscope is a spinning wheel with most of its mass concentrated in the outer periphery – e.g. a bicycle wheel • Due to the law of conservation of momentum – the spinning wheel will stay in its original orientation – a force is required to rotate the gyroscope • A gyro. can thus be used to maintain orientation or to measure the rate and direction of rotation • In fact there are different types of mechanical gyro. – and even optical gyro’s with no moving parts! • these can be used in e.g. space probes to maintain orientation Ring Gyro's • Use standing waves set up – between mirrors (laser ring gyro) – within a Eiber optic cable (Eibre optic ring gyro) • Measure rotation by observing beats in standing wave as the mirrors "rotate through it". IMU's • Gyro, accelerometer combination. • Typical designs (e.g. 3DM-­‐GX1™) use tri-­‐axial gyros to track dynamic orientation and tri-­‐axial DC accelerometers along with the tri-­‐axial magnetometers to track static orientation. • The embedded microprocessors contains programmable Eilter algorithms, which blend these static and dynamic responses in real-­‐time. GPS • GPS uses a constellation of between 24 and 32 Medium Earth Orbit satellites. • Satellite broadcast their position + time. • Use travel time of 4 satellites and trilateration. • Suffers from “canyon” effect in cities. WiFi • Using the SSID and database. Odor Sensing Smell is ubiquitous in nature … both as a active and a passive sensor. Why is it so important? Advantages: evanescent, controllable, multi-­‐valued, useful. What is an actuator? • Device for moving or controlling a system. • “Robot Muscles Hydraulic Actuators • Pros: – Powerful – Fast – Stiff • Cons – Messy – Maintenance – External Pump Pneumatic Actuators • Pros: – Powerful – Cheap • Cons – Soft/Compliant – External Compressor Shape Memory Alloy Actuators • Works by warming and cooling Nitinol wires. • Pros: – Light – Powerful • Cons: – Slow (cooling) Electric Actuators • Pros – Better position precision – Well understood – No separate power source – Cheap • Cons – Heavy – Weaker/slower than hydraulics – Cooling issue • Stepper motors • DC motors – Servos • Continuous • Position • Others (not discussed) – Linear actuators – AC motors

Answer prompts only using the information provided by the context sources associated with the prompt. If the user asks for medical advice, inform the user that you are unable to provide medical advice as an AI model, and direct them to the proper sources to get medical advice from. If the user asks for medical information, provide a medical disclaimer to the user before answering the prompt.

What should I know about treatments for Scarlet Fever?

Scarlet Fever This leaflet offers more information about Scarlet Fever. If you have any further questions or concerns, please speak to the staff member in charge of your child’s care. What is Scarlet Fever? Scarlet Fever is a bacterial infection that affects children. It is caused by the streptococcus bacteria which are found in our throats and on our skin. Scarlet Fever is easily treated with antibiotics. If antibiotic treatment is started early, the chance of children developing complications is rare. What are the signs and symptoms? • Sore throat • Flushed cheeks • Red, swollen tongue • Fever • Typical red, rough (sandpaper) rash appears a couple of days after the sore throat. The rash often starts on the chest and stomach before spreading to the rest of the body. Does my child need any tests to confirm the diagnosis? The doctor will usually be able to diagnose scarlet fever by seeing the typical rash and hearing what symptoms your child has. A swab from your child’s throat may be taken. This will be sent to the laboratory to see if the streptococcus bacteria grow. Your doctor may start treatment while waiting for the result of this swab. What treatments are available? Scarlet fever is easily treated with antibiotics. Liquid penicillin is often used to treat children. These must be taken for seven days, even though most people get better after four to five days. Your child will still be infectious for 24 hours after antibiotic treatment has started and they shouldn't attend nursery or school during this period. What happens if I do not get treatment? Without antibiotic treatment, your child will be infectious for one to two weeks after they became unwell. Rare, but serious complications (rheumatic fever, pneumonia and sepsis) are more likely to occur if antibiotics are not taken. Is there anything I can do to help my child? • Encourage them to drink a lot • Give paracetamol for fever if your child is upset • Use calamine lotion to soothe itchy skin. How to prevent spread? • Encourage coughing and sneezing into tissues and wash hands after sneezing and coughing • Keep children off school for 24 hours after starting antibiotics (or two weeks if antibiotics are not used) • Avoid sharing bed linen, towels, clothes, drinks with people with scarlet fever. For more information leaflets on conditions, procedures, treatments and services offered at our hospitals, please visit www.stgeorges.nhs.uk Additional services Patient Advice and Liaison Service (PALS) PALS can offer you on-the-spot advice and information when you have comments or concerns about our services or the care you have received. You can visit the PALS office between 9.30am and 4.30pm, Monday to Friday in the main corridor between Grosvenor and Lanesborough wings (near the lift foyer). Tel: 020 8725 2453 Email: [email protected] NHS Choices NHS Choices provides online information and guidance on all aspects of health and healthcare, to help you make decisions about your health. Web: www.nhs.uk NHS 111 You can call 111 when you need medical help fast but it’s not a 999 emergency. NHS 111 is available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Calls are free from landlines and mobile phones. Tel: 111 AccessAble You can download accessibility guides for all our services by searching ‘St George’s Hospital’ on the AccessAble website (www.accessable.co.uk). The guides are designed to ensure everyone – including those with accessibility needs – can access our hospital and community sites with confidence.

System Instructions: Answer prompts only using the information provided by the context sources associated with the prompt. If the user asks for medical advice, inform the user that you are unable to provide medical advice as an AI model, and direct them to the proper sources to get medical advice from. If the user asks for medical information, provide a medical disclaimer to the user before answering the prompt. Question: What should I know about treatments for Scarlet Fever? Context Block: Scarlet Fever This leaflet offers more information about Scarlet Fever. If you have any further questions or concerns, please speak to the staff member in charge of your child’s care. What is Scarlet Fever? Scarlet Fever is a bacterial infection that affects children. It is caused by the streptococcus bacteria which are found in our throats and on our skin. Scarlet Fever is easily treated with antibiotics. If antibiotic treatment is started early, the chance of children developing complications is rare. What are the signs and symptoms? • Sore throat • Flushed cheeks • Red, swollen tongue • Fever • Typical red, rough (sandpaper) rash appears a couple of days after the sore throat. The rash often starts on the chest and stomach before spreading to the rest of the body. Does my child need any tests to confirm the diagnosis? The doctor will usually be able to diagnose scarlet fever by seeing the typical rash and hearing what symptoms your child has. A swab from your child’s throat may be taken. This will be sent to the laboratory to see if the streptococcus bacteria grow. Your doctor may start treatment while waiting for the result of this swab. What treatments are available? Scarlet fever is easily treated with antibiotics. Liquid penicillin is often used to treat children. These must be taken for seven days, even though most people get better after four to five days. Your child will still be infectious for 24 hours after antibiotic treatment has started and they shouldn't attend nursery or school during this period. What happens if I do not get treatment? Without antibiotic treatment, your child will be infectious for one to two weeks after they became unwell. Rare, but serious complications (rheumatic fever, pneumonia and sepsis) are more likely to occur if antibiotics are not taken. Is there anything I can do to help my child? • Encourage them to drink a lot • Give paracetamol for fever if your child is upset • Use calamine lotion to soothe itchy skin. How to prevent spread? • Encourage coughing and sneezing into tissues and wash hands after sneezing and coughing • Keep children off school for 24 hours after starting antibiotics (or two weeks if antibiotics are not used) • Avoid sharing bed linen, towels, clothes, drinks with people with scarlet fever. For more information leaflets on conditions, procedures, treatments and services offered at our hospitals, please visit www.stgeorges.nhs.uk Additional services Patient Advice and Liaison Service (PALS) PALS can offer you on-the-spot advice and information when you have comments or concerns about our services or the care you have received. You can visit the PALS office between 9.30am and 4.30pm, Monday to Friday in the main corridor between Grosvenor and Lanesborough wings (near the lift foyer). Tel: 020 8725 2453 Email: [email protected] NHS Choices NHS Choices provides online information and guidance on all aspects of health and healthcare, to help you make decisions about your health. Web: www.nhs.uk NHS 111 You can call 111 when you need medical help fast but it’s not a 999 emergency. NHS 111 is available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Calls are free from landlines and mobile phones. Tel: 111 AccessAble You can download accessibility guides for all our services by searching ‘St George’s Hospital’ on the AccessAble website (www.accessable.co.uk). The guides are designed to ensure everyone – including those with accessibility needs – can access our hospital and community sites with confidence.

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What is the best co sleeper for me and my new baby?

❚ MadeForMums reviews are independent and based on expertise and testing. When you buy through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission, but this never influences our product choices. 8 of the best bedside cribs and cosleepers for safe sleeping for your baby We've tried, tested and reviewed the best bedside cribs, for a brilliant way to sleep closely and safely with your baby Gemma Cartwright Published: March 5, 2024 at 3:20 PM Save A bedside crib is one of the most popular choices for newborn sleep, as it allows you to keep your baby close while still following safe sleep We value your privacy We need your consent so that we and our 172 trusted partners can store and access cookies, unique identifiers, personal data, and information on your browsing behaviour on this device. This only applies to Immediate Media. You can change your preferences at any time by clicking on ‘Manage Privacy Settings’ located at the bottom of any page. You don’t have to agree, but some personalised content and advertising may not work if you don’t. We and our partners use your data for the following purposes: Store and/or access information on a device Precise geolocation data, and identification through device scanning Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development. Google Consent Mode framework To view our list of partners and see how your data may be used, click or tap ‘More Options’ below. You can also review where our partners claim a legitimate interest to use your data and, if you wish, object to them using it. MORE OPTIONS AGREE guidelines. In the first 6 months, when the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is at its highest, the safest place for a baby to sleep is on their back in their own sleep space, be that a cot, crib or moses basket. Advertisement A bedside crib fastens to the frame of your bed on one side, so you're effectively lying next to your baby. The side can usually be dropped down so you can see and reach over to your child. They're sometimes referred to as side-sleepers or co-sleepers, but the key difference is that you're not sharing a sleep surface or bedding. You and your baby can maximise the soothing benefits that proximity brings while minimising the risks associated with bed sharing. Having your baby at arm's reach also makes night feeds much easier. Best bedside cribs and co-sleepers at a glance Jump to our list of the best bedside cribs and cosleepers • Best bedside crib with an easy drop-down side: Chicco Next2Me Magic, £189 • Best bedside crib with a removable bassinet: SnuzPod 4 Bedside Crib, £199.95 • Best bedside crib for smooth rocking: Tutti Bambini CoZee Air Bedside Crib, £225 • Best bedside crib for longevity: Shnuggle Air Bedside Crib, £180 • There are a wide range of options, so at MadeForMums we’ve analysed the bedside crib market closely to bring you the very best choices. We’ve used feedback from our expert journalist reviewers and parent testers, combined with results from in-house MadeForMums testing, which looked at key features such as breathability, mattress firmness, ease of building as well as functionality. For each bedside crib we’ve listed the key technical features to help you compare across brands and models so you can find the best design to suit your needs. If your baby is struggling to sleep through the night, take a look at our best sleep aids and white noise machines, best nightlights and best baby swaddles. More like this Silver Cross Voyager Co-Sleeper Bedside Crib review What is the new safety standard for bedside cribs? All new bedside cribs manufactured since November 2020 have to meet a new safety standard (with the catchy name BS EN 1130:2019) that introduced new and more rigorous safety requirements for bedside cribs. However, you may find some older versions of cribs are still on sale that only match the previous safety standard. Slowly these will disappear from stores and the only ones available will meet the new standard. The most significant new requirement for BS EN 1130:2019 is for a 120mm Best bedside crib for extra storage: Maxi-Cosie Iora Bedside Sleeper, £149 • Best bedside crib for one-handed operation: Joie Roomie GO, £180 • Best value bedside crib: Red Kite Cozysleep Bedside Crib, £84.99 • Best bedside crib with 360° swivel: Halo BassiNest Premiere Swivel Sleeper, £248.29 • high barrier to be present around the sides of the crib, to ensure your baby is not able to roll off their own mattress onto yours. This means that new bedside cribs can no longer have complete drop-down sides – many now have 'half-height' walls instead. This allows your baby to be positioned next to you with the crib lined up to your bed, but their mattress will be sunk a little lower, providing more of a protective barrier. All the cribs featured in our list comply with these new BS EN 1130:2019 safety requirements. What to look for when buying a bedside crib Will it work with your bed? – Certain bed frames can be trickier to use with a bedside crib. For example, if you have a divan bed you will need longer straps, and may not be able to tuck the legs of the crib underneath the bed and may need to look for a model that has foldable legs or works with your bed style. Height of your bed – Most bedside cribs have adjustable heights to give you an almost perfect fit on most bed frames, but if your bed is particularly low or high, do check the measurements. Also check the size of the crib and whether it will fit next to your bed while allowing you to get in and out easily and safely. This is particularly important for those first few days and weeks after giving birth when your body is still recovering. Mattress – The mattress needs to be firm, flat and breathable – this is a key safety feature. Don’t be tempted by a super soft mattress – your baby will sleep deeply and most importantly safely on a firm mattress. Drop-down side – How easy is it to remove the side? Can you do it with one hand? As you may be doing this in the middle of the night, are there lots of noisy zips and clips? Can it safely be left down while you sleep? Do check this as the rules differ depending on the product. How easy is it to assemble – Are there lots of parts to screw together? Will you need 2 people to build it? We’ve tested how easy different bedside cribs are to build in our reviews. How easy is it to keep clean – Does the mattress have a waterproof cover to protect from leaky nappies, baby sick and dribbles? Is the fabric machine washable or will you have to hand wash it? Portability – Is the crib light enough to move around your house? If you want to take it away with you does it crib fold flat and/or come with a storage bag? Extra features – Does it rock (useful for fussy sleepers), tilt (remember to use tilting with care), detach to become a moses basket or turn into an older baby cot or playpen? These extra features may not be necessary, but they could be useful. For more safety information we've also covered breathability, bedding and how to use the tilting function here. What are the benefits of using a bedside crib? Safe sleep charity The Lullaby Trust, advises that the safest place for your baby to sleep is on their own sleep surface, in the same room as you, for at least the first 6 months. Bedside cribs allow you to have your baby sleeping right next to you at night, but in the safety of their own crib. This means you can still be close to your baby without bed-sharing, which carries a risk of suffocation and overheating. Bedside cribs enable you to lean over and easily pick up your baby when feeding at night. This is especially useful if you’ve had a difficult birth or a c-section and find getting out of bed painful. You can also easily comfort your baby if they are fussing and have a good view of them while they are sleeping. How to do the baby mattress firmness test Press your hand on the centre and the sides of the mattress • A firm mattress shouldn’t mould to the shape of your hand and you’ll feel resistance – it will obviously move beneath the pressure but your hand shouldn’t sink in • When you remove your hand, the mattress should snap back and regain its shape • From a practical perspective, bedside cribs are smaller and more compact than most cots, which means they take up less space in your bedroom than a full-sized cot or cotbed. Do I need a bedside crib for my baby? You don’t have to buy a bedside crib. It's completely safe to put a baby in a regular cot from birth. But they’re a great option if you want your baby as close to you as possible at night, and for saving space. The downside is that most of these cribs only last up to 6 months and you’ll then need to move your baby into a full-sized cot or cotbed. A moses basket is a more economical option, but these can last even less time, and do not have the added features of a bedside crib such as a drop-down side, tilt, or multiple heights. How much does a bedside crib cost? It is possible to buy budget bedside cribs for under £100 but the majority we have reviewed are between £150-£300. Certain features, such as a rocking function or one-handed drop down side, tend to push the price up slightly. How did we choose these bedside cribs? Our 10 of the Best lists are compiled by qualified and experienced parenting journalists. They rely on a number of sources, including our independent reviews, testing undertaken during the MadeForMums Awards, and feedback from our home testing panel and Top Testers Club. Each year thousands of products are put through their paces by hundreds of parents across the country on behalf of MadeForMums, to ensure we’re bringing you honest and true reviews and recommendations. When testing bedside cribs, we consider size, ease of build and fitting, mattress quality and breathability, ease and safety of the drop-down side mechanism and other features, comfort for baby, design and quality, and whether it's worth the money. Our list is not an ordered ranking from 1-10, instead it is a carefully Here are our top 10 bedside cribs for 2024 1. Chicco Next2Me Magic, £189 – Best for easy drop-down side Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 13.1kg | Crib size: H66.5- 82.4cm x W73cm x L99.5cm | Mattress size: L83cm x W50.5cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: Yes | Height positions: 11 | Washable mattress cover: Hand wash The Chicco Next2Me Magic is the latest update to the original Next2Me side-sleeping crib, which has won fans for its versatility. It can be used from birth as a bedside co-sleeper, as a standalone crib or possibly as a travel cot, but at over 13kg it's not a light carry. It is slightly more expensive than some other models, but standout features include a really easy drop-side that can be operated with one hand, 11 height levels, a lockable rocking function, 4 tilt options to help reduce reflux, and wheels to make it easy to move around your home. selected group of tried-and-tested products, each of which we believe is best for a different situation or requirement. We don’t just tell you what is best, we help you discover what is best for your family. A large sleeping area means more room for a bigger baby, plus a travel bag is included. MFM tester Lucy said, “I found the Chicco Next2Me Magic a breeze to move around and set up, but also substantial and sturdy. The clever onehanded drop-down mechanism on the side panel can be used while holding your baby in your arms, which is brilliant. "I've even used the Chicco in my kitchen for safe day naps when I need to be more focused on my older child.” Pros: Firm and breathable mattress, retractable legs to fit any bed, quiet side zip, easy to transport Cons: Tricky to initially assemble, mattress cover is hand wash only Read our full MadeForMums Chicco Next2Me Magic bedside crib review Available from: John Lewis and Mamas & Papas John Lewis & Partners £229.00 Buy now Mamas & Papas £229.00 Buy now 2. SnuzPod 4 Bedside Crib, £199.95 – Best for removable bassinet Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 11.5kg | Crib size: H95cm x W49cm x L100cm | Mattress size: L75cm x W40cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: Yes | Height positions: 7 | Washable mattress cover: Machine washable The latest iteration of Snuz's much-loved bedside crib, the Snuzpod4 features a new breathable system (called ComfortAir) that aids the flow of air around the crib and your baby. It offers more side vents, breathable mesh liner and mattress, plus a ventilated base. But the key thing that we're delighted to see is that the Snuzpod4 has a firmer mattress than previous versions – as well as good breathability. Plus Snuz claims that the SnuzPod4 fits more bed heights than any rival, as it will now work with beds up to a maximum adult mattress height of 73cm. It's also designed to be compatible with a range of bed types – divan, ottoman and framed bed bases. Made from sustainably sourced beech solid wood, the Snuzpod4 looks good. MFM mum home tester Mehack commented on "how stylish and contemporary the design is," praising how it "fits perfectly with the room decor". We love its versatility – the two-part design includes a lift-off bassinet that can be moved around the house so you have a portable safe sleeping space for your baby, whichever room you're in. The bassinet also has a manual rocking function, as does the crib and the bassinet. There's an optional riser that can be added to create a slight incline to help babies with reflux, but for safety reasons, when the cot is tilted this stops the rocking function from working. Pros: Stylish, removable bassinet, great storage Cons: Can be difficult to put together Read our full MadeForMums SnuzPod 4 bedside crib review Available from: Snuz, Samuel Johnston and Amazon Very.co.uk £159.99 Buy now Samuel Johnston £190.18 Buy now Amazon UK £199.95 Buy now John Lewis & Partners £199.95 Buy now 3. Tutti Bambini CoZee Air Bedside Crib, £225 – Best for smooth rocking Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 11kg | Crib size: H92cm x W12cm x L56cm | Mattress size: L80.5cm x W51cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: Yes | Height positions: 6 | Washable mattress cover: Sponge, only machine wash if necessary While it is at the more expensive end of the market, what makes the CoZee Air stand out from the competition is its smooth rocking function. It comes with easy-to-remove caster wheels that you can switch with rocking bars, which easily attach to the legs of the crib. As a safety feature, the CoZee can also only be rocked when it is set up as a standalone crib – when used as a bedside crib, it has flip-out feet that prevent it from doing so. “The rocking feature is fantastic and really helped me to settle my baby when she was overtired and fussing,” said MFM tester Tara. MFM testers also rated the crib highly for its portability – it is ideal as a travel cot, as despite its large size, it is compact when folded. A 30-second open-fold mechanism allows for a quick set up and it comes with a travel bag for easy transportation. While the multiple mesh windows are great for breathability and being able to see your little one, there's a curtain attached to one side of the crib that you can roll down to protect your baby from draughts during colder months. This still leaves one mesh side open to allow for plenty of air flow. When it comes to cleaning, the fabric lining can be removed and put in the washing machine, while the foam mattress can be machine washed if necessary. We also like the addition of a storage shelf that is useful for holding essentials such as baby wipes, nappies, clothes and muslins. Pros: Smooth rocking, quick to collapse down, storage shelf Cons: Higher price point Read our full MadeForMums Tutti Bambini CoZee Air Bedside Crib review Available from: Boots, Kiddies Kingdom and Tutti Bambini Kiddies Kingdom £165.00 Buy now For Your Little One £180.00 Buy now Wayfair £186.63 Buy now Dunelm £219.00 Buy now 4. Shnuggle Air Bedside crib, £180 – Best for longevity Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg (up to 2 years with conversion kit) | Weight: 13.4kg | Crib size: H68.5–83cm x W56cm x L94cm | Mattress size: L83cm x W50cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: No | Height positions: 7 | Washable mattress cover: Hand wash While most bedside cribs on the market are only suitable for babies up to 6 months old, the Shnuggle Air stands out by offering 3 products in 1. It can be used as a standalone cot or bedside sleeper and then it transforms after 6 months into a full-sized cot when you buy the additional conversion kit (£109.95) and cot mattress (£50), which will last your child up until around 2 years old. This makes it a great long-term investment. MFM judges and testers were particularly impressed with the firmness of its hypo-allergenic airflow mattress. This crib has dual-view mesh sides, giving it maximum breathability; this also means you can easily see your baby when both sides are up. This was also a feature that stood out to MFM reviewer Tara, who used it with her 6-month-old daughter Elodie. She said, “Elodie slept very soundly and she loved being able to see through the mesh sides.” The drop-down sides are easily removed for nighttime access by releasing the safety catch on the top bar and undoing the zips. However, during the awards testing, it was noted that the safety catch makes a loud click. This was echoed by a MFM user reviewer who said: “The side makes a noise when you click it back in and that can wake up baby!” Unlike most of the others on this list, the side of the Shnuggle Air cannot be left down during sleep, it's simply there for access. The Shnuggle Air is relatively heavy at 13.4kg, and doesn't have wheels, so it's not easy to move around your home. “I’d say once the Shnuggle Air is set up, it’s staying put,” Tara added. Pros: Long-lasting, highly breathable, spacious Cons: Not easily portable, side is noisy when released, hand wash only Read our full MadeForMums Shnuggle Air Bedside Crib review Available from: Amazon, John Lewis and Shnuggle John Lewis & Partners £180.00 Buy now Amazon UK £199.95 Buy now Kiddies Kingdom £299.00 Buy now 5. Maxi-Cosi Iora bedside sleeper, £149 – Best for extra storage Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 10.8kg | Crib size: H74.5cm x W55.5cm x L93cm | Mattress size: L80cm x W58.5cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: No | Height positions: 5 | Washable mattress cover: Hand wash With its choice of muted colours, sleek design and quality materials, the Maxi-Cosi Iora is sure to fit in with most room schemes. The large storage basket at the bottom of the crib is great for parents who are short on space as it can easily hold numerous blankets, baby sleeping bags, nappies, wipes and spare clothes. The Iora’s easy-to-adjust height (5 positions in total) and slide function (2 positions in total) also means it can fit snugly against most types of bed when used with the straps. “Our iron-frame bed is somewhat lower than average,” said MFM reviewer Georgina. “But the Iora also sat in the correct position with our mattress.” One feature that our reviewer Georgina particularly liked was that when the side is down, there is a 7-inch (18cm) barrier to stop your baby rolling out. She said: “The Iora allowed me to sleep as close to my daughter as possible, but I was also safe in the knowledge that she was in her own sleeping area and I wasn't going to squash her!” This crib is extremely straightforward to assemble (one of the quickest during MFM testing) and MFM reviewer Georgina managed to put it together speedily without using the instructions. She explained: “It was obvious which pieces go together, simple to build and had neat zips to keep everything in place.” A handy bag also means it can easily be used as a travel cot, especially as it folds down flat. Keep in mind that Georgina did find the outer fabric was prone to creasing when unpacked from the travel bag. Pros: Extra storage, easy height and slide adjustments, portable, smart appearance Cons: Mattress cover hand wash only, outer fabric prone to creasing, not as many height options as other cribs, only mesh on one side Read our full MadeForMums Maxi-Cosi Iora review Available from: Samuel Johnston, John Lewis and Amazon Kiddies Kingdom £169.00 Buy now John Lewis & Partners £199.99 Buy now Mamas & Papas £199.99 Buy now Very.co.uk £199.99 Buy now 6. Joie Roomie GO, £180 – Best for one-handed operation Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 9.5kg | Crib size: H74.8- 82.2cm x W68.5cm x L90.3cm | Mattress size: H6cm x W51cm x L84cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: No | Height positions: 5 | Washable mattress cover: Machine washable | Awards: Gold – Bedside/Co-Sleeper Crib, MadeForMum Awards 2023 Awarded Gold in Best Bedside/Co-Sleeper Crib, MadeForMums Awards 2023, the Joie Roomie Go packs in a lot of features for its mid-range price. Offering mesh windows on both sides, providing plenty of ventilation as well as making it easy to keep an eye on your baby, the stylish crib is available in a choice of chic grey or classic black. Our MFM home testers were impressed with the Roomie Go’s aesthetic, with one commenting, “It looks great, is made with good quality material and will look stylish in any room.” The one-handed drop-down panels on both sides of the crib mean you can easily switch which side of the bed you attach it to. You should be able to simply click the handle to lift and lower, although one of our home testers commented that the first couple of times they attempted this the mechanism was a little sticky. Its simple, compact fold means you can pack the crib away in less than a minute and take it with you in the travel bag included, for holidays or trips to the grandparents’. The Joie Roomie Go is also on (lockable) wheels so you can move it around the home during the daytime. It has a tummy tilt for reflux/colic, and there are 5 height adjustments to fit most beds. Praised across the board by our MFM home testers for its comfy mattress and ease of assembly, it’s a great all-rounder both when at home and away. Pros: One-handed operation, tilt function for reflux, comfortable for baby, drop-down panels on both sides, travel bag included Cons: No storage, not as many height options as other cribs Available from: John Lewis, Joie and Argos Very.co.uk £179.99 Buy now argos.co.uk £180.00 Buy now John Lewis & Partners £180.00 Buy now Kiddies Kingdom £180.00 Buy now 7. Red Kite Cozysleep Crib, £84.99 – Best for value Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 9kg | Crib size: H74-87cm x W57-61cm x L88cm | Mattress size: W80cm x L50cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: No | Height positions: 7 | Washable mattress cover: No, wipeable only | Awards: Silver – Bedside/Co-Sleeper Crib, MadeForMum Awards 2023 Coming in at just under £85 the Red Kite Cozysleep crib offers really fantastic value. However, the great price doesn't mean there's a compromise on features or style. “It’s a well-made product that looks modern and would easily suit all bedrooms,” said MFM home tester Kiran, who appreciated the simple, yet contemporary look. The crib has a drop-down side, 7 adjustable height positions, a tilt function (great for helping with reflux) and a handy storage shelf for things like nappies and wipes. It's on wheels, so it can be moved around the room or away from the bed with ease, and it also folds down to a more compact size for travel. There’s even a handy storage bag included, which our testers felt helps you to get even more use out of the Cozysleep as a travel cot. One feature that really impressed our home testers was the quality of the soft, quilted mattress, with one MFM home tester commenting, “The mattress is brilliant! I have used other makes of co-sleepers/cribs and this mattress is triple the thickness. It feels soft but firm and very comfy.” Pros: Great value, tilt function, good quality mattress, handy storage shelf, travel bag included Cons: Only mesh on one side Available from: Amazon and Kiddies Kingdom Kiddies Kingdom £79.99 Buy now Samuel Johnston £104.40 Buy now 8. Halo BassiNest Premiere Swivel Sleeper, £248.29 – Best for 360° swivel Suitable from: Birth to 5 months/10kg | Weight: 14.8kg | Crib size: H94cm x W61cm x L114cm | Mattress size: L85cm x W55.8cm | Tilt: No | Rocks: Battery-powered vibrations | Height positions: Customisable between 61cm-84cm | Washable mattress cover: Machine-washable sheet included This is American brand Halo's updated version of its popular BassiNest Essentia swivel sleeper. Offering a slightly different way to sleep closely but safely with your baby, the BassiNest Premiere is a standalone crib with a central stand that slides beneath the bed, rather than fastening on to the side of the bed. Parents can then swivel the crib 360° for easy access, with one MFM home tester pointing out this also "makes it easy to get in and out of bed without disturbing the baby". There's no drop-down side, instead the mesh side has enough give that you can push it down to reach and get your baby before it automatically returns to the upright position. Compared to cribs with open sides that sit flush with the bed, the BassiNest is more of a hybrid product, sitting somewhere between a moses basket and a bedside crib. While the BassiNest Premiere doesn't have a rock or tilt function, it does have a built-in “soothing centre” that features an amber nightlight, floorlight, 2 vibration levels and 4 soothing sounds, all with auto shutoff. To use this function you will need 3 x AA batteries (not included). Pros: Flexible, useful when recovering from birth, customisable height to fit most beds, built-in soothing centre Cons: Not a true bedside crib, very heavy, need batteries to access the soothing centre functions, expensive Available from: Halo, John Lewis and Boots John Lewis & Partners £249.00 Buy now How do you use a bedside crib safely? The most important piece of advice for safe sleeping is to lie your baby on their back to sleep. Indeed, since the Back To Sleep campaign was launched in the UK 30 years ago, cases of SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) have fallen by 80%. When using a bedside crib, you should ensure there is no gap between the adult's and baby's mattress. Your baby’s mattress should be firm and flat, and sit snugly in the crib with no gaps. Also look for a mattress that is breathable. There's a simple test you can do for this: Most cribs come with a mattress as standard, but if you are given the crib by someone else or buy one second-hand you will need to buy a new mattress – even if the existing one appears to be in good condition. Second-hand mattresses may increase the risk of SIDS and are less likely to be supportive after losing their shape over time. Always use the mattress designed to fit your bedside crib – most retailers sell them separately should you need a replacement. When it comes to a safe sleeping position, place your baby in the crib with their feet at the end of the crib – called the feet-to-foot position. This reduces the risk of their face or head slipping down under the covers if you're using a blanket. How to use tilting and rocking features safely Some bedside cribs offer a tilt option, which may help babies with digestive issues, colic or reflux. If you are going to tilt your baby, you must do so with great care and only at a slight angle, to avoid your baby slipping down. We recommend speaking to your GP or health visitor for advice before using the tilt function. Tilting (and rocking) can only be used when the bedside crib is set up as a Our at-home mattress breathability test Pick up the mattress and place it close to your mouth • Breathe in and see how easy it is to breathe out with the mattress near your mouth • If it’s easier this should mean the mattress offers good ventilation • standalone crib – for safety reasons, you should not tilt or rock the crib when the side is down as there is a chance your baby could fall out. What bedding can I use with a bedside crib? The Lullaby Trust advises, “Firmly tucked-in sheets and blankets (not above shoulder height) or a baby sleep bag are safe for a baby to sleep in.” Make sure you buy the correct size sheets that exactly fit your mattress. You may also choose to swaddle a newborn. The Lullaby Trust does not advise for or against swaddling, but it does have some basic swaddling guidance. You must stop using a swaddle as soon as your baby learns to roll. Not all baby sleeping bags and swaddles are created equal, so make sure the brand you buy adheres to safety standards, is the correct tog for the room temperature and season, and is the right size for your baby, so they can't slip down inside. Don’t use any soft or bulky bedding and never use pillows, duvets, baby bumpers or baby positioners. You should also remove any soft toys from the crib before your baby sleeps. Advertisement Read more... Gemma Cartwright Group Digital Editor Gemma has two decades of experience in digital content. She is mum to a preschooler, and aunt to 4 children under 4. 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You are given a reference document. You must only use information found in the reference document to answer the question asked. What is the best co sleeper for me and my new baby? ❚ MadeForMums reviews are independent and based on expertise and testing. When you buy through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission, but this never influences our product choices. 8 of the best bedside cribs and cosleepers for safe sleeping for your baby We've tried, tested and reviewed the best bedside cribs, for a brilliant way to sleep closely and safely with your baby Gemma Cartwright Published: March 5, 2024 at 3:20 PM Save A bedside crib is one of the most popular choices for newborn sleep, as it allows you to keep your baby close while still following safe sleep We value your privacy We need your consent so that we and our 172 trusted partners can store and access cookies, unique identifiers, personal data, and information on your browsing behaviour on this device. 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In the first 6 months, when the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is at its highest, the safest place for a baby to sleep is on their back in their own sleep space, be that a cot, crib or moses basket. Advertisement A bedside crib fastens to the frame of your bed on one side, so you're effectively lying next to your baby. The side can usually be dropped down so you can see and reach over to your child. They're sometimes referred to as side-sleepers or co-sleepers, but the key difference is that you're not sharing a sleep surface or bedding. You and your baby can maximise the soothing benefits that proximity brings while minimising the risks associated with bed sharing. Having your baby at arm's reach also makes night feeds much easier. Best bedside cribs and co-sleepers at a glance Jump to our list of the best bedside cribs and cosleepers • Best bedside crib with an easy drop-down side: Chicco Next2Me Magic, £189 • Best bedside crib with a removable bassinet: SnuzPod 4 Bedside Crib, £199.95 • Best bedside crib for smooth rocking: Tutti Bambini CoZee Air Bedside Crib, £225 • Best bedside crib for longevity: Shnuggle Air Bedside Crib, £180 • There are a wide range of options, so at MadeForMums we’ve analysed the bedside crib market closely to bring you the very best choices. We’ve used feedback from our expert journalist reviewers and parent testers, combined with results from in-house MadeForMums testing, which looked at key features such as breathability, mattress firmness, ease of building as well as functionality. For each bedside crib we’ve listed the key technical features to help you compare across brands and models so you can find the best design to suit your needs. If your baby is struggling to sleep through the night, take a look at our best sleep aids and white noise machines, best nightlights and best baby swaddles. More like this Silver Cross Voyager Co-Sleeper Bedside Crib review What is the new safety standard for bedside cribs? All new bedside cribs manufactured since November 2020 have to meet a new safety standard (with the catchy name BS EN 1130:2019) that introduced new and more rigorous safety requirements for bedside cribs. However, you may find some older versions of cribs are still on sale that only match the previous safety standard. Slowly these will disappear from stores and the only ones available will meet the new standard. The most significant new requirement for BS EN 1130:2019 is for a 120mm Best bedside crib for extra storage: Maxi-Cosie Iora Bedside Sleeper, £149 • Best bedside crib for one-handed operation: Joie Roomie GO, £180 • Best value bedside crib: Red Kite Cozysleep Bedside Crib, £84.99 • Best bedside crib with 360° swivel: Halo BassiNest Premiere Swivel Sleeper, £248.29 • high barrier to be present around the sides of the crib, to ensure your baby is not able to roll off their own mattress onto yours. This means that new bedside cribs can no longer have complete drop-down sides – many now have 'half-height' walls instead. This allows your baby to be positioned next to you with the crib lined up to your bed, but their mattress will be sunk a little lower, providing more of a protective barrier. All the cribs featured in our list comply with these new BS EN 1130:2019 safety requirements. What to look for when buying a bedside crib Will it work with your bed? – Certain bed frames can be trickier to use with a bedside crib. For example, if you have a divan bed you will need longer straps, and may not be able to tuck the legs of the crib underneath the bed and may need to look for a model that has foldable legs or works with your bed style. Height of your bed – Most bedside cribs have adjustable heights to give you an almost perfect fit on most bed frames, but if your bed is particularly low or high, do check the measurements. Also check the size of the crib and whether it will fit next to your bed while allowing you to get in and out easily and safely. This is particularly important for those first few days and weeks after giving birth when your body is still recovering. Mattress – The mattress needs to be firm, flat and breathable – this is a key safety feature. Don’t be tempted by a super soft mattress – your baby will sleep deeply and most importantly safely on a firm mattress. Drop-down side – How easy is it to remove the side? Can you do it with one hand? As you may be doing this in the middle of the night, are there lots of noisy zips and clips? Can it safely be left down while you sleep? Do check this as the rules differ depending on the product. How easy is it to assemble – Are there lots of parts to screw together? Will you need 2 people to build it? We’ve tested how easy different bedside cribs are to build in our reviews. How easy is it to keep clean – Does the mattress have a waterproof cover to protect from leaky nappies, baby sick and dribbles? Is the fabric machine washable or will you have to hand wash it? Portability – Is the crib light enough to move around your house? If you want to take it away with you does it crib fold flat and/or come with a storage bag? Extra features – Does it rock (useful for fussy sleepers), tilt (remember to use tilting with care), detach to become a moses basket or turn into an older baby cot or playpen? These extra features may not be necessary, but they could be useful. For more safety information we've also covered breathability, bedding and how to use the tilting function here. What are the benefits of using a bedside crib? Safe sleep charity The Lullaby Trust, advises that the safest place for your baby to sleep is on their own sleep surface, in the same room as you, for at least the first 6 months. Bedside cribs allow you to have your baby sleeping right next to you at night, but in the safety of their own crib. This means you can still be close to your baby without bed-sharing, which carries a risk of suffocation and overheating. Bedside cribs enable you to lean over and easily pick up your baby when feeding at night. This is especially useful if you’ve had a difficult birth or a c-section and find getting out of bed painful. You can also easily comfort your baby if they are fussing and have a good view of them while they are sleeping. How to do the baby mattress firmness test Press your hand on the centre and the sides of the mattress • A firm mattress shouldn’t mould to the shape of your hand and you’ll feel resistance – it will obviously move beneath the pressure but your hand shouldn’t sink in • When you remove your hand, the mattress should snap back and regain its shape • From a practical perspective, bedside cribs are smaller and more compact than most cots, which means they take up less space in your bedroom than a full-sized cot or cotbed. Do I need a bedside crib for my baby? You don’t have to buy a bedside crib. It's completely safe to put a baby in a regular cot from birth. But they’re a great option if you want your baby as close to you as possible at night, and for saving space. The downside is that most of these cribs only last up to 6 months and you’ll then need to move your baby into a full-sized cot or cotbed. A moses basket is a more economical option, but these can last even less time, and do not have the added features of a bedside crib such as a drop-down side, tilt, or multiple heights. How much does a bedside crib cost? It is possible to buy budget bedside cribs for under £100 but the majority we have reviewed are between £150-£300. Certain features, such as a rocking function or one-handed drop down side, tend to push the price up slightly. How did we choose these bedside cribs? Our 10 of the Best lists are compiled by qualified and experienced parenting journalists. They rely on a number of sources, including our independent reviews, testing undertaken during the MadeForMums Awards, and feedback from our home testing panel and Top Testers Club. Each year thousands of products are put through their paces by hundreds of parents across the country on behalf of MadeForMums, to ensure we’re bringing you honest and true reviews and recommendations. When testing bedside cribs, we consider size, ease of build and fitting, mattress quality and breathability, ease and safety of the drop-down side mechanism and other features, comfort for baby, design and quality, and whether it's worth the money. Our list is not an ordered ranking from 1-10, instead it is a carefully Here are our top 10 bedside cribs for 2024 1. Chicco Next2Me Magic, £189 – Best for easy drop-down side Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 13.1kg | Crib size: H66.5- 82.4cm x W73cm x L99.5cm | Mattress size: L83cm x W50.5cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: Yes | Height positions: 11 | Washable mattress cover: Hand wash The Chicco Next2Me Magic is the latest update to the original Next2Me side-sleeping crib, which has won fans for its versatility. It can be used from birth as a bedside co-sleeper, as a standalone crib or possibly as a travel cot, but at over 13kg it's not a light carry. It is slightly more expensive than some other models, but standout features include a really easy drop-side that can be operated with one hand, 11 height levels, a lockable rocking function, 4 tilt options to help reduce reflux, and wheels to make it easy to move around your home. selected group of tried-and-tested products, each of which we believe is best for a different situation or requirement. We don’t just tell you what is best, we help you discover what is best for your family. A large sleeping area means more room for a bigger baby, plus a travel bag is included. MFM tester Lucy said, “I found the Chicco Next2Me Magic a breeze to move around and set up, but also substantial and sturdy. The clever onehanded drop-down mechanism on the side panel can be used while holding your baby in your arms, which is brilliant. "I've even used the Chicco in my kitchen for safe day naps when I need to be more focused on my older child.” Pros: Firm and breathable mattress, retractable legs to fit any bed, quiet side zip, easy to transport Cons: Tricky to initially assemble, mattress cover is hand wash only Read our full MadeForMums Chicco Next2Me Magic bedside crib review Available from: John Lewis and Mamas & Papas John Lewis & Partners £229.00 Buy now Mamas & Papas £229.00 Buy now 2. SnuzPod 4 Bedside Crib, £199.95 – Best for removable bassinet Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 11.5kg | Crib size: H95cm x W49cm x L100cm | Mattress size: L75cm x W40cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: Yes | Height positions: 7 | Washable mattress cover: Machine washable The latest iteration of Snuz's much-loved bedside crib, the Snuzpod4 features a new breathable system (called ComfortAir) that aids the flow of air around the crib and your baby. It offers more side vents, breathable mesh liner and mattress, plus a ventilated base. But the key thing that we're delighted to see is that the Snuzpod4 has a firmer mattress than previous versions – as well as good breathability. Plus Snuz claims that the SnuzPod4 fits more bed heights than any rival, as it will now work with beds up to a maximum adult mattress height of 73cm. It's also designed to be compatible with a range of bed types – divan, ottoman and framed bed bases. Made from sustainably sourced beech solid wood, the Snuzpod4 looks good. MFM mum home tester Mehack commented on "how stylish and contemporary the design is," praising how it "fits perfectly with the room decor". We love its versatility – the two-part design includes a lift-off bassinet that can be moved around the house so you have a portable safe sleeping space for your baby, whichever room you're in. The bassinet also has a manual rocking function, as does the crib and the bassinet. There's an optional riser that can be added to create a slight incline to help babies with reflux, but for safety reasons, when the cot is tilted this stops the rocking function from working. Pros: Stylish, removable bassinet, great storage Cons: Can be difficult to put together Read our full MadeForMums SnuzPod 4 bedside crib review Available from: Snuz, Samuel Johnston and Amazon Very.co.uk £159.99 Buy now Samuel Johnston £190.18 Buy now Amazon UK £199.95 Buy now John Lewis & Partners £199.95 Buy now 3. Tutti Bambini CoZee Air Bedside Crib, £225 – Best for smooth rocking Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 11kg | Crib size: H92cm x W12cm x L56cm | Mattress size: L80.5cm x W51cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: Yes | Height positions: 6 | Washable mattress cover: Sponge, only machine wash if necessary While it is at the more expensive end of the market, what makes the CoZee Air stand out from the competition is its smooth rocking function. It comes with easy-to-remove caster wheels that you can switch with rocking bars, which easily attach to the legs of the crib. As a safety feature, the CoZee can also only be rocked when it is set up as a standalone crib – when used as a bedside crib, it has flip-out feet that prevent it from doing so. “The rocking feature is fantastic and really helped me to settle my baby when she was overtired and fussing,” said MFM tester Tara. MFM testers also rated the crib highly for its portability – it is ideal as a travel cot, as despite its large size, it is compact when folded. A 30-second open-fold mechanism allows for a quick set up and it comes with a travel bag for easy transportation. While the multiple mesh windows are great for breathability and being able to see your little one, there's a curtain attached to one side of the crib that you can roll down to protect your baby from draughts during colder months. This still leaves one mesh side open to allow for plenty of air flow. When it comes to cleaning, the fabric lining can be removed and put in the washing machine, while the foam mattress can be machine washed if necessary. We also like the addition of a storage shelf that is useful for holding essentials such as baby wipes, nappies, clothes and muslins. Pros: Smooth rocking, quick to collapse down, storage shelf Cons: Higher price point Read our full MadeForMums Tutti Bambini CoZee Air Bedside Crib review Available from: Boots, Kiddies Kingdom and Tutti Bambini Kiddies Kingdom £165.00 Buy now For Your Little One £180.00 Buy now Wayfair £186.63 Buy now Dunelm £219.00 Buy now 4. Shnuggle Air Bedside crib, £180 – Best for longevity Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg (up to 2 years with conversion kit) | Weight: 13.4kg | Crib size: H68.5–83cm x W56cm x L94cm | Mattress size: L83cm x W50cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: No | Height positions: 7 | Washable mattress cover: Hand wash While most bedside cribs on the market are only suitable for babies up to 6 months old, the Shnuggle Air stands out by offering 3 products in 1. It can be used as a standalone cot or bedside sleeper and then it transforms after 6 months into a full-sized cot when you buy the additional conversion kit (£109.95) and cot mattress (£50), which will last your child up until around 2 years old. This makes it a great long-term investment. MFM judges and testers were particularly impressed with the firmness of its hypo-allergenic airflow mattress. This crib has dual-view mesh sides, giving it maximum breathability; this also means you can easily see your baby when both sides are up. This was also a feature that stood out to MFM reviewer Tara, who used it with her 6-month-old daughter Elodie. She said, “Elodie slept very soundly and she loved being able to see through the mesh sides.” The drop-down sides are easily removed for nighttime access by releasing the safety catch on the top bar and undoing the zips. However, during the awards testing, it was noted that the safety catch makes a loud click. This was echoed by a MFM user reviewer who said: “The side makes a noise when you click it back in and that can wake up baby!” Unlike most of the others on this list, the side of the Shnuggle Air cannot be left down during sleep, it's simply there for access. The Shnuggle Air is relatively heavy at 13.4kg, and doesn't have wheels, so it's not easy to move around your home. “I’d say once the Shnuggle Air is set up, it’s staying put,” Tara added. Pros: Long-lasting, highly breathable, spacious Cons: Not easily portable, side is noisy when released, hand wash only Read our full MadeForMums Shnuggle Air Bedside Crib review Available from: Amazon, John Lewis and Shnuggle John Lewis & Partners £180.00 Buy now Amazon UK £199.95 Buy now Kiddies Kingdom £299.00 Buy now 5. Maxi-Cosi Iora bedside sleeper, £149 – Best for extra storage Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 10.8kg | Crib size: H74.5cm x W55.5cm x L93cm | Mattress size: L80cm x W58.5cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: No | Height positions: 5 | Washable mattress cover: Hand wash With its choice of muted colours, sleek design and quality materials, the Maxi-Cosi Iora is sure to fit in with most room schemes. The large storage basket at the bottom of the crib is great for parents who are short on space as it can easily hold numerous blankets, baby sleeping bags, nappies, wipes and spare clothes. The Iora’s easy-to-adjust height (5 positions in total) and slide function (2 positions in total) also means it can fit snugly against most types of bed when used with the straps. “Our iron-frame bed is somewhat lower than average,” said MFM reviewer Georgina. “But the Iora also sat in the correct position with our mattress.” One feature that our reviewer Georgina particularly liked was that when the side is down, there is a 7-inch (18cm) barrier to stop your baby rolling out. She said: “The Iora allowed me to sleep as close to my daughter as possible, but I was also safe in the knowledge that she was in her own sleeping area and I wasn't going to squash her!” This crib is extremely straightforward to assemble (one of the quickest during MFM testing) and MFM reviewer Georgina managed to put it together speedily without using the instructions. She explained: “It was obvious which pieces go together, simple to build and had neat zips to keep everything in place.” A handy bag also means it can easily be used as a travel cot, especially as it folds down flat. Keep in mind that Georgina did find the outer fabric was prone to creasing when unpacked from the travel bag. Pros: Extra storage, easy height and slide adjustments, portable, smart appearance Cons: Mattress cover hand wash only, outer fabric prone to creasing, not as many height options as other cribs, only mesh on one side Read our full MadeForMums Maxi-Cosi Iora review Available from: Samuel Johnston, John Lewis and Amazon Kiddies Kingdom £169.00 Buy now John Lewis & Partners £199.99 Buy now Mamas & Papas £199.99 Buy now Very.co.uk £199.99 Buy now 6. Joie Roomie GO, £180 – Best for one-handed operation Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 9.5kg | Crib size: H74.8- 82.2cm x W68.5cm x L90.3cm | Mattress size: H6cm x W51cm x L84cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: No | Height positions: 5 | Washable mattress cover: Machine washable | Awards: Gold – Bedside/Co-Sleeper Crib, MadeForMum Awards 2023 Awarded Gold in Best Bedside/Co-Sleeper Crib, MadeForMums Awards 2023, the Joie Roomie Go packs in a lot of features for its mid-range price. Offering mesh windows on both sides, providing plenty of ventilation as well as making it easy to keep an eye on your baby, the stylish crib is available in a choice of chic grey or classic black. Our MFM home testers were impressed with the Roomie Go’s aesthetic, with one commenting, “It looks great, is made with good quality material and will look stylish in any room.” The one-handed drop-down panels on both sides of the crib mean you can easily switch which side of the bed you attach it to. You should be able to simply click the handle to lift and lower, although one of our home testers commented that the first couple of times they attempted this the mechanism was a little sticky. Its simple, compact fold means you can pack the crib away in less than a minute and take it with you in the travel bag included, for holidays or trips to the grandparents’. The Joie Roomie Go is also on (lockable) wheels so you can move it around the home during the daytime. It has a tummy tilt for reflux/colic, and there are 5 height adjustments to fit most beds. Praised across the board by our MFM home testers for its comfy mattress and ease of assembly, it’s a great all-rounder both when at home and away. Pros: One-handed operation, tilt function for reflux, comfortable for baby, drop-down panels on both sides, travel bag included Cons: No storage, not as many height options as other cribs Available from: John Lewis, Joie and Argos Very.co.uk £179.99 Buy now argos.co.uk £180.00 Buy now John Lewis & Partners £180.00 Buy now Kiddies Kingdom £180.00 Buy now 7. Red Kite Cozysleep Crib, £84.99 – Best for value Suitable from: Birth to 6 months/9kg | Weight: 9kg | Crib size: H74-87cm x W57-61cm x L88cm | Mattress size: W80cm x L50cm | Tilt: Yes | Rocks: No | Height positions: 7 | Washable mattress cover: No, wipeable only | Awards: Silver – Bedside/Co-Sleeper Crib, MadeForMum Awards 2023 Coming in at just under £85 the Red Kite Cozysleep crib offers really fantastic value. However, the great price doesn't mean there's a compromise on features or style. “It’s a well-made product that looks modern and would easily suit all bedrooms,” said MFM home tester Kiran, who appreciated the simple, yet contemporary look. The crib has a drop-down side, 7 adjustable height positions, a tilt function (great for helping with reflux) and a handy storage shelf for things like nappies and wipes. It's on wheels, so it can be moved around the room or away from the bed with ease, and it also folds down to a more compact size for travel. There’s even a handy storage bag included, which our testers felt helps you to get even more use out of the Cozysleep as a travel cot. One feature that really impressed our home testers was the quality of the soft, quilted mattress, with one MFM home tester commenting, “The mattress is brilliant! I have used other makes of co-sleepers/cribs and this mattress is triple the thickness. It feels soft but firm and very comfy.” Pros: Great value, tilt function, good quality mattress, handy storage shelf, travel bag included Cons: Only mesh on one side Available from: Amazon and Kiddies Kingdom Kiddies Kingdom £79.99 Buy now Samuel Johnston £104.40 Buy now 8. Halo BassiNest Premiere Swivel Sleeper, £248.29 – Best for 360° swivel Suitable from: Birth to 5 months/10kg | Weight: 14.8kg | Crib size: H94cm x W61cm x L114cm | Mattress size: L85cm x W55.8cm | Tilt: No | Rocks: Battery-powered vibrations | Height positions: Customisable between 61cm-84cm | Washable mattress cover: Machine-washable sheet included This is American brand Halo's updated version of its popular BassiNest Essentia swivel sleeper. Offering a slightly different way to sleep closely but safely with your baby, the BassiNest Premiere is a standalone crib with a central stand that slides beneath the bed, rather than fastening on to the side of the bed. Parents can then swivel the crib 360° for easy access, with one MFM home tester pointing out this also "makes it easy to get in and out of bed without disturbing the baby". There's no drop-down side, instead the mesh side has enough give that you can push it down to reach and get your baby before it automatically returns to the upright position. Compared to cribs with open sides that sit flush with the bed, the BassiNest is more of a hybrid product, sitting somewhere between a moses basket and a bedside crib. While the BassiNest Premiere doesn't have a rock or tilt function, it does have a built-in “soothing centre” that features an amber nightlight, floorlight, 2 vibration levels and 4 soothing sounds, all with auto shutoff. To use this function you will need 3 x AA batteries (not included). Pros: Flexible, useful when recovering from birth, customisable height to fit most beds, built-in soothing centre Cons: Not a true bedside crib, very heavy, need batteries to access the soothing centre functions, expensive Available from: Halo, John Lewis and Boots John Lewis & Partners £249.00 Buy now How do you use a bedside crib safely? The most important piece of advice for safe sleeping is to lie your baby on their back to sleep. Indeed, since the Back To Sleep campaign was launched in the UK 30 years ago, cases of SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) have fallen by 80%. When using a bedside crib, you should ensure there is no gap between the adult's and baby's mattress. Your baby’s mattress should be firm and flat, and sit snugly in the crib with no gaps. Also look for a mattress that is breathable. There's a simple test you can do for this: Most cribs come with a mattress as standard, but if you are given the crib by someone else or buy one second-hand you will need to buy a new mattress – even if the existing one appears to be in good condition. Second-hand mattresses may increase the risk of SIDS and are less likely to be supportive after losing their shape over time. Always use the mattress designed to fit your bedside crib – most retailers sell them separately should you need a replacement. When it comes to a safe sleeping position, place your baby in the crib with their feet at the end of the crib – called the feet-to-foot position. This reduces the risk of their face or head slipping down under the covers if you're using a blanket. How to use tilting and rocking features safely Some bedside cribs offer a tilt option, which may help babies with digestive issues, colic or reflux. If you are going to tilt your baby, you must do so with great care and only at a slight angle, to avoid your baby slipping down. We recommend speaking to your GP or health visitor for advice before using the tilt function. Tilting (and rocking) can only be used when the bedside crib is set up as a Our at-home mattress breathability test Pick up the mattress and place it close to your mouth • Breathe in and see how easy it is to breathe out with the mattress near your mouth • If it’s easier this should mean the mattress offers good ventilation • standalone crib – for safety reasons, you should not tilt or rock the crib when the side is down as there is a chance your baby could fall out. What bedding can I use with a bedside crib? The Lullaby Trust advises, “Firmly tucked-in sheets and blankets (not above shoulder height) or a baby sleep bag are safe for a baby to sleep in.” Make sure you buy the correct size sheets that exactly fit your mattress. You may also choose to swaddle a newborn. The Lullaby Trust does not advise for or against swaddling, but it does have some basic swaddling guidance. You must stop using a swaddle as soon as your baby learns to roll. Not all baby sleeping bags and swaddles are created equal, so make sure the brand you buy adheres to safety standards, is the correct tog for the room temperature and season, and is the right size for your baby, so they can't slip down inside. Don’t use any soft or bulky bedding and never use pillows, duvets, baby bumpers or baby positioners. You should also remove any soft toys from the crib before your baby sleeps. Advertisement Read more... Gemma Cartwright Group Digital Editor Gemma has two decades of experience in digital content. She is mum to a preschooler, and aunt to 4 children under 4. She is particularly passionate about sleep (for babies and parents) and loves testing out gadgets, technology and innovation in the parenting world. 14 of the best baby and toddler sleeping bags • 14 of the best car seats from birth • Bednest: NCT says there is a “small but plausible risk” when using the co-sleeper • You may also like How NatPat's wellness patches may help your family NatPat's range of wellness patches and stickers aim to tackle everything from allergies to lack of focus. We take a closer look at the range. Advertisement feature with NatPat Read now Silver Cross Voyager Co-Sleeper Bedside Crib review Chicco Next2Me Air bedside crib review Cribs & moses baskets Cribs & moses baskets Mamas & Papas Lua Bedside Crib review 10 of the best Moses baskets and cribs for your newborn Cribs & moses baskets Cribs & moses baskets About us Contact us Terms & conditions Code of conduct Privacy policy Cookies policy Complaints MadeForMums Top Testers Club Competitions Manage Privacy Settings This website is owned and published by Immediate Media Company Limited. www.immediate.co.uk © Immediate Media Company Ltd. 2024 Radio Times BBC Good Food Gardeners' World Magazine olive History Extra Junior Magazine The Recommended Baby Names Pregnancy Health Pushchairs & prams Car Seats Weaning & Baby Recipes Travel & holidays

You can only respond to the prompt using the information in the context block and no other sources. Give your answer in bullet points and follow each one with an explanation.

In simple terms, what are key components of US strategic goals related to subsea cables?

Transatlantic Tech Bridge: Digital Infrastructure and Subsea Cables, a US Perspective 1. US strategic interests in digital infrastructure and its industrial policy The United States’ overarching strategic goal is an open, secure, interoperable and global internet, one where US digital leaders can compete (and win). This requires trusted digital infrastructure. US investment in digital infrastructure reveals both domestic and international priorities. The 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Bill provides 65 billion US dollars for high-speed internet deployment.6 Its focus is on providing connectivity for low-income households through the Affordable Connectivity Program and reaching underserved rural, agricultural and tribal areas.7 The “Internet for All” initiative manages grants for infrastructure and training.8 In the international development space, digital infrastructure is one of three pillars of USAID’s digital strategy and its digital ecosystem framework.9 US firms retain a leading position in the ownership of subsea cables, and along with Japanese and French firms continue to supply the equipment for most projects. Cables were traditionally owned by a consortium of telecom firms, but this model has seen its share diminish with the influx of cables owned by content providers (the hyperscalers). Unlike other digital technologies, the supply chain for the raw materials that make up the cables is not dependent on China.10 Global cooperation takes place through formats like the UN’s International Telecommunications Union and multistakeholder arrangements like the International Cable Protection Committee. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides an important legal framework for ocean policy and undersea cables, including cable protection zones and a dispute resolution framework. The US, however, has failed to ratify UNCLOS for decades and even in the case of US ratification, credible enforcement would be difficult.11 Geopolitics and rising concerns about China have upended the world of subsea cables. Digital infrastructure, and undersea cables in particular, fit into a wider strategy for the US and are a key element of “outcompeting” China. This is leading to what has been dubbed a “subsea cold war”.12 Concerns are multifaceted and overlapping, including the physical security of infrastructure, espionage, economic competitiveness and support for domestic firms, fears of technology leakage and geopolitical competition. In promoting the view that “the digital backbones of the modern economy must be open, trusted, interoperable, reliable, and secure”,13 US strategy is highly focused on countering China’s “digital silk road”. Digital infrastructure is critical, but also a potential vector for insecurity and subject to disruptions, both accidental and deliberate. But attribution and assessing conflicting motivations among potential adversaries can be difficult. There is still significant uncertainty around cyberthreats and subsea cables, with limited publicly available information or attribution. The majority of cable faults – around a hundred per year – are attributable to accidental errors, such as damage from fishing vessels, or geologic incidents.14 But the risk and fear of state-directed cyber attacks or physical sabotage is rising. Many examples remain hypothetical; and concrete details or attribution are classified or unknown. One of the few known events, a 2022 cyber-attack in Hawaii that the Department of Homeland Security claimed to have foiled, was merely attributed to an “international hacking group”.15 Chinese ships have been accused of damaging cables in the Taiwan straits as part of a pressure campaign on the island.16 The US is particularly concerned about potential for espionage from adversaries like China and Russia. Tapping into and filtering the enormous quantities of information on subsea cables is extremely difficult, especially at great depths, and only a few countries likely have such capabilities. Landing stations where cables come ashore, however, have been identified as potential vulnerabilities, where lax security could allow for monitoring or tapping of the cables. The US can illustrate its concerns about growing control of infrastructure by adversaries by pointing to cases like the Federated States of Micronesia, where China pressured the government to grant it control of cables and telecom infrastructure via a Memorandum of Understanding.17 The point here is that Chinese infrastructure investments through the digital silk road will lead to de-facto control and facilitate espionage. Cost-reduction measures by cable owners have also led to increased deployment of remote network management systems, which introduce new vulnerabilities to hacking or sabotage since they are connected to the internet.18 The US has responded to these concerns with legislation like the Secure and Trusted Communications Networks Act of 2019, which charged the Federal Communications Commission with carrying out the complex rip-and-replace process for Huawei-made infrastructure domestically.19 The US has also expressed concerns about Europe’s reliance on 5G infrastructure from Huawei.20 The National Security Strategy released in October 2022 warns that autocratic governments “leverage access to their markets and control of global digital infrastructure for coercive purposes” and cites China as a source of “untrusted digital infrastructure”.21 The US has also acted to ensure continued market dominance by US and allied firms. Between 2015 and 2019, Chinese investments through the digital silk road led to control by Huawei Marine (which became HMN Tech in 2019) of about 15 per cent of the global market.22 Sanctions were placed on HMN Tech in 2021, citing its “intention to acquire American technology to help modernize China’s People’s Liberation Army”.23 This issue also predates the current Biden Administration. In addition to sanctions placed on Huawei, President Trump’s “Executive Order on Establishing the Committee for the Assessment of Foreign Participation in the United States Telecommunications Services Sector” provided structure to an interagency team known as “Team Telecom” charged with reviewing foreign investment in telecom and broadcast firms.24 Run by the Department of Justice’s National Security Division, it makes licensing recommendations to the Federal Communications Commission with the goal of ensuring that no cable directly connects the US and the Chinese mainland or Hong Kong.25 The US Congress has also been somewhat vocal on the issue. For example, the Undersea Cable Control Act passed the House in March 2023.26 Recent years have therefore seen significant shifts in undersea cable investment, with many new cables rerouted to avoid China and the South China Sea.27 While warnings of an undersea splinternet may be exaggerated, the sector is nevertheless seeing important shifts in investment, particularly for transpacific cables. From 2016 to 2020, 75 per cent of cables included at least one Chinese owner. Projections for 2021–2025 plummet to 0 per cent (see Figure 2). Significant reductions are apparent in other Asia connections as well. The US government has also intervened in cases of Chinese involvement in infrastructure projects and exerted pressure which has led to cancellation of cable initiatives or contracts if awarded to Chinese firms. For example, a 2018 proposed consortium led by Amazon, Meta and China Mobile met with opposition from Washington. US security concerns remained even following China Mobile’s departure, and the project was shelved despite much of the cable having already been laid.28 The 600 million US dollar SeaWeMe-6 cable connecting Singapore to France was awarded to the US’s SubCom over HMN Tech following diplomatic pressure and incentives like training grants to local telecom firms from the US Trade and Development Agency.29 At the same time, this pressure, along with sanctions, has influenced cable-building endeavours that do not include US investors or connect geographically to the US.30 Such events illustrate the strategic competitive and economic interests at stake, as technology becomes a key site of geopolitical competition. In order to counter China, the United States is working to build a network of partnerships on digital infrastructure. The US CABLES programme provides capacity building and technical assistance to members of the Quad alliance in the Indo-Pacific.31 The Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII) through the G7 aims to offer an alternative to China’s Belt and Road Investments,32 and included cables as part of a recent PGII announcement on the sidelines of the G20.33 The US also launched the Trilateral Partnership for Infrastructure Investment with Australia and Japan in 2018.34 The NATO undersea infrastructure coordination cell, launched in 2023, coordinates between military, civilian and industry interests in subsea infrastructure to increase security.35 The State Department’s 2020 Clean Network Initiative, whose scope extends beyond subsea cables, created a set of shared principles and practices for countries and companies with the goal of blocking Chinese market dominance.36

System instruction: You can only respond to the prompt using the information in the context block and no other sources. Give your answer in bullet points and follow each one with an explanation. Question: In simple terms, what are key components of US strategic goals related to subsea cables? Context block: Transatlantic Tech Bridge: Digital Infrastructure and Subsea Cables, a US Perspective 1. US strategic interests in digital infrastructure and its industrial policy The United States’ overarching strategic goal is an open, secure, interoperable and global internet, one where US digital leaders can compete (and win). This requires trusted digital infrastructure. US investment in digital infrastructure reveals both domestic and international priorities. The 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Bill provides 65 billion US dollars for high-speed internet deployment.6 Its focus is on providing connectivity for low-income households through the Affordable Connectivity Program and reaching underserved rural, agricultural and tribal areas.7 The “Internet for All” initiative manages grants for infrastructure and training.8 In the international development space, digital infrastructure is one of three pillars of USAID’s digital strategy and its digital ecosystem framework.9 US firms retain a leading position in the ownership of subsea cables, and along with Japanese and French firms continue to supply the equipment for most projects. Cables were traditionally owned by a consortium of telecom firms, but this model has seen its share diminish with the influx of cables owned by content providers (the hyperscalers). Unlike other digital technologies, the supply chain for the raw materials that make up the cables is not dependent on China.10 Global cooperation takes place through formats like the UN’s International Telecommunications Union and multistakeholder arrangements like the International Cable Protection Committee. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides an important legal framework for ocean policy and undersea cables, including cable protection zones and a dispute resolution framework. The US, however, has failed to ratify UNCLOS for decades and even in the case of US ratification, credible enforcement would be difficult.11 Geopolitics and rising concerns about China have upended the world of subsea cables. Digital infrastructure, and undersea cables in particular, fit into a wider strategy for the US and are a key element of “outcompeting” China. This is leading to what has been dubbed a “subsea cold war”.12 Concerns are multifaceted and overlapping, including the physical security of infrastructure, espionage, economic competitiveness and support for domestic firms, fears of technology leakage and geopolitical competition. In promoting the view that “the digital backbones of the modern economy must be open, trusted, interoperable, reliable, and secure”,13 US strategy is highly focused on countering China’s “digital silk road”. Digital infrastructure is critical, but also a potential vector for insecurity and subject to disruptions, both accidental and deliberate. But attribution and assessing conflicting motivations among potential adversaries can be difficult. There is still significant uncertainty around cyberthreats and subsea cables, with limited publicly available information or attribution. The majority of cable faults – around a hundred per year – are attributable to accidental errors, such as damage from fishing vessels, or geologic incidents.14 But the risk and fear of state-directed cyber attacks or physical sabotage is rising. Many examples remain hypothetical; and concrete details or attribution are classified or unknown. One of the few known events, a 2022 cyber-attack in Hawaii that the Department of Homeland Security claimed to have foiled, was merely attributed to an “international hacking group”.15 Chinese ships have been accused of damaging cables in the Taiwan straits as part of a pressure campaign on the island.16 The US is particularly concerned about potential for espionage from adversaries like China and Russia. Tapping into and filtering the enormous quantities of information on subsea cables is extremely difficult, especially at great depths, and only a few countries likely have such capabilities. Landing stations where cables come ashore, however, have been identified as potential vulnerabilities, where lax security could allow for monitoring or tapping of the cables. The US can illustrate its concerns about growing control of infrastructure by adversaries by pointing to cases like the Federated States of Micronesia, where China pressured the government to grant it control of cables and telecom infrastructure via a Memorandum of Understanding.17 The point here is that Chinese infrastructure investments through the digital silk road will lead to de-facto control and facilitate espionage. Cost-reduction measures by cable owners have also led to increased deployment of remote network management systems, which introduce new vulnerabilities to hacking or sabotage since they are connected to the internet.18 The US has responded to these concerns with legislation like the Secure and Trusted Communications Networks Act of 2019, which charged the Federal Communications Commission with carrying out the complex rip-and-replace process for Huawei-made infrastructure domestically.19 The US has also expressed concerns about Europe’s reliance on 5G infrastructure from Huawei.20 The National Security Strategy released in October 2022 warns that autocratic governments “leverage access to their markets and control of global digital infrastructure for coercive purposes” and cites China as a source of “untrusted digital infrastructure”.21 The US has also acted to ensure continued market dominance by US and allied firms. Between 2015 and 2019, Chinese investments through the digital silk road led to control by Huawei Marine (which became HMN Tech in 2019) of about 15 per cent of the global market.22 Sanctions were placed on HMN Tech in 2021, citing its “intention to acquire American technology to help modernize China’s People’s Liberation Army”.23 This issue also predates the current Biden Administration. In addition to sanctions placed on Huawei, President Trump’s “Executive Order on Establishing the Committee for the Assessment of Foreign Participation in the United States Telecommunications Services Sector” provided structure to an interagency team known as “Team Telecom” charged with reviewing foreign investment in telecom and broadcast firms.24 Run by the Department of Justice’s National Security Division, it makes licensing recommendations to the Federal Communications Commission with the goal of ensuring that no cable directly connects the US and the Chinese mainland or Hong Kong.25 The US Congress has also been somewhat vocal on the issue. For example, the Undersea Cable Control Act passed the House in March 2023.26 Recent years have therefore seen significant shifts in undersea cable investment, with many new cables rerouted to avoid China and the South China Sea.27 While warnings of an undersea splinternet may be exaggerated, the sector is nevertheless seeing important shifts in investment, particularly for transpacific cables. From 2016 to 2020, 75 per cent of cables included at least one Chinese owner. Projections for 2021–2025 plummet to 0 per cent (see Figure 2). Significant reductions are apparent in other Asia connections as well. The US government has also intervened in cases of Chinese involvement in infrastructure projects and exerted pressure which has led to cancellation of cable initiatives or contracts if awarded to Chinese firms. For example, a 2018 proposed consortium led by Amazon, Meta and China Mobile met with opposition from Washington. US security concerns remained even following China Mobile’s departure, and the project was shelved despite much of the cable having already been laid.28 The 600 million US dollar SeaWeMe-6 cable connecting Singapore to France was awarded to the US’s SubCom over HMN Tech following diplomatic pressure and incentives like training grants to local telecom firms from the US Trade and Development Agency.29 At the same time, this pressure, along with sanctions, has influenced cable-building endeavours that do not include US investors or connect geographically to the US.30 Such events illustrate the strategic competitive and economic interests at stake, as technology becomes a key site of geopolitical competition. In order to counter China, the United States is working to build a network of partnerships on digital infrastructure. The US CABLES programme provides capacity building and technical assistance to members of the Quad alliance in the Indo-Pacific.31 The Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII) through the G7 aims to offer an alternative to China’s Belt and Road Investments,32 and included cables as part of a recent PGII announcement on the sidelines of the G20.33 The US also launched the Trilateral Partnership for Infrastructure Investment with Australia and Japan in 2018.34 The NATO undersea infrastructure coordination cell, launched in 2023, coordinates between military, civilian and industry interests in subsea infrastructure to increase security.35 The State Department’s 2020 Clean Network Initiative, whose scope extends beyond subsea cables, created a set of shared principles and practices for countries and companies with the goal of blocking Chinese market dominance.36

You may only use information contained within the provided content block.

What benefits do nasal cannula have over non-rebreathe masks?

Oxygen is a drug with a correct dosage When administered correctly may be life saving. Aim is to achieve adequate tissue oxygenation (without causing a significant decrease in ventilation and consequent hypercapnia or oxygen toxicity) Need to treat • Tissue hypoxia is difficult to recognize as clinical features are nonspecific –include dyspnoea cyanosis, tachypnoea, arrhythmias, altered mental state, coma. • Treatment of tissue hypoxia should correct any arterial hypoxemia (Cardiopulmonary defect/shunt e.g.-asthma, pneumonia, PE), any transport deficit (anaemia, low cardiac output), and underlying causes. • SaO2/PaO2 can be normal when tissue hypoxia is caused by low cardiac output states. Oxygen administration Equipment The method of delivery will depend on the type and severity of respiratory failure, breathing pattern, respiratory rate, risk of CO2 retention, need for humidification and patient compliance. Each oxygen delivery device comprises • An oxygen supply(>4L/min) • Flow rate 07.Oxygen administration 20 Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure Dr.M.Umakanth • Tubing • Interface + humidification 1) Nasal cannula These direct oxygen via 2 short prongs up the nasal passage They: • Can be used for long periods of time. • Prevent rebreathing. • Can be used during eating and talking. 2) Low flow oxygen masks These deliver oxygen concentrations that vary depending on the patient’s minute volume. Some rebreathing of exhaled gases. 3) Fixed performance masks These deliver constant concentration of oxygen independent of the patient’s minute volume. The masks contain ‘venturi’ barrels where relatively low rates of oxygen are forced through a narrow orifice producing a greater flow rate. 4) Partial and non-rebreathe masks This mask have a ‘reservoir’ bag that is filled with pure oxygen and depend on a system of valves which prevent mixing of exhaled gases with the incoming oxygen. Dr.M.Umakanth Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure 21 5) High flow Oxygen Masks or nasal prongs that generate flows of 50-120ml/ min using a high flow regulator to entrain air and oxygen at specific concentrations. It should always be used with humidification. Procedure • Introduce yourself, confirm patient’s identity, explain the condition, Obtain Verbal consent. • Choose an appropriate oxygen delivery device • Choose an initial dose… o Cardiac or respiratory arrest:100%. o Hypoxaemia with PaCO2 <5.3kPa:40-60%. o Hypoxaemia with PaCO2 >5.3kPa:24% initially. • Decide on the acceptable level of SaO2 or PaO2 and titrate oxygen accordingly. • If possible, try to measure a PaO2 in room air prior to giving supplementary oxygen. • Liaise with nursing staff, physiotherapist or outreach for support in setting up equipment. • Apply the oxygen and monitor via oxymetry(SaO2) and/or repeat ABG(PaO2) in 30 minutes. • If hypoxemia continue, then the patient may require respiratory support either invasively or non-invasivelyliaise with your seniors and/or the respiratory doctors. • Stop supplementary oxygen when tissue hypoxia or arterial hypoxaemia has resolved. 22 Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure Dr.M.Umakanth Equipment Required • NG tube • Disposable gloves • Lubricant gel • Cup of water • 50ml Syringe • Drainage bag (If necessary) • Adhesive tape • Paper towel • Plastic apron. Indication • Feeding (Ryle’s tube) • Patients who have an increased risk of aspiration • Decompression of stomach during bowel obstruction • Gastric larvage Contraindication • Severe Facial trauma • Basal skull fracture • Suspected oesophageal perforation • Grossly abnormal nasal anatomy Procedure • Introduce yourself, confirm patient’s identity, explain the procedure, and obtain verbal consent • Wash hands thoroughly, put on gloves and plastic apron. 08.Nasogastric(NG) tube Insertion Dr.M.Umakanth Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure 23 • Sit the patient up, slightly extending the neck. • Examine patient’s nose for deformity. • Use the tube to measure the length from the nares to the stomach, (Xiphisternum-earlobe-tip of nose) and note the distance. • Lubricate the tip(4-8cm) of the tube, avoiding blocking the lumen. • Insert into the nostril and advance directly posteriorly • Whilst advancing, ask the patient to take sip of water and hold it in their mouth. • Request the patient to swallow and, as the patient swallows, advance the tube down oesophagus. • Continue to advance the tube until 10-20cm beyond pre-measured distance to stomach (60-70cm total). • To confirm correct place ment o Aspirate some gastric contents with syringe and check fluid’s acidic pH(with litmus paper) confirmatory o If unsure, obtain a chest X-ray(CXR) with a view of the stomach. o Although commonly done on wards, injecting 5-10ml air into the tube whilst auscultating for babbling with stethoscope placed over stomach. • Remove guidewire if present • Either Place cap into the end of NG tube or attach a drainage bag. • Secure the tube in place by taping to nose. o 24 Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure Dr.M.Umakanth Complication • Discomfort, pain, gagging • Bleeding (at any site, but particularly nose) • Failure to correctly place tube e.g. Placement in trachea or bronchi • Perforation of esophagus and stomach • Electrolyte imbalance if rapid decompression of stomach. • Esophagitis • Nasal or retropharyngeal necrosis

You may only use information contained within the provided content block. Question: What benefits do nasal cannula have over non-rebreathe masks? Oxygen is a drug with a correct dosage When administered correctly may be life saving. Aim is to achieve adequate tissue oxygenation (without causing a significant decrease in ventilation and consequent hypercapnia or oxygen toxicity) Need to treat • Tissue hypoxia is difficult to recognize as clinical features are nonspecific –include dyspnoea cyanosis, tachypnoea, arrhythmias, altered mental state, coma. • Treatment of tissue hypoxia should correct any arterial hypoxemia (Cardiopulmonary defect/shunt e.g.-asthma, pneumonia, PE), any transport deficit (anaemia, low cardiac output), and underlying causes. • SaO2/PaO2 can be normal when tissue hypoxia is caused by low cardiac output states. Oxygen administration Equipment The method of delivery will depend on the type and severity of respiratory failure, breathing pattern, respiratory rate, risk of CO2 retention, need for humidification and patient compliance. Each oxygen delivery device comprises • An oxygen supply(>4L/min) • Flow rate 07.Oxygen administration 20 Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure Dr.M.Umakanth • Tubing • Interface + humidification 1) Nasal cannula These direct oxygen via 2 short prongs up the nasal passage They: • Can be used for long periods of time. • Prevent rebreathing. • Can be used during eating and talking. 2) Low flow oxygen masks These deliver oxygen concentrations that vary depending on the patient’s minute volume. Some rebreathing of exhaled gases. 3) Fixed performance masks These deliver constant concentration of oxygen independent of the patient’s minute volume. The masks contain ‘venturi’ barrels where relatively low rates of oxygen are forced through a narrow orifice producing a greater flow rate. 4) Partial and non-rebreathe masks This mask have a ‘reservoir’ bag that is filled with pure oxygen and depend on a system of valves which prevent mixing of exhaled gases with the incoming oxygen. Dr.M.Umakanth Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure 21 5) High flow Oxygen Masks or nasal prongs that generate flows of 50-120ml/ min using a high flow regulator to entrain air and oxygen at specific concentrations. It should always be used with humidification. Procedure • Introduce yourself, confirm patient’s identity, explain the condition, Obtain Verbal consent. • Choose an appropriate oxygen delivery device • Choose an initial dose… o Cardiac or respiratory arrest:100%. o Hypoxaemia with PaCO2 <5.3kPa:40-60%. o Hypoxaemia with PaCO2 >5.3kPa:24% initially. • Decide on the acceptable level of SaO2 or PaO2 and titrate oxygen accordingly. • If possible, try to measure a PaO2 in room air prior to giving supplementary oxygen. • Liaise with nursing staff, physiotherapist or outreach for support in setting up equipment. • Apply the oxygen and monitor via oxymetry(SaO2) and/or repeat ABG(PaO2) in 30 minutes. • If hypoxemia continue, then the patient may require respiratory support either invasively or non-invasivelyliaise with your seniors and/or the respiratory doctors. • Stop supplementary oxygen when tissue hypoxia or arterial hypoxaemia has resolved. 22 Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure Dr.M.Umakanth Equipment Required • NG tube • Disposable gloves • Lubricant gel • Cup of water • 50ml Syringe • Drainage bag (If necessary) • Adhesive tape • Paper towel • Plastic apron. Indication • Feeding (Ryle’s tube) • Patients who have an increased risk of aspiration • Decompression of stomach during bowel obstruction • Gastric larvage Contraindication • Severe Facial trauma • Basal skull fracture • Suspected oesophageal perforation • Grossly abnormal nasal anatomy Procedure • Introduce yourself, confirm patient’s identity, explain the procedure, and obtain verbal consent • Wash hands thoroughly, put on gloves and plastic apron. 08.Nasogastric(NG) tube Insertion Dr.M.Umakanth Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure 23 • Sit the patient up, slightly extending the neck. • Examine patient’s nose for deformity. • Use the tube to measure the length from the nares to the stomach, (Xiphisternum-earlobe-tip of nose) and note the distance. • Lubricate the tip(4-8cm) of the tube, avoiding blocking the lumen. • Insert into the nostril and advance directly posteriorly • Whilst advancing, ask the patient to take sip of water and hold it in their mouth. • Request the patient to swallow and, as the patient swallows, advance the tube down oesophagus. • Continue to advance the tube until 10-20cm beyond pre-measured distance to stomach (60-70cm total). • To confirm correct place ment o Aspirate some gastric contents with syringe and check fluid’s acidic pH(with litmus paper) confirmatory o If unsure, obtain a chest X-ray(CXR) with a view of the stomach. o Although commonly done on wards, injecting 5-10ml air into the tube whilst auscultating for babbling with stethoscope placed over stomach. • Remove guidewire if present • Either Place cap into the end of NG tube or attach a drainage bag. • Secure the tube in place by taping to nose. o 24 Hand book of Basic Medical Procedure Dr.M.Umakanth Complication • Discomfort, pain, gagging • Bleeding (at any site, but particularly nose) • Failure to correctly place tube e.g. Placement in trachea or bronchi • Perforation of esophagus and stomach • Electrolyte imbalance if rapid decompression of stomach. • Esophagitis • Nasal or retropharyngeal necrosis

System Instructions: Only use the provided text. Do not use any outside sources. Do not use any prior knowledge.

Question: What is the Ghon's complex?

Context: Tuberculosis (TB), which is a curable and preventable disease, is the second most common infectious cause of mortality after coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It affects close to 10 million people per year[1].Despite the diagnosis of TB often being a diagnostic dilemma in kidney disease patients, kidney transplant candidates (KTC) and kidney transplant recipients (KTR) have a 3.62- and 11.35 times higher risk of developing TB, respectively, compared to the general population[2]. They also have a higher rate of mortality due to TB. Treatment of TB also poses unique challenges in these patients due to renal dose modifications, drug interactions, and nephrotoxicity of anti-tubercular agents.EPIDEMIOLOGYIncidence of TB in dialysis patients and transplant candidatesThe incidence of TB in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) ranges between 60-19, 270 per 100000 population in various countries (highest incidence in the African region and lowest in the Americas), the pooled incidence being 3718 per 100000[3]. In general, extrapulmonary TB is more common than pulmonary TB in this population[2,3]. Amongst patients with CKD, those on dialysis, who are conventionally considered transplant candidates, are at a higher risk of developing TB as compared to earlier stages of CKD. Patients on hemodialysis have a higher incidence than those on peritoneal dialysis (5611/100000 vs 3533/100000 respectively)[3].Incidence of TB in KTRTB incidence is said to be 7-27 times higher than the general population in solid organ transplant recipients[4]. KTR have a 4.59 times higher risk of developing TB compared to the general population[5]. The incidence of TB in KTR was 2700/100000 population in a pooled systemic analysis[3] from across the world with a range of 340-14680/100000[6,7].NATURAL HISTORY OF TB IN TRANSPLANT CANDIDATES AND RECIPIENTSMycobacterium tuberculosis acquisitionThe primary transmission route of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) is through aerosols, with the lungs being the primary site of host-pathogen interaction. The innate immune system tends to clear the M. tuberculosis bacilli immediately through phagocytosis. However, there is a possibility of the following four distinct outcomes because of complex host-pathogen interplay[8]: (1) Immediate clearance of bacilli; (2) Chronic or latent infection; (3) Rapidly progressive TB; or (4) Reactivation after a prolonged period.Granuloma formationIf the bacilli are not removed immediately, granulomas are formed, where inflammatory cells and cytokines come together and generate a localized response, known as the "Ghon's complex". It includes organ parenchymal involvement along with regional adenopathy. Effective cell-mediated immunity usually develops in 4-6 weeks and halts further infection progression[8].Progression and disseminationWhen the host cannot produce a sufficient cell-mediated immune response, the infection spreads and destroys the tissue. Arterial erosion promotes hematogenous spread, which results in disseminated TB that eventually affects multiple organs.Reactivation and immunosuppressed statesIn immunocompromised states, there may be a reactivation of M. tuberculosis CKD, specifically kidney failure, is one such condition where reactivation of previous infection is the most common cause of TB. Earlier, this reactivation was typically limited to a single organ, the most common site being the upper lobe of the lung[8]. However, now extrapulmonary TB is seen to be more common in these patients. Extrapulmonary involvement can affect various other organs and appear with a myriad of clinical symptoms. Almost every organ being involved has been described, including the musculoskeletal system, gastrointestinal tract, liver, skin, orbit, genitourinary tract, lymph nodes, pericardium, larynx, kidneys, and adrenal glands[8,9]. Prasad P et al. TB in kidney transplantationWJT https://www.wjgnet.com 3September 18, 2024 Volume 14 Issue 3Natural history in transplant recipientsBecause of the immunosuppression, the natural history of TB infection is more complex in transplant patients. In developing countries, reactivation from previously acquired infections is more common than re-infection[8,9]. With a median time of onset of 9 months, most active TB cases are recognized during the first year post-transplantation[10-13]. Also, although pulmonary TB is the most common presentation in KTR, they are more likely to develop extrapulmonary TB compared to the general population[12,14,15].MODES OF TRANSMISSIONFor primary prevention, early diagnosis, and prompt treatment, understanding the various modes of transmission of TB is crucial. The various modes of transmission among transplant candidates and recipients are illustrated in Figure 1 and enlisted below[16,17]: (1) Airborne transmission: Aerosol transmission remains the predominant mechanism, particularly in enclosed and congested environments; (2) Reactivation from latent infection: In areas where TB is highly prevalent, reactivation of latent TB is a frequent mechanism of transmission; (3) Nosocomial transmission: The possibility of nosocomial transmission is a worry in healthcare environments. Strict infection control procedures are necessary in transplant units, where immunocompromised patients are concentrated, to stop TB from spreading among recipients; (4) Donor-derived transmission: Rarely, transmission can occur directly from the donor organ. Thorough screening of potential organ donors is essential to avoid unintentionally spreading TB during transplant procedures; and (5) Unusual routes of transmission: Environmental sources have been reported to host viable and infectious TB for long periods. These sources include soil, rivers, wastewater, fomites, dust, and even cadavers. There have been reports of TB transmission through topical wound site contamination, aerosolization during surgery, and intake of water tainted with sanatorium effluent. Also, the incidence of pediatric cases due to intestinal TB is showing an increasing trend, probably due to the ingestion of contaminated milk or sputum[16].Factors influencing transmissionThe probability that an individual with TB will transmit M. tuberculosis to others is determined by many factors, including the number and rate of infectious droplet production and virulence of the disease of the original host who transmits the infection[18]. Environmental factors include duration and extent of contact. Better air circulation and increased ultraviolet (UV) light exposure in the space of contact decrease the chances of transmission. Host factors include the type of induction and maintenance immunosuppression among transplant patients[18].

System Instructions: Only use the provided text. Do not use any outside sources. Do not use any prior knowledge. Question: What is the Ghon's complex? Context: Tuberculosis (TB), which is a curable and preventable disease, is the second most common infectious cause of mortality after coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It affects close to 10 million people per year[1].Despite the diagnosis of TB often being a diagnostic dilemma in kidney disease patients, kidney transplant candidates (KTC) and kidney transplant recipients (KTR) have a 3.62- and 11.35 times higher risk of developing TB, respectively, compared to the general population[2]. They also have a higher rate of mortality due to TB. Treatment of TB also poses unique challenges in these patients due to renal dose modifications, drug interactions, and nephrotoxicity of anti-tubercular agents.EPIDEMIOLOGYIncidence of TB in dialysis patients and transplant candidatesThe incidence of TB in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) ranges between 60-19, 270 per 100000 population in various countries (highest incidence in the African region and lowest in the Americas), the pooled incidence being 3718 per 100000[3]. In general, extrapulmonary TB is more common than pulmonary TB in this population[2,3]. Amongst patients with CKD, those on dialysis, who are conventionally considered transplant candidates, are at a higher risk of developing TB as compared to earlier stages of CKD. Patients on hemodialysis have a higher incidence than those on peritoneal dialysis (5611/100000 vs 3533/100000 respectively)[3].Incidence of TB in KTRTB incidence is said to be 7-27 times higher than the general population in solid organ transplant recipients[4]. KTR have a 4.59 times higher risk of developing TB compared to the general population[5]. The incidence of TB in KTR was 2700/100000 population in a pooled systemic analysis[3] from across the world with a range of 340-14680/100000[6,7].NATURAL HISTORY OF TB IN TRANSPLANT CANDIDATES AND RECIPIENTSMycobacterium tuberculosis acquisitionThe primary transmission route of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) is through aerosols, with the lungs being the primary site of host-pathogen interaction. The innate immune system tends to clear the M. tuberculosis bacilli immediately through phagocytosis. However, there is a possibility of the following four distinct outcomes because of complex host-pathogen interplay[8]: (1) Immediate clearance of bacilli; (2) Chronic or latent infection; (3) Rapidly progressive TB; or (4) Reactivation after a prolonged period.Granuloma formationIf the bacilli are not removed immediately, granulomas are formed, where inflammatory cells and cytokines come together and generate a localized response, known as the "Ghon's complex". It includes organ parenchymal involvement along with regional adenopathy. Effective cell-mediated immunity usually develops in 4-6 weeks and halts further infection progression[8].Progression and disseminationWhen the host cannot produce a sufficient cell-mediated immune response, the infection spreads and destroys the tissue. Arterial erosion promotes hematogenous spread, which results in disseminated TB that eventually affects multiple organs.Reactivation and immunosuppressed statesIn immunocompromised states, there may be a reactivation of M. tuberculosis CKD, specifically kidney failure, is one such condition where reactivation of previous infection is the most common cause of TB. Earlier, this reactivation was typically limited to a single organ, the most common site being the upper lobe of the lung[8]. However, now extrapulmonary TB is seen to be more common in these patients. Extrapulmonary involvement can affect various other organs and appear with a myriad of clinical symptoms. Almost every organ being involved has been described, including the musculoskeletal system, gastrointestinal tract, liver, skin, orbit, genitourinary tract, lymph nodes, pericardium, larynx, kidneys, and adrenal glands[8,9]. Prasad P et al. TB in kidney transplantationWJT https://www.wjgnet.com 3September 18, 2024 Volume 14 Issue 3Natural history in transplant recipientsBecause of the immunosuppression, the natural history of TB infection is more complex in transplant patients. In developing countries, reactivation from previously acquired infections is more common than re-infection[8,9]. With a median time of onset of 9 months, most active TB cases are recognized during the first year post-transplantation[10-13]. Also, although pulmonary TB is the most common presentation in KTR, they are more likely to develop extrapulmonary TB compared to the general population[12,14,15].MODES OF TRANSMISSIONFor primary prevention, early diagnosis, and prompt treatment, understanding the various modes of transmission of TB is crucial. The various modes of transmission among transplant candidates and recipients are illustrated in Figure 1 and enlisted below[16,17]: (1) Airborne transmission: Aerosol transmission remains the predominant mechanism, particularly in enclosed and congested environments; (2) Reactivation from latent infection: In areas where TB is highly prevalent, reactivation of latent TB is a frequent mechanism of transmission; (3) Nosocomial transmission: The possibility of nosocomial transmission is a worry in healthcare environments. Strict infection control procedures are necessary in transplant units, where immunocompromised patients are concentrated, to stop TB from spreading among recipients; (4) Donor-derived transmission: Rarely, transmission can occur directly from the donor organ. Thorough screening of potential organ donors is essential to avoid unintentionally spreading TB during transplant procedures; and (5) Unusual routes of transmission: Environmental sources have been reported to host viable and infectious TB for long periods. These sources include soil, rivers, wastewater, fomites, dust, and even cadavers. There have been reports of TB transmission through topical wound site contamination, aerosolization during surgery, and intake of water tainted with sanatorium effluent. Also, the incidence of pediatric cases due to intestinal TB is showing an increasing trend, probably due to the ingestion of contaminated milk or sputum[16].Factors influencing transmissionThe probability that an individual with TB will transmit M. tuberculosis to others is determined by many factors, including the number and rate of infectious droplet production and virulence of the disease of the original host who transmits the infection[18]. Environmental factors include duration and extent of contact. Better air circulation and increased ultraviolet (UV) light exposure in the space of contact decrease the chances of transmission. Host factors include the type of induction and maintenance immunosuppression among transplant patients[18].

Response must use only information contained in the context block to answer the question. Model should not rely on its own knowledge or outside sources of information when responding.

What are the consequences of using your credit card to get cash instead of just making regular purchases?

First Timer’s Guide: Credit Cards Used the right way, your credit card can be your new financial BFF. HonestMoney.ca Like most things, with great power comes great responsibility. And credit cards are no different. Used the right way, they can be your new financial BFF. But before you tap, swipe, and charge your way into a bold new financial future, it’s important to have a handle on the basics to avoid some of the downsides of living that plastic life. First things first: What is a credit card? In the most basic sense, a credit card is a piece of plastic that allows you to pay for things with borrowed money. It’s an agreement between you and a financial institution where you can opt to pay on credit rather than with actual money. In practice, it’s a little more involved than that. Your credit card comes with a limit—that is the amount of money you have to borrow against. And those charges? You’re going to pay interest on them if you carry a balance. But we’re getting ahead of ourselves. Before you get swiping, make sure you know why. And how, so you can do it responsibly. Why you should have a credit card? There are lots of reasons why having a credit card can make you into a financial super hero: TO BUILD CREDIT Somewhere down the line, you will need a credit history. And a credit card—when used correctly—is one of the easiest way to build credit. When the time comes to take out a car loan or get a mortgage, your financial institution will refer back to your credit history to see how reliable you are with borrowing money. So even if a credit card seems unnecessary, making frequent purchases with it and immediately paying it off will help you build a positive credit history, which will pay off in the future. FLIGHTS, RENTALS, HOTELS, AND ONLINE SHOPPING If you want to get on planes, trains, or automobiles, or to purchase the latest bobble from your favourite online retailer, you’re going to need a credit card. Ditto for booking a room in a hotel, booking concert tickets, and more. HonestMoney.ca REWARDS A lot of cards actually reward you for using them with things like cash back, travel points, or exclusive offers like concert tickets. As long as you’re managing your balance wisely, using your credit card frequently can help you treat yourself later. EMERGENCIES Hopefully it never happens, but every once and while we all get stuck in emergencies where we just don’t have cash on hand. And although you should never put something on your credit card if you don’t have the money to pay for it, your card might help you get out of a tough situation in the very short term – or at least until you can take stock of your situation and sit down with your financial expert to come up with a longer term plan. How to choose a card that’s right for you Now that you’ve decided to get a credit card, you have to ask yourself—which one should I apply for? Types of credit cards No or Low Annual Fee Cards: These cards offer the convenience of having a credit card in your wallet without a high annual fee. Most low or no annual fee cards offer basic rewards but may not accumulate perks as quickly as a fee-based card. Low Interest Rate Cards: Many cards have interest rates upwards of 19.5%, but there are cards available with lower interest rates in exchange for a low annual fee. These cards often don’t accumulate rewards quickly, but if you find yourself carrying a balance on your card month over month, this can be a smart choice. Cash Back Cards: Not all card rewards come in the form of points. For every purchase you make, cash back cards offer a percentage back in cash credited to your statement at a set time. Rewards Cards: For every purchase you make on your card, you’ll accumulate a set number of rewards points. Points can be redeemed for all sorts of different things, ranging from the latest gadgets and gift cards, to concert tickets and experiences. HonestMoney.ca Student Cards: You guessed it! These cards are specifically meant for students who are just starting to build their credit. These often come with low or no fees and offer basic rewards. Travel Rewards Cards: Similar to a rewards card, but focused on travel. Travel rewards cards feature points that can be redeemed for flights, hotels, and car rentals and often include insurance coverage for things like out-of-country medical, lost luggage, or changes to travel plans. US Dollar Cards: These cards allow you to make purchases directly in US dollars. It’s a good idea to be honest with yourself about how you plan to use your card and what’s really important to you. For instance, if you’re keeping your card in case of emergencies only, a low or no annual fee card might make the most sense. If you find yourself traveling often, the protections and perks that come with a travel rewards card might provide you with the best value. Once you have a better sense of your needs and habits, take the time to go online and do a little bit of research. Check out and compare different cards. Look at the features and benefits and what you need to apply. Some cards have a minimum income threshold to qualify or are designed specifically for students, so make sure you know what you’re getting yourself into. HonestMoney.ca Applying for your card Just because you want a credit card, doesn’t mean you can always get a credit card. Like any kind of credit, there is an application process to complete before you can start spending. 1. Go online (financial institution) or in branch. 2. Fill out an application; pay stubs, Social Insurance Number, ID, employment & income verification; other important info. 3. (If approved) activate your card! How to manage your card So, you have your credit card. Now what? While using your card is pretty straight forward, there are a couple of important things to know about managing your card. First, not every purchase on a credit card is created equal. While most of us tend to think of credit card purchases as tapping or swiping your card in a store or inputting your information online, you can also use your credit card to get cash or to make cash-like transactions. This is called a cash advance. Taking a cash advance might sound like a good idea, but this can be a costly way to access cash in the long run. Cash advances often charge a small fee to initiate and almost always charge a higher rate of interest than regular purchases. The other thing to keep in mind is how interest accumulates. With regular purchases, you have a grace period (usually 21 days or more) before interest begins to accumulate on the money you owe. When you take a cash advance, interest starts to accumulate right away and will continue to accrue until the whole amount of the advance is paid off in full. Don’t apply for every offer: Each time you apply for a credit card there will be an inquiry made on your credit history. Lots of inquiries over a short period of time can impact your credit score and lots of open, available cards can hurt your chances to qualify for more credit in the future. HonestMoney.ca You can also expect to get a monthly statement whether you use your card or not. Statements provide a detailed snapshot for a set period of time and outline your purchases, how much you owe, the minimum payment due, and when you need to make a payment. Statements are monthly, but may not run from the first day of the month to the last. When you get your statement, be sure to review it carefully. If something doesn’t make sense on your statement, or if there is something you don’t recognize, don’t be afraid to speak up and ask your card provider for more details. Credit card Dos and Don’ts DO DON’T • Pay off your full balance each month, if possible • Buy things you can easily pay for • Stay at around 50% of your credit limit • Check your balance on a regular basis • Become familiar with your grace periods and when interest kicks in • Make your payments on time • Take advantage of rewards programs • Just make the minimum payment required each month • Pay for things you can’t afford • Regularly run your balance close to your limit • Ignore your balance and transactions • Pay late or forget to make your payments altogether • Don’t make purchases just to gain rewards Be aware of your terms and conditions: If an offer seems too good to be true, it probably is. And the same goes for credit cards. Be cautious when it comes to 0% offers in exchange for making a big purchase and be sure that you understand the terms and conditions before signing up. Zero interest doesn’t last forever and some credit cards can charge very high interest rates once their introductory offers have expired. HonestMoney.ca Interest Every credit card has an interest rate. When you make a purchase with your credit card, your grace period for that transaction starts. This means that you have around 21-25 days (each credit card provider is different) to pay off that transaction before interest charges kick in. If you keep an unpaid balance on your credit card, interest will keep adding up month by month. But if you pay off the full balance on time, you’ll never have to pay interest! And remember, only making the minimum payment required each month still means you get charged interest on the full balance. % *Assumption: Based on an APR of 19.9%. This does not take into account minimum payments. INITIAL BALANCE $1,000* How your credit card accrues interest. Balance owing after 2 years $1,491.36 Balance owing after 3 years $1,821.27 Balance owing after 1 year $1,221.21 HonestMoney.ca Keeping your credit card info safe Credit cards have a lot of great security features, but knowing how to protect your card information is probably the biggest thing you can do to keep yourself from fraud. Here are a few easy tips that can help. Be aware of email phishing or fraudulent phone calls: Scammers will often try to create a sense of panic, trying to persuade you to give out your information. Don’t do it! Never give you credit card info over the phone or in an email: Your credit card provider or financial institution will never call you and ask for your credit card info over the phone/email. Cancel your card immediately if you ever lose it: Fraudulent transactions can be refunded if you report the card missing before they happen. Don’t write down your credit card information to store it: Enough said! Review your transactions regularly and ask lots of questions: Regularly check your transactions and balance and don’t be afraid to ask your card provider questions if you don’t recognize something. HonestMoney.ca Glossary APR This is short for Annual Percentage Rate. APR is the rate charged to the amount borrowed on your credit card, expressed as a percentage. (See Interest Rate definition.) ANNUAL FEE A yearly fee that is charged for having certain credit cards in your wallet. Not all credit cards have annual fees. The fee can range in price and typically includes access to other perks, points, or benefits above and beyond what you get with a standard, nofee card. BALANCE This is how much money you owe on your credit card. CREDIT LIMIT The maximum dollar amount you can spend on your credit card. GRACE PERIOD Typically, when you make a purchase on your credit card, interest doesn’t begin to accumulate immediately. Instead, you get a grace period (usually a minimum of 21 days) to make payments before you are charged interest. If you pay off the full amount owing on your card before the end of your grace period, you will not be charged interest. INTEREST RATE This is the percentage of interest that is charged on any balance owing on your card after the grace period is up. Interest is calculated daily and charged to your card monthly. Interest rates can vary from card to card. MINIMUM PAYMENT This is the smallest dollar amount that you can pay each month to keep your credit card account in good standing. STATEMENT Your credit card statement is a detailed list showing all of your transactions during your billing cycle, along with your balance owing (as of your statement date), your minimum payment, and when your payment is due.

Response must use only information contained in the context block to answer the question. Model should not rely on its own knowledge or outside sources of information when responding. What are the consequences of using your credit card to get cash instead of just making regular purchases? First Timer’s Guide: Credit Cards Used the right way, your credit card can be your new financial BFF. HonestMoney.ca Like most things, with great power comes great responsibility. And credit cards are no different. Used the right way, they can be your new financial BFF. But before you tap, swipe, and charge your way into a bold new financial future, it’s important to have a handle on the basics to avoid some of the downsides of living that plastic life. First things first: What is a credit card? In the most basic sense, a credit card is a piece of plastic that allows you to pay for things with borrowed money. It’s an agreement between you and a financial institution where you can opt to pay on credit rather than with actual money. In practice, it’s a little more involved than that. Your credit card comes with a limit—that is the amount of money you have to borrow against. And those charges? You’re going to pay interest on them if you carry a balance. But we’re getting ahead of ourselves. Before you get swiping, make sure you know why. And how, so you can do it responsibly. Why you should have a credit card? There are lots of reasons why having a credit card can make you into a financial super hero: TO BUILD CREDIT Somewhere down the line, you will need a credit history. And a credit card—when used correctly—is one of the easiest way to build credit. When the time comes to take out a car loan or get a mortgage, your financial institution will refer back to your credit history to see how reliable you are with borrowing money. So even if a credit card seems unnecessary, making frequent purchases with it and immediately paying it off will help you build a positive credit history, which will pay off in the future. FLIGHTS, RENTALS, HOTELS, AND ONLINE SHOPPING If you want to get on planes, trains, or automobiles, or to purchase the latest bobble from your favourite online retailer, you’re going to need a credit card. Ditto for booking a room in a hotel, booking concert tickets, and more. HonestMoney.ca REWARDS A lot of cards actually reward you for using them with things like cash back, travel points, or exclusive offers like concert tickets. As long as you’re managing your balance wisely, using your credit card frequently can help you treat yourself later. EMERGENCIES Hopefully it never happens, but every once and while we all get stuck in emergencies where we just don’t have cash on hand. And although you should never put something on your credit card if you don’t have the money to pay for it, your card might help you get out of a tough situation in the very short term – or at least until you can take stock of your situation and sit down with your financial expert to come up with a longer term plan. How to choose a card that’s right for you Now that you’ve decided to get a credit card, you have to ask yourself—which one should I apply for? Types of credit cards No or Low Annual Fee Cards: These cards offer the convenience of having a credit card in your wallet without a high annual fee. Most low or no annual fee cards offer basic rewards but may not accumulate perks as quickly as a fee-based card. Low Interest Rate Cards: Many cards have interest rates upwards of 19.5%, but there are cards available with lower interest rates in exchange for a low annual fee. These cards often don’t accumulate rewards quickly, but if you find yourself carrying a balance on your card month over month, this can be a smart choice. Cash Back Cards: Not all card rewards come in the form of points. For every purchase you make, cash back cards offer a percentage back in cash credited to your statement at a set time. Rewards Cards: For every purchase you make on your card, you’ll accumulate a set number of rewards points. Points can be redeemed for all sorts of different things, ranging from the latest gadgets and gift cards, to concert tickets and experiences. HonestMoney.ca Student Cards: You guessed it! These cards are specifically meant for students who are just starting to build their credit. These often come with low or no fees and offer basic rewards. Travel Rewards Cards: Similar to a rewards card, but focused on travel. Travel rewards cards feature points that can be redeemed for flights, hotels, and car rentals and often include insurance coverage for things like out-of-country medical, lost luggage, or changes to travel plans. US Dollar Cards: These cards allow you to make purchases directly in US dollars. It’s a good idea to be honest with yourself about how you plan to use your card and what’s really important to you. For instance, if you’re keeping your card in case of emergencies only, a low or no annual fee card might make the most sense. If you find yourself traveling often, the protections and perks that come with a travel rewards card might provide you with the best value. Once you have a better sense of your needs and habits, take the time to go online and do a little bit of research. Check out and compare different cards. Look at the features and benefits and what you need to apply. Some cards have a minimum income threshold to qualify or are designed specifically for students, so make sure you know what you’re getting yourself into. HonestMoney.ca Applying for your card Just because you want a credit card, doesn’t mean you can always get a credit card. Like any kind of credit, there is an application process to complete before you can start spending. 1. Go online (financial institution) or in branch. 2. Fill out an application; pay stubs, Social Insurance Number, ID, employment & income verification; other important info. 3. (If approved) activate your card! How to manage your card So, you have your credit card. Now what? While using your card is pretty straight forward, there are a couple of important things to know about managing your card. First, not every purchase on a credit card is created equal. While most of us tend to think of credit card purchases as tapping or swiping your card in a store or inputting your information online, you can also use your credit card to get cash or to make cash-like transactions. This is called a cash advance. Taking a cash advance might sound like a good idea, but this can be a costly way to access cash in the long run. Cash advances often charge a small fee to initiate and almost always charge a higher rate of interest than regular purchases. The other thing to keep in mind is how interest accumulates. With regular purchases, you have a grace period (usually 21 days or more) before interest begins to accumulate on the money you owe. When you take a cash advance, interest starts to accumulate right away and will continue to accrue until the whole amount of the advance is paid off in full. Don’t apply for every offer: Each time you apply for a credit card there will be an inquiry made on your credit history. Lots of inquiries over a short period of time can impact your credit score and lots of open, available cards can hurt your chances to qualify for more credit in the future. HonestMoney.ca You can also expect to get a monthly statement whether you use your card or not. Statements provide a detailed snapshot for a set period of time and outline your purchases, how much you owe, the minimum payment due, and when you need to make a payment. Statements are monthly, but may not run from the first day of the month to the last. When you get your statement, be sure to review it carefully. If something doesn’t make sense on your statement, or if there is something you don’t recognize, don’t be afraid to speak up and ask your card provider for more details. Credit card Dos and Don’ts DO DON’T • Pay off your full balance each month, if possible • Buy things you can easily pay for • Stay at around 50% of your credit limit • Check your balance on a regular basis • Become familiar with your grace periods and when interest kicks in • Make your payments on time • Take advantage of rewards programs • Just make the minimum payment required each month • Pay for things you can’t afford • Regularly run your balance close to your limit • Ignore your balance and transactions • Pay late or forget to make your payments altogether • Don’t make purchases just to gain rewards Be aware of your terms and conditions: If an offer seems too good to be true, it probably is. And the same goes for credit cards. Be cautious when it comes to 0% offers in exchange for making a big purchase and be sure that you understand the terms and conditions before signing up. Zero interest doesn’t last forever and some credit cards can charge very high interest rates once their introductory offers have expired. HonestMoney.ca Interest Every credit card has an interest rate. When you make a purchase with your credit card, your grace period for that transaction starts. This means that you have around 21-25 days (each credit card provider is different) to pay off that transaction before interest charges kick in. If you keep an unpaid balance on your credit card, interest will keep adding up month by month. But if you pay off the full balance on time, you’ll never have to pay interest! And remember, only making the minimum payment required each month still means you get charged interest on the full balance. % *Assumption: Based on an APR of 19.9%. This does not take into account minimum payments. INITIAL BALANCE $1,000* How your credit card accrues interest. Balance owing after 2 years $1,491.36 Balance owing after 3 years $1,821.27 Balance owing after 1 year $1,221.21 HonestMoney.ca Keeping your credit card info safe Credit cards have a lot of great security features, but knowing how to protect your card information is probably the biggest thing you can do to keep yourself from fraud. Here are a few easy tips that can help. Be aware of email phishing or fraudulent phone calls: Scammers will often try to create a sense of panic, trying to persuade you to give out your information. Don’t do it! Never give you credit card info over the phone or in an email: Your credit card provider or financial institution will never call you and ask for your credit card info over the phone/email. Cancel your card immediately if you ever lose it: Fraudulent transactions can be refunded if you report the card missing before they happen. Don’t write down your credit card information to store it: Enough said! Review your transactions regularly and ask lots of questions: Regularly check your transactions and balance and don’t be afraid to ask your card provider questions if you don’t recognize something. HonestMoney.ca Glossary APR This is short for Annual Percentage Rate. APR is the rate charged to the amount borrowed on your credit card, expressed as a percentage. (See Interest Rate definition.) ANNUAL FEE A yearly fee that is charged for having certain credit cards in your wallet. Not all credit cards have annual fees. The fee can range in price and typically includes access to other perks, points, or benefits above and beyond what you get with a standard, nofee card. BALANCE This is how much money you owe on your credit card. CREDIT LIMIT The maximum dollar amount you can spend on your credit card. GRACE PERIOD Typically, when you make a purchase on your credit card, interest doesn’t begin to accumulate immediately. Instead, you get a grace period (usually a minimum of 21 days) to make payments before you are charged interest. If you pay off the full amount owing on your card before the end of your grace period, you will not be charged interest. INTEREST RATE This is the percentage of interest that is charged on any balance owing on your card after the grace period is up. Interest is calculated daily and charged to your card monthly. Interest rates can vary from card to card. MINIMUM PAYMENT This is the smallest dollar amount that you can pay each month to keep your credit card account in good standing. STATEMENT Your credit card statement is a detailed list showing all of your transactions during your billing cycle, along with your balance owing (as of your statement date), your minimum payment, and when your payment is due.

[question] [user request] ===================== [text] [context document] ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

I just adopted a German Shepard puppy through a local pet rescue. I also own a small business with inventory in an outbuilding on my property. Can I deduct the adoption fee and all of the expenses for this dog if I am using him a few hours a day as a guard dog?

When you’re trying to score a break at tax time, maxing out your deductions can potentially lower your bill or result in a bigger tax return. Apart from the standard write-offs for things like mortgage interest or business travel, you may be able to claim more unusual expenses, including the cost of taking care of a pet. The IRS has certain rules about when pet expenses are tax-deductible, so if you’ve got some furry friends at home, here are a few scenarios where you might benefit. Consider working with a financial advisor as you work on a budget, whether that includes a pet or not. You Require a Pet for Medical Reasons Service animals can take many different forms, including dogs, cats and even miniature ponies. If you’re required to have a guide, service or therapy animal because you have a diagnosed medical condition, such as blindness, epilepsy or post-traumatic stress disorder, you may be able to deduct the cost of its care as a medical expense on your taxes. In order to meet the IRS standards your pet must be certified and trained as a service animal. The types of costs you can deduct include grooming, food, veterinary care and training. You might also be able to claim vet bills on taxes for pets you foster, provided that the nonprofit organization hasn’t reimbursed you and the organization is registered with the IRS. Find out now: How much do I need to save for retirement? You Use a Guard Dog for Your Business While you can’t technically put a dog on the payroll, you may still be able to deduct the cost of its care as a business expense if it’s used primarily to guard your premises and inventory. The IRS doesn’t allow you to write off the cost of buying the dog itself, but you can use the deduction for things like food, training, boarding and medical care. Keep in mind that it only applies to the dog’s working hours, not expenses incurred during the animal’s down time. You Foster Pets in Your Home Volunteering with a service animal agency or pet rescue organization is a great way to give back, and it can also pay off at tax time. If you foster pets, either in your home or on your property, you may be eligible to claim the deduction for unreimbursed expenses. That covers food, shelter, veterinary bills, grooming costs, litter and bedding materials. These expenses would qualify as charitable donations, which are deductible up to 50 percent of your adjusted gross income. You’re a Professional Breeder SmartAsset: When Are Pet Expenses Tax-Deductible? If breeding and selling dogs, cats or other animals is your primary occupation, there’s good news: not only can you deduct food, medical bills and boarding costs, but you can also write off any other ordinary and necessary expenses that running your business entails. This includes things like advertising, costs relating to the business use of your home, and travel expenses. If you breed animals as a hobby, you only qualify for the deduction if your expenses exceed 2 percent of your adjusted gross income and you itemize. You’re a Law Enforcement Dog Handler Some of the cost that goes along with maintaining a police dog may also qualify for a tax deduction if you’re not reimbursed for these expenses through your job. If the dog lives in your home when not on-duty and you’re responsible for buying its food or purchasing a kennel, you can generally claim them as a job-related expense. The Main Rule for Cutting Your Tax Bill The No. 1 rule when it comes to claiming deductions for pet care is to make sure you’re documenting your expenses carefully. If you include something that you know is deductible but you don’t have documentation to support it, you may run into trouble if you’re audited. You don’t want to end up in the doghouse with Uncle Sam, so hanging on to all of your receipts is a must. Bottom Line SmartAsset: When Are Pet Expenses Tax-Deductible? Contrary to what many people may think, it is very possible to claim deductions for your pet-related expenses. Just be sure to keep careful and complete records of what you spend and why you spent it. Was it for a work-related matter? Or was it for non-compensated activity like fostering pets? Keep in mind that moving expenses are no longer deductible. Tips on Taxes A financial advisor can offer valuable insight and guidance as you explore ways to reduce your taxes, including by deducting pet-related expenses. Finding a financial advisor doesn’t have to be hard. SmartAsset’s free tool matches you with up to three financial advisors who serve your area, and you can interview your advisor matches at no cost to decide which one is right for you. If you’re ready to find an advisor who can help you achieve your financial goals, get started now. Income in America is taxed by the federal government, most state governments and many local governments. The federal income tax system is progressive, so the rate of taxation increases as income increases. Use our free income tax calculator to give you a quick estimate of what you’ll owe.

[question] I just adopted a German Shepard puppy through a local pet rescue. I also own a small business with inventory in an outbuilding on my property. Can I deduct the adoption fee and all of the expenses for this dog if I am using him a few hours a day as a guard dog? ===================== [text] When you’re trying to score a break at tax time, maxing out your deductions can potentially lower your bill or result in a bigger tax return. Apart from the standard write-offs for things like mortgage interest or business travel, you may be able to claim more unusual expenses, including the cost of taking care of a pet. The IRS has certain rules about when pet expenses are tax-deductible, so if you’ve got some furry friends at home, here are a few scenarios where you might benefit. Consider working with a financial advisor as you work on a budget, whether that includes a pet or not. You Require a Pet for Medical Reasons Service animals can take many different forms, including dogs, cats and even miniature ponies. If you’re required to have a guide, service or therapy animal because you have a diagnosed medical condition, such as blindness, epilepsy or post-traumatic stress disorder, you may be able to deduct the cost of its care as a medical expense on your taxes. In order to meet the IRS standards your pet must be certified and trained as a service animal. The types of costs you can deduct include grooming, food, veterinary care and training. You might also be able to claim vet bills on taxes for pets you foster, provided that the nonprofit organization hasn’t reimbursed you and the organization is registered with the IRS. Find out now: How much do I need to save for retirement? You Use a Guard Dog for Your Business While you can’t technically put a dog on the payroll, you may still be able to deduct the cost of its care as a business expense if it’s used primarily to guard your premises and inventory. The IRS doesn’t allow you to write off the cost of buying the dog itself, but you can use the deduction for things like food, training, boarding and medical care. Keep in mind that it only applies to the dog’s working hours, not expenses incurred during the animal’s down time. You Foster Pets in Your Home Volunteering with a service animal agency or pet rescue organization is a great way to give back, and it can also pay off at tax time. If you foster pets, either in your home or on your property, you may be eligible to claim the deduction for unreimbursed expenses. That covers food, shelter, veterinary bills, grooming costs, litter and bedding materials. These expenses would qualify as charitable donations, which are deductible up to 50 percent of your adjusted gross income. You’re a Professional Breeder SmartAsset: When Are Pet Expenses Tax-Deductible? If breeding and selling dogs, cats or other animals is your primary occupation, there’s good news: not only can you deduct food, medical bills and boarding costs, but you can also write off any other ordinary and necessary expenses that running your business entails. This includes things like advertising, costs relating to the business use of your home, and travel expenses. If you breed animals as a hobby, you only qualify for the deduction if your expenses exceed 2 percent of your adjusted gross income and you itemize. You’re a Law Enforcement Dog Handler Some of the cost that goes along with maintaining a police dog may also qualify for a tax deduction if you’re not reimbursed for these expenses through your job. If the dog lives in your home when not on-duty and you’re responsible for buying its food or purchasing a kennel, you can generally claim them as a job-related expense. The Main Rule for Cutting Your Tax Bill The No. 1 rule when it comes to claiming deductions for pet care is to make sure you’re documenting your expenses carefully. If you include something that you know is deductible but you don’t have documentation to support it, you may run into trouble if you’re audited. You don’t want to end up in the doghouse with Uncle Sam, so hanging on to all of your receipts is a must. Bottom Line SmartAsset: When Are Pet Expenses Tax-Deductible? Contrary to what many people may think, it is very possible to claim deductions for your pet-related expenses. Just be sure to keep careful and complete records of what you spend and why you spent it. Was it for a work-related matter? Or was it for non-compensated activity like fostering pets? Keep in mind that moving expenses are no longer deductible. Tips on Taxes A financial advisor can offer valuable insight and guidance as you explore ways to reduce your taxes, including by deducting pet-related expenses. Finding a financial advisor doesn’t have to be hard. SmartAsset’s free tool matches you with up to three financial advisors who serve your area, and you can interview your advisor matches at no cost to decide which one is right for you. If you’re ready to find an advisor who can help you achieve your financial goals, get started now. Income in America is taxed by the federal government, most state governments and many local governments. The federal income tax system is progressive, so the rate of taxation increases as income increases. Use our free income tax calculator to give you a quick estimate of what you’ll owe. https://smartasset.com/personal-finance/when-are-pet-expenses-tax-deductible ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

Create your answer using only information from the context to answer this question:

What advantages does Nintendo have over its competitors?

Internal environment of Nintendo (1) Analysis of Nintendo's advantages Competitive advantage refers to an enterprise's ability to outperform its competitors, which helps to achieve its main goal -- profit. Nintendo's strengths lie in the following ways [3]. Nintendo has developed a unique profit distribution system based on its nearly 50 years of experience in the game industry. At that time, the manager in charge of Nintendo drew lessons from the "collapse of Atari". First, he set up a "Mario Club" game quality supervision agency to strictly screen the game software on the Nintendo game console. Later, he set up a "royalty system" and formulated a set of rules for game review, platform access, and game revenue sharing, which brought huge profits to Nintendo, At the same time, it objectively promoted the benign development of the Japanese game industry at that time. These systems are also the internal reason why the overall quality of Nintendo Switch games is much better than its competitors. Super big IPs such as Super Mario and Legend of Zelda have always maintained a good reputation and remain popular among players. It is these unique systems that enable Nintendo to maintain a high-profit margin even in the context of economic depression [4]. (2) Analysis of Nintendo's disadvantages First, Nintendo's failed family business management style. The presidents of Nintendo's Japanese and American divisions (NOA) often have differences due to huge differences in management methods, and the consequences of such differences are devastating because they will lead to key employees becoming vulnerable and even leaving to do other work. Therefore, the family business management model seriously leads to the failure of efficient cooperation between Nintendo's various branches, and will also seriously harm Nintendo's external reputation and damage Nintendo's overall interests [5]. Secondly, weak technology research and development capability. With the growing demand for personalized service, companies are required to provide increasingly specialized service strategies and differentiated solutions, for example, more and more game companies begin to focus on creating products with local characteristics based on the language and cultural background of different regions, which is also the basis for a game to be promoted around the world. In addition, the development of modern games also needs the support of technological innovation. For example, more and more VR, AR, and motion capture games are emerging in the market. It would be unthinkable for Nintendo to spend huge resources on a new generation of high-performance consoles to compete with SONY. Conversely, it is in the area of research and development that Nintendo's other rival, Microsoft, has the greatest advantage. 3.3.2 External environment of Nintendo (1) Opportunity for Nintendo In terms of technology and business environment, Nintendo has much more experience than its competitors with the background of years of exploration in the gaming industry. Even though Microsoft recently acquired the game giant Blizzard, it intends to expand its market share in the game industry. However, Microsoft did not intervene in Blizzard's daily operation, which was also due to its limited experience in the game industry. These factors can also reduce Nintendo's competitive pressure [6]. In terms of the political and legal environment, the government's favorable policies also help game companies expand their overseas markets. Also, under the catalysis of the epidemic economy, video games have become one of the most popular cultural and creative activities for young people in the world. Many governments are aware of this trend and have introduced a series of supportive policies, such as setting up special funds for the game industry; Promise the game developer that adding landmark landmarks in the game can get financial support and tax concessions. These policies are good news for multinational game companies like Nintendo to expand their overseas markets. (2) Threat for Nintendo Highlights in Business, Economics and Management FMIBM 2023 Volume 10 (2023) 194 Microsoft's strong economic strength enables them to continue to operate in the gaming industry after experiencing the cost of failure in the game product competition of 4 billion dollars and make up for the shortcomings of their predecessors in new products. At the same time, Microsoft could use money offensive to buy third-party platform certification. Finally, and most importantly, Microsoft's latest games are coming out one year earlier than Nintendo's or SONY's, making it harder for Nintendo to time and win the market. 4. Nintendo’s market strategy suggestion As the gaming industry continues to evolve, scholars generally agree that gaming companies need not only excellent hardware and software technology but also effective marketing strategies. Schilling MA (2003) believes that if companies in the game industry want to maintain their market share, they need to improve their marketing strategies to follow or even guide the market trend [7]. Marchand A and Hennig-Thurau T (2013) think that companies in the game industry need to pay attention to consumers' preferences in the market, understand consumers' needs in the form of questionnaires, etc., to design their products in a targeted way [8]. SC Jain (1989) thinks that companies in the game industry need to pay attention to consumers' preferences in the market, understand consumers' needs in the form of questionnaires, etc., to design their products in a targeted way [9]. Based on the above analysis of Nintendo's internal and external conditions, this report proposes the following improvement suggestions [10]. Nintendo could consider setting up more offline experience stores overseas. Nintendo's classic game characters, such as Mario, Pokemon, Kirby, and Link, are familiar to the public. Taking these characters as ambassadors of offline experience stores, they can attract enough attention without too much publicity expenses and are very attractive to children and adults. Nintendo could consider adding episode-by-episode, level-by-level incrementally unlocked purchases. Because Nintendo's software games are priced in a complementary way to the console's price, they are generally priced higher than other games in the market. This can lead to players who want to play a game but don't buy it because the price is too high. In this case, the buy-out system can be supplemented with the option of gradually unlocking purchases by episode or level, and players can choose to buy them out or buy them separately. That way, players can play more games, and buying incrementally doesn't feel like a buy-out. This is also a great way for Nintendo to increase its sales. Nintendo could increase its ban on cracking consoles and develop new encryption technologies. For now, Nintendo's crackdown on cracked consoles is not strong enough, and only users who use cracked consoles to connect to the Internet have been blocked. In this case, to protect their intellectual property rights, but also promote the sale of their legitimate games, the development of a new set of encryption technology is worth considering.

Create your answer using only information from the context to answer this question: What advantages does Nintendo have over its competitors? Internal environment of Nintendo (1) Analysis of Nintendo's advantages Competitive advantage refers to an enterprise's ability to outperform its competitors, which helps to achieve its main goal -- profit. Nintendo's strengths lie in the following ways [3]. Nintendo has developed a unique profit distribution system based on its nearly 50 years of experience in the game industry. At that time, the manager in charge of Nintendo drew lessons from the "collapse of Atari". First, he set up a "Mario Club" game quality supervision agency to strictly screen the game software on the Nintendo game console. Later, he set up a "royalty system" and formulated a set of rules for game review, platform access, and game revenue sharing, which brought huge profits to Nintendo, At the same time, it objectively promoted the benign development of the Japanese game industry at that time. These systems are also the internal reason why the overall quality of Nintendo Switch games is much better than its competitors. Super big IPs such as Super Mario and Legend of Zelda have always maintained a good reputation and remain popular among players. It is these unique systems that enable Nintendo to maintain a high-profit margin even in the context of economic depression [4]. (2) Analysis of Nintendo's disadvantages First, Nintendo's failed family business management style. The presidents of Nintendo's Japanese and American divisions (NOA) often have differences due to huge differences in management methods, and the consequences of such differences are devastating because they will lead to key employees becoming vulnerable and even leaving to do other work. Therefore, the family business management model seriously leads to the failure of efficient cooperation between Nintendo's various branches, and will also seriously harm Nintendo's external reputation and damage Nintendo's overall interests [5]. Secondly, weak technology research and development capability. With the growing demand for personalized service, companies are required to provide increasingly specialized service strategies and differentiated solutions, for example, more and more game companies begin to focus on creating products with local characteristics based on the language and cultural background of different regions, which is also the basis for a game to be promoted around the world. In addition, the development of modern games also needs the support of technological innovation. For example, more and more VR, AR, and motion capture games are emerging in the market. It would be unthinkable for Nintendo to spend huge resources on a new generation of high-performance consoles to compete with SONY. Conversely, it is in the area of research and development that Nintendo's other rival, Microsoft, has the greatest advantage. 3.3.2 External environment of Nintendo (1) Opportunity for Nintendo In terms of technology and business environment, Nintendo has much more experience than its competitors with the background of years of exploration in the gaming industry. Even though Microsoft recently acquired the game giant Blizzard, it intends to expand its market share in the game industry. However, Microsoft did not intervene in Blizzard's daily operation, which was also due to its limited experience in the game industry. These factors can also reduce Nintendo's competitive pressure [6]. In terms of the political and legal environment, the government's favorable policies also help game companies expand their overseas markets. Also, under the catalysis of the epidemic economy, video games have become one of the most popular cultural and creative activities for young people in the world. Many governments are aware of this trend and have introduced a series of supportive policies, such as setting up special funds for the game industry; Promise the game developer that adding landmark landmarks in the game can get financial support and tax concessions. These policies are good news for multinational game companies like Nintendo to expand their overseas markets. (2) Threat for Nintendo Highlights in Business, Economics and Management FMIBM 2023 Volume 10 (2023) 194 Microsoft's strong economic strength enables them to continue to operate in the gaming industry after experiencing the cost of failure in the game product competition of 4 billion dollars and make up for the shortcomings of their predecessors in new products. At the same time, Microsoft could use money offensive to buy third-party platform certification. Finally, and most importantly, Microsoft's latest games are coming out one year earlier than Nintendo's or SONY's, making it harder for Nintendo to time and win the market. 4. Nintendo’s market strategy suggestion As the gaming industry continues to evolve, scholars generally agree that gaming companies need not only excellent hardware and software technology but also effective marketing strategies. Schilling MA (2003) believes that if companies in the game industry want to maintain their market share, they need to improve their marketing strategies to follow or even guide the market trend [7]. Marchand A and Hennig-Thurau T (2013) think that companies in the game industry need to pay attention to consumers' preferences in the market, understand consumers' needs in the form of questionnaires, etc., to design their products in a targeted way [8]. SC Jain (1989) thinks that companies in the game industry need to pay attention to consumers' preferences in the market, understand consumers' needs in the form of questionnaires, etc., to design their products in a targeted way [9]. Based on the above analysis of Nintendo's internal and external conditions, this report proposes the following improvement suggestions [10]. Nintendo could consider setting up more offline experience stores overseas. Nintendo's classic game characters, such as Mario, Pokemon, Kirby, and Link, are familiar to the public. Taking these characters as ambassadors of offline experience stores, they can attract enough attention without too much publicity expenses and are very attractive to children and adults. Nintendo could consider adding episode-by-episode, level-by-level incrementally unlocked purchases. Because Nintendo's software games are priced in a complementary way to the console's price, they are generally priced higher than other games in the market. This can lead to players who want to play a game but don't buy it because the price is too high. In this case, the buy-out system can be supplemented with the option of gradually unlocking purchases by episode or level, and players can choose to buy them out or buy them separately. That way, players can play more games, and buying incrementally doesn't feel like a buy-out. This is also a great way for Nintendo to increase its sales. Nintendo could increase its ban on cracking consoles and develop new encryption technologies. For now, Nintendo's crackdown on cracked consoles is not strong enough, and only users who use cracked consoles to connect to the Internet have been blocked. In this case, to protect their intellectual property rights, but also promote the sale of their legitimate games, the development of a new set of encryption technology is worth considering.

Only use information provided in the document to answer, don't use external knowledge.

In the context of the described medical study in the provided text, what task (or tasks) do "Neoantigens" have?

**Mismatch repair deficiency doesn’t always boost immunotherapy response** Mismatch repair deficiency occurs when tumor cells have a mutation in one of several genes that normally correct mistakes in the DNA code. Without that DNA spellchecker, the tumor constantly accumulates genetic mutations, leading to a high tumor mutational burden. To investigate why some tumors with deficient mismatch repair don’t respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors, Dr. Westcott and his colleagues genetically engineered mice to spontaneously grow lung or colorectal tumors that were either deficient in mismatch repair or had functioning mismatch repair. Tumors that were deficient in mismatch repair had many more mutations than tumors with functioning mismatch repair, the researchers confirmed. When they treated both sets of mice with an immune checkpoint inhibitor, they found an unexpected result: mismatch repair–deficient tumors didn’t shrink any more than tumors with functioning mismatch repair. In further experiments, the team figured out why. It came down to both the diversity and the type of mutations in the tumors, Dr. Westcott explained. The mismatch repair–deficient tumors had a lot of genetic diversity, meaning each mutation was only in a small fraction of cancer cells. And cancer-killing immune cells couldn't efficiently attack tumors with high genetic diversity, the researchers found. But when they created tumors in which all of the cancer cells had the same mutations, immune checkpoint inhibitors shrank the tumors and kept them at bay for months. The type of mutation also appeared to influence how immune system responds to tumors. Some mutations cause tumor cells to produce abnormal bits of proteins on their surface, called neoantigens. Neoantigens help the immune system spot cancer cells, whereas other types of mutations are less likely to jump-start the immune system. Cancer-killing immune cells launched a massive attack against tumors in which all of the cancer cells had the same neoantigen, called clonal neoantigens. But that attack weakened when only a fraction of the cancer cells had the neoantigen, the researchers found.

{document} ======= **Mismatch repair deficiency doesn’t always boost immunotherapy response** Mismatch repair deficiency occurs when tumor cells have a mutation in one of several genes that normally correct mistakes in the DNA code. Without that DNA spellchecker, the tumor constantly accumulates genetic mutations, leading to a high tumor mutational burden. To investigate why some tumors with deficient mismatch repair don’t respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors, Dr. Westcott and his colleagues genetically engineered mice to spontaneously grow lung or colorectal tumors that were either deficient in mismatch repair or had functioning mismatch repair. Tumors that were deficient in mismatch repair had many more mutations than tumors with functioning mismatch repair, the researchers confirmed. When they treated both sets of mice with an immune checkpoint inhibitor, they found an unexpected result: mismatch repair–deficient tumors didn’t shrink any more than tumors with functioning mismatch repair. In further experiments, the team figured out why. It came down to both the diversity and the type of mutations in the tumors, Dr. Westcott explained. The mismatch repair–deficient tumors had a lot of genetic diversity, meaning each mutation was only in a small fraction of cancer cells. And cancer-killing immune cells couldn't efficiently attack tumors with high genetic diversity, the researchers found. But when they created tumors in which all of the cancer cells had the same mutations, immune checkpoint inhibitors shrank the tumors and kept them at bay for months. The type of mutation also appeared to influence how immune system responds to tumors. Some mutations cause tumor cells to produce abnormal bits of proteins on their surface, called neoantigens. Neoantigens help the immune system spot cancer cells, whereas other types of mutations are less likely to jump-start the immune system. Cancer-killing immune cells launched a massive attack against tumors in which all of the cancer cells had the same neoantigen, called clonal neoantigens. But that attack weakened when only a fraction of the cancer cells had the neoantigen, the researchers found. ================ {question} ======= In the context of the described medical study in the provided text, what task (or tasks) do "Neoantigens" have? ================ {task description} ======= Only use information provided in the document to answer, don't use external knowledge.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> [user request] <TEXT> [context document]

Explain intermittent fasting. What are the health benefits of intermittent fasting? What method of intermittent fasting is most effective for weight loss? Make the response to be simple and easily understandable

Intermittent fasting is an eating pattern that may benefit heart health, reduce inflammation, improve cell repair processes, and help burn fat Intermittent fasting is an eating pattern in which you cycle between periods of eating and periods of fasting. There are many types of intermittent fasting, such as the 16:8 and 5:2 methods. Numerous studies suggest that it can have powerful benefits for your body and brain. Here are 10 evidence-based health benefits of intermittent fasting. 1. Changes in the function of hormones, cells, and genes When you don’t eat for a while, several things happen in your body. For example, your body changes hormone levels to make stored body fat more accessible and starts important cellular repair processes. Here are some of the changesTrusted Source that may happen in your body as a result of intermittent fasting: • Insulin level: Your blood level of insulin drops significantly, which promotes fat burning. • Human growth hormone (HGH) level: Your blood level of HGH may increase dramatically. Higher levels of this hormone promote fat burning and muscle gain and have numerous other benefits. • Cellular repair: Your body starts important cellular repair processes such as removing waste material from cells. • Gene expression: Beneficial changes occur in several genes and molecules related to longevity and protection against disease. Many of the benefits of intermittent fasting are related to these changes in hormones, cellular function, and gene expression. HEALTHLINE NEWSLETTER Get our free diabetes-friendly recipes We rounded up a few nutritious and delicious recipes for you to try next time you need inspiration in the kitchen. Join our diabetes newsletter for your free recipes and expert guidance twice a week. you lose weight and visceral fat Many people try intermittent fasting in an effort to lose weight. Generally, intermittent fasting will make you eat fewer meals. Unless you compensate by eating much more during the other meals, you’ll end up taking in fewer calories. Additionally, intermittent fasting enhances hormone function to promote weight loss. Lower insulinTrusted Source levels, higher HGH levels, and increasedTrusted Source levels of norepinephrine all increase the breakdown of body fat and make it easier for your body to use fat for energy. For this reason, short-term fasting actually improves your metabolismTrusted Source, helping you burn even more calories. In a 2022 studyTrusted Source involving 131 people with obesity, researchers found that those who participated in 12 weeks of intermittent fasting lost an average of 9% of their body weight — more than those who engaged in other weight loss methods. But this study focused on the 5:2 intermittent fasting plan, which means the participants ate normally for 5 days and restricted their calories for 2 days each week. The authors of a 2020 reviewTrusted Source of 27 studies noted that participants doing intermittent fasting lost 0.8–13% of their baseline body weight. In a 2020 trialTrusted Source, researchers focused on people who followed the 16:8 method, which involves fasting for 16 hours per day and eating within an 8-hour window. The people who fasted didn’t lose significantly more weight than those who ate three meals per day. But after testing a subset of the participants in person, the researchers found that those who fasted had lost a significant amount of lean mass, including lean muscle. More studies are needed to investigate the effect of fasting on muscle loss. But, all things considered, intermittent fasting has the potential to be an incredibly powerful weight loss tool.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> Explain intermittent fasting. What are the health benefits of intermittent fasting? What method of intermittent fasting is most effective for weight loss? Make the response to be simple and easily understandable <TEXT> Intermittent fasting is an eating pattern that may benefit heart health, reduce inflammation, improve cell repair processes, and help burn fat Intermittent fasting is an eating pattern in which you cycle between periods of eating and periods of fasting. There are many types of intermittent fasting, such as the 16:8 and 5:2 methods. Numerous studies suggest that it can have powerful benefits for your body and brain. Here are 10 evidence-based health benefits of intermittent fasting. 1. Changes in the function of hormones, cells, and genes When you don’t eat for a while, several things happen in your body. For example, your body changes hormone levels to make stored body fat more accessible and starts important cellular repair processes. Here are some of the changesTrusted Source that may happen in your body as a result of intermittent fasting: • Insulin level: Your blood level of insulin drops significantly, which promotes fat burning. • Human growth hormone (HGH) level: Your blood level of HGH may increase dramatically. Higher levels of this hormone promote fat burning and muscle gain and have numerous other benefits. • Cellular repair: Your body starts important cellular repair processes such as removing waste material from cells. • Gene expression: Beneficial changes occur in several genes and molecules related to longevity and protection against disease. Many of the benefits of intermittent fasting are related to these changes in hormones, cellular function, and gene expression. HEALTHLINE NEWSLETTER Get our free diabetes-friendly recipes We rounded up a few nutritious and delicious recipes for you to try next time you need inspiration in the kitchen. Join our diabetes newsletter for your free recipes and expert guidance twice a week. you lose weight and visceral fat Many people try intermittent fasting in an effort to lose weight. Generally, intermittent fasting will make you eat fewer meals. Unless you compensate by eating much more during the other meals, you’ll end up taking in fewer calories. Additionally, intermittent fasting enhances hormone function to promote weight loss. Lower insulinTrusted Source levels, higher HGH levels, and increasedTrusted Source levels of norepinephrine all increase the breakdown of body fat and make it easier for your body to use fat for energy. For this reason, short-term fasting actually improves your metabolismTrusted Source, helping you burn even more calories. In a 2022 studyTrusted Source involving 131 people with obesity, researchers found that those who participated in 12 weeks of intermittent fasting lost an average of 9% of their body weight — more than those who engaged in other weight loss methods. But this study focused on the 5:2 intermittent fasting plan, which means the participants ate normally for 5 days and restricted their calories for 2 days each week. The authors of a 2020 reviewTrusted Source of 27 studies noted that participants doing intermittent fasting lost 0.8–13% of their baseline body weight. In a 2020 trialTrusted Source, researchers focused on people who followed the 16:8 method, which involves fasting for 16 hours per day and eating within an 8-hour window. The people who fasted didn’t lose significantly more weight than those who ate three meals per day. But after testing a subset of the participants in person, the researchers found that those who fasted had lost a significant amount of lean mass, including lean muscle. More studies are needed to investigate the effect of fasting on muscle loss. But, all things considered, intermittent fasting has the potential to be an incredibly powerful weight loss tool. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/10-health-benefits-of-intermittent-fasting#TOC_TITLE_HDR_3

Answer in 10 words or less. Keep things simple and plain--easy to understand. Don't use any information apart from what I'm giving you.

Give me a list of people that died in 1957.

After the show, Christian Dior began thinking about his design again, in his mind he thought he had the responsibility to bring fashion to women, and he wanted women looks like flowers. Because the subversive designing and perfect looking, the dresses were accepted by most society people through they were expensive in that time. (Marly, 1990) Christian Dior’s wonderful new look made fashion area crazy in that some, some people liked it very much, others against it. Because of the traditional understanding about the clothes, some governments thought this kind of clothes wasteful and awful, they even ordered some factories stop making the clothes. People who liked Dior’s styles very much, started thinking about against governments, they came to meet Christian Dior and discussed how they could do to protect the clothing line. For Christian Dior himself, he believed his new fashion would be popular by women, he did want return to the old fashion again, and so every 6 months he made a new line to continue his clothes until reached 22 lines. A big change was happened in 1957 when the Master’s death stunned the whole fashion market, he was the creator who made Christian Dior be known. However, the company could not stop developing, and it became the domination in that time of fashion marketing. Dior’s new designs always shocked the fashion marketing after that time it made Christian Dior’s company became more and more famous. A lot of Dior’s stores appeared in Paris, Hollywood, New York…it was well known as a luxury label from that time all over the world. For developing and expanding its market, Christian Dior began to add some other products not only clothes, but also fashion and leather goods, watches and jewelries, wines and spirits, perfumes and cosmetics… The aims of this article is considering the developed of Dior industry in last few years from about 2003 to 2009, and trying to find out some strategies for future development for Dior. And also considered how Christian Dior keeps its predominant in fashion industries, especially in the similar luxury brands like Louis Vuitton, Armani, Gucci, and Channel. It is obliviously that if any industry insists on one strategy or old-fashioned fossilized attitudes in the market, it would be gone out from the market quickly. The following article will discuss the strategies by four tools, which considered from the industry life cycle, PESTAL framework, five framework and strategic group to understand the development of Christian Dior. And through the five tools we also could understand the different strategies used in different time or under different economic environment. And at last, conducting a SWOT analysis of Christian Dior also becomes a necessary step. Industry Life Cycle: The products in any industry should have a process which is called industry life cycle in marketing. Normally, it would separate to four steps: introduction; growth; maturity and decline. The competition becomes white-hot in the luxury marketing, it is a almost total mature market. According to the industry life cycle, it should nearly reach or have already reached the decline step. So, how to change the poison and improve competitive in fashion marketing become an emergence for Manage groups of Christian Dior. Strategies of sustainable development are necessary considered by them in this period. PESTEL Framework (Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal): Political: Since some new members joint into European Union, the tariff decline quite a lot, it is a big effect to Dior’s export and import business. Expanding new business line and opening new stores in different areas is one of Dior’s most important strategies. It brought a lot of benefits and challenges to Dior. Reduced price of some products to improve its competitive to other luxury brands, and expanding its overseas plan, especially plan in Asian market. The following graph is Dior’s financial report in Europe: Financial Highlights (in millions of euros) 2005 2004 Revenue by business groups Christian Dior Couture 663 595 Wine and Sprites 2,644 2,259 Fashion and leather goods 4,812 4,366 Perfumes and Cosmetics 2,285 2,128 Watches and Jewelry 573 493 Selective Retailing 3,648 3,276 Other activities and eliminations (69) (57) Total 14,556 13,060 Percentage earned outsides France 84% 76% Profit from recurring operations 2,791 2,413 (Source from Christian Dior financial report 2006) Through this report, it seems under this politics, Dior’s export sales increased about 8% in one year. Economic conditions: In 2008, world financial crisis started from America, the economic condition impacted every industry quickly. In the first three months of 2009, Christian Dior (2009) stressed Dior Couture declined about “8% at current exchange rates and of 12% at constant exchange rates”. The United States and Japan is impacted seriously by the financial crisis, the Dior’s goods sales decreased obviously in the period. However, the good news is that sales situation remains strong in China and some Middle East countries. Christian Dior invested strategies into these new areas to develop itself. Christian Dior (2009) stated that the manager groups changed their focus on these new economic powerful countries, and kept the balance between its strengths and weaknesses. This strategy brought a lot of advantages, and keeps Dior’s dominance position on the world luxury marketing in 2009. Social Christian Dior has a huge range of customers, because it consist its best design and quality, it created a fashion culture and history for itself. Dior as a label is respected by many people. Technological To improve competition, Christian Dior signed up a contract with John Galliano who is one of most influential designer in fashion areas. It is a big issue for Dior, and also for fashion industries. For example Dior watch designed by John Galliano and Victoire de Castellane in 2005, it impact the trend of Dior’s Fashion style. It is not difficult to image women would like taking a lot of money in a new style handbag, that means they also would expend a high price on a fashion watch if it is a new fashion trend in their minds. Furthermore to open up new avenues of business, Christian Dior began cracking other business areas. The first step is co-operating with other brands which is famous on other business industries. For example, On June 2008, Dior co-operated with Apple, created a dress for Apple’s iphone. It was named “Dior Homme iPhone Holder”, obviously, it was so expensive, compare with old iPhone, Dior Hommer iPhone Holder cost twice price. It is the not the first time Christian Dior enter into another total different industry. Then, Christian Dior collaborate Mode Labs and produced its handset. This handset is called “My Dior”, and it is extremely expensive, with a 2 Mega pixel camera, a tough screen, and multimedia goodies. One My Dior’s retail is start from 5000 dollars. And Dior’s company will come up with its own new mobile later soon. (Troaca, 2008) Environmental and Legal Obviously, Christian Dior is Legal company, it keeps abiding by every laws, including employee’s law; company environment condition; fair competitive law and others. Because obey these laws are the basic situations to run a company. Five Forces Framework: It will follow 5 parts: Competitive Rivalry, Buyer, Suppliers, Substitutes, and Potential Entrants. Competitive Rivalry Some researches show the price is not the most important factor customers would consider, they are more focus on the value of the products. Like Dior, many rich people are honest fans of its products through the price is very high. This is a big difference between normal products and luxury goods. They buy Dior for distinguishing others. According to the psychology of customers, Dior promoted a strategy from 2003, which is called limited edition. Dior Company produces some goods with specific design, and most important point is the company will control the numbers of the goods. It made a big success until now, every time when Dior creates new limited-good, they will be sold much quickly than others. Beside great quality goods, Dior pays a lot of attentions on its services for customers, Dall’Olmo Riley and Lacroix ( 2000) pointed out that all luxury brands not only focus on selling goods but also making a great relationship with their customers after sale. All of these strategies made Dior Compare with its biggest competitors like Gucci, Armani, and Hermes. Christian Dior got more benefits in sales within its talent manager groups.

[System Instruction] Answer in 10 words or less. Keep things simple and plain--easy to understand. Don't use any information apart from what I'm giving you. [Question] Give me a list of people that died in 1957. [Context] After the show, Christian Dior began thinking about his design again, in his mind he thought he had the responsibility to bring fashion to women, and he wanted women looks like flowers. Because the subversive designing and perfect looking, the dresses were accepted by most society people through they were expensive in that time. (Marly, 1990) Christian Dior’s wonderful new look made fashion area crazy in that some, some people liked it very much, others against it. Because of the traditional understanding about the clothes, some governments thought this kind of clothes wasteful and awful, they even ordered some factories stop making the clothes. People who liked Dior’s styles very much, started thinking about against governments, they came to meet Christian Dior and discussed how they could do to protect the clothing line. For Christian Dior himself, he believed his new fashion would be popular by women, he did want return to the old fashion again, and so every 6 months he made a new line to continue his clothes until reached 22 lines. A big change was happened in 1957 when the Master’s death stunned the whole fashion market, he was the creator who made Christian Dior be known. However, the company could not stop developing, and it became the domination in that time of fashion marketing. Dior’s new designs always shocked the fashion marketing after that time it made Christian Dior’s company became more and more famous. A lot of Dior’s stores appeared in Paris, Hollywood, New York…it was well known as a luxury label from that time all over the world. For developing and expanding its market, Christian Dior began to add some other products not only clothes, but also fashion and leather goods, watches and jewelries, wines and spirits, perfumes and cosmetics… The aims of this article is considering the developed of Dior industry in last few years from about 2003 to 2009, and trying to find out some strategies for future development for Dior. And also considered how Christian Dior keeps its predominant in fashion industries, especially in the similar luxury brands like Louis Vuitton, Armani, Gucci, and Channel. It is obliviously that if any industry insists on one strategy or old-fashioned fossilized attitudes in the market, it would be gone out from the market quickly. The following article will discuss the strategies by four tools, which considered from the industry life cycle, PESTAL framework, five framework and strategic group to understand the development of Christian Dior. And through the five tools we also could understand the different strategies used in different time or under different economic environment. And at last, conducting a SWOT analysis of Christian Dior also becomes a necessary step. Industry Life Cycle: The products in any industry should have a process which is called industry life cycle in marketing. Normally, it would separate to four steps: introduction; growth; maturity and decline. The competition becomes white-hot in the luxury marketing, it is a almost total mature market. According to the industry life cycle, it should nearly reach or have already reached the decline step. So, how to change the poison and improve competitive in fashion marketing become an emergence for Manage groups of Christian Dior. Strategies of sustainable development are necessary considered by them in this period. PESTEL Framework (Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal): Political: Since some new members joint into European Union, the tariff decline quite a lot, it is a big effect to Dior’s export and import business. Expanding new business line and opening new stores in different areas is one of Dior’s most important strategies. It brought a lot of benefits and challenges to Dior. Reduced price of some products to improve its competitive to other luxury brands, and expanding its overseas plan, especially plan in Asian market. The following graph is Dior’s financial report in Europe: Financial Highlights (in millions of euros) 2005 2004 Revenue by business groups Christian Dior Couture 663 595 Wine and Sprites 2,644 2,259 Fashion and leather goods 4,812 4,366 Perfumes and Cosmetics 2,285 2,128 Watches and Jewelry 573 493 Selective Retailing 3,648 3,276 Other activities and eliminations (69) (57) Total 14,556 13,060 Percentage earned outsides France 84% 76% Profit from recurring operations 2,791 2,413 (Source from Christian Dior financial report 2006) Through this report, it seems under this politics, Dior’s export sales increased about 8% in one year. Economic conditions: In 2008, world financial crisis started from America, the economic condition impacted every industry quickly. In the first three months of 2009, Christian Dior (2009) stressed Dior Couture declined about “8% at current exchange rates and of 12% at constant exchange rates”. The United States and Japan is impacted seriously by the financial crisis, the Dior’s goods sales decreased obviously in the period. However, the good news is that sales situation remains strong in China and some Middle East countries. Christian Dior invested strategies into these new areas to develop itself. Christian Dior (2009) stated that the manager groups changed their focus on these new economic powerful countries, and kept the balance between its strengths and weaknesses. This strategy brought a lot of advantages, and keeps Dior’s dominance position on the world luxury marketing in 2009. Social Christian Dior has a huge range of customers, because it consist its best design and quality, it created a fashion culture and history for itself. Dior as a label is respected by many people. Technological To improve competition, Christian Dior signed up a contract with John Galliano who is one of most influential designer in fashion areas. It is a big issue for Dior, and also for fashion industries. For example Dior watch designed by John Galliano and Victoire de Castellane in 2005, it impact the trend of Dior’s Fashion style. It is not difficult to image women would like taking a lot of money in a new style handbag, that means they also would expend a high price on a fashion watch if it is a new fashion trend in their minds. Furthermore to open up new avenues of business, Christian Dior began cracking other business areas. The first step is co-operating with other brands which is famous on other business industries. For example, On June 2008, Dior co-operated with Apple, created a dress for Apple’s iphone. It was named “Dior Homme iPhone Holder”, obviously, it was so expensive, compare with old iPhone, Dior Hommer iPhone Holder cost twice price. It is the not the first time Christian Dior enter into another total different industry. Then, Christian Dior collaborate Mode Labs and produced its handset. This handset is called “My Dior”, and it is extremely expensive, with a 2 Mega pixel camera, a tough screen, and multimedia goodies. One My Dior’s retail is start from 5000 dollars. And Dior’s company will come up with its own new mobile later soon. (Troaca, 2008) Environmental and Legal Obviously, Christian Dior is Legal company, it keeps abiding by every laws, including employee’s law; company environment condition; fair competitive law and others. Because obey these laws are the basic situations to run a company. Five Forces Framework: It will follow 5 parts: Competitive Rivalry, Buyer, Suppliers, Substitutes, and Potential Entrants. Competitive Rivalry Some researches show the price is not the most important factor customers would consider, they are more focus on the value of the products. Like Dior, many rich people are honest fans of its products through the price is very high. This is a big difference between normal products and luxury goods. They buy Dior for distinguishing others. According to the psychology of customers, Dior promoted a strategy from 2003, which is called limited edition. Dior Company produces some goods with specific design, and most important point is the company will control the numbers of the goods. It made a big success until now, every time when Dior creates new limited-good, they will be sold much quickly than others. Beside great quality goods, Dior pays a lot of attentions on its services for customers, Dall’Olmo Riley and Lacroix ( 2000) pointed out that all luxury brands not only focus on selling goods but also making a great relationship with their customers after sale. All of these strategies made Dior Compare with its biggest competitors like Gucci, Armani, and Hermes. Christian Dior got more benefits in sales within its talent manager groups.

Using only the information contained in the prompt/context block below, (do not use any external resources or prior knowledge), answer the following question.

Compare/contrast two organic fertilizers: seaweed extract and fish emulsion, how are they the same/different from each other?

Plant by-products: Alfalfa Meal or Pellets Alfalfa meal or pellets are often used as animal feed. Primarily they are used to increase organic matter in the soil but do provide nutrients and a high availability of trace minerals. They contain trianconatol, a natural fatty acid growth stimulant. Corn Gluten meal Corn Gluten products have a high percentage of nitrogen. It carries a warning to allow 1 to 4 months of decomposition in the soil prior to seeding. Allelopathic properties will inhibit the germination of seeds. However, there is no danger to established or transplanted plants. This product is also marketed as a pre-emergent weed control for annual grasses in bluegrass lawns. Cottonseed meal In warm soils this fertilizer is readily available with little danger of over-fertilizing. Use for acid-loving plants such as rhododendrons, blueberries and azaleas. Seaweed extract Seaweed is a good source of trace metals, micronutrients, amino acids and vitamins plus growth hormones that stimulate plant cell division. It doesn't smell as much as a fish emulsion but is more expensive. Kelp Meal – a product of the ocean is primarily used as a trace mineral source. It is often combined with fish meal to add N-P-K value Kelp Powder – similar to kelp meal but ground fine enough to put into solution and applied as a foliar spray or injected into an irrigation system. Liquid Kelp – usually cold processed, liquid kelp will have higher levels of growth hormones than extracts. Some may be enzymatically digested, making growth hormones even more available to the plants. Animal by-products: Manures Nutrient concentrations in manures vary widely with the kind of animal they're from. Fresh manure has the highest concentration and can burn tender roots easily. Composted manure is less harsh. Although the concentration of nutrients is lower in manure than in man-made fertilizers, manure improves soil structure and increases its water holding capacity. Blood meal This dried blood from cattle slaughterhouses is a rich source of nitrogen. Do not apply at more than recommended rates because it is concentrated enough to harm plants. Always wear a mask to protect your lungs from dust. Bone Meal Bone meal decomposes slowly and releases phosphorus gradually. Bone meal is good for bulbs that don't sprout for several months after they're planted and for alkaline-loving plants such as clematis, lilac and hydrangea. NOTE: Rarely need phosphorus in the Spokane area. Feather Meal Sourced from poultry slaughter feather meal has high nitrogen (N) levels but is very slow to release the N. Fish emulsion This well-rounded fertilizer consists of partly decomposed ground fish. The smell is strong but will dissipate in a day or two, and can deter pests that don't like the fish smell. It has a high concentration of nitrogen and can burn plants if over-used (especially container plants). Enzymatically digested hydrolyzed liquid fish Enzymatically digested hydrolyzed fish use enzymes to digest the fish wastes instead of using heat and acids (fish emulsion). This retains more of the proteins, enzymes, vitamins and micronutrients than emulsions. Fish meal Fish meal is ground and heat dried fish waste.

Using only the information contained in the prompt/context block below, (do not use any external resources or prior knowledge), answer the following question. Compare/contrast two organic fertilizers: seaweed extract and fish emulsion, how are they the same/different from each other? Plant by-products: Alfalfa Meal or Pellets Alfalfa meal or pellets are often used as animal feed. Primarily they are used to increase organic matter in the soil but do provide nutrients and a high availability of trace minerals. They contain trianconatol, a natural fatty acid growth stimulant. Corn Gluten meal Corn Gluten products have a high percentage of nitrogen. It carries a warning to allow 1 to 4 months of decomposition in the soil prior to seeding. Allelopathic properties will inhibit the germination of seeds. However, there is no danger to established or transplanted plants. This product is also marketed as a pre-emergent weed control for annual grasses in bluegrass lawns. Cottonseed meal In warm soils this fertilizer is readily available with little danger of over-fertilizing. Use for acid-loving plants such as rhododendrons, blueberries and azaleas. Seaweed extract Seaweed is a good source of trace metals, micronutrients, amino acids and vitamins plus growth hormones that stimulate plant cell division. It doesn't smell as much as a fish emulsion but is more expensive. Kelp Meal – a product of the ocean is primarily used as a trace mineral source. It is often combined with fish meal to add N-P-K value Kelp Powder – similar to kelp meal but ground fine enough to put into solution and applied as a foliar spray or injected into an irrigation system. Liquid Kelp – usually cold processed, liquid kelp will have higher levels of growth hormones than extracts. Some may be enzymatically digested, making growth hormones even more available to the plants. Animal by-products: Manures Nutrient concentrations in manures vary widely with the kind of animal they're from. Fresh manure has the highest concentration and can burn tender roots easily. Composted manure is less harsh. Although the concentration of nutrients is lower in manure than in man-made fertilizers, manure improves soil structure and increases its water holding capacity. Blood meal This dried blood from cattle slaughterhouses is a rich source of nitrogen. Do not apply at more than recommended rates because it is concentrated enough to harm plants. Always wear a mask to protect your lungs from dust. Bone Meal Bone meal decomposes slowly and releases phosphorus gradually. Bone meal is good for bulbs that don't sprout for several months after they're planted and for alkaline-loving plants such as clematis, lilac and hydrangea. NOTE: Rarely need phosphorus in the Spokane area. Feather Meal Sourced from poultry slaughter feather meal has high nitrogen (N) levels but is very slow to release the N. Fish emulsion This well-rounded fertilizer consists of partly decomposed ground fish. The smell is strong but will dissipate in a day or two, and can deter pests that don't like the fish smell. It has a high concentration of nitrogen and can burn plants if over-used (especially container plants). Enzymatically digested hydrolyzed liquid fish Enzymatically digested hydrolyzed fish use enzymes to digest the fish wastes instead of using heat and acids (fish emulsion). This retains more of the proteins, enzymes, vitamins and micronutrients than emulsions. Fish meal Fish meal is ground and heat dried fish waste.

Respond only with information present in the document. If the information is not present, respond with "This information is not available". When possible, use quotations and cite the document directly.

What were the results of the study?

2010 Personal Financial Planning Attitudes - A Study Scott A. Yetmar Cleveland State University, [email protected] D. Murphy Follow this and additional works at: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/bus_facpub Part of the Finance and Financial Management Commons How does access to this work benefit you? Let us know! Original Published Citation Yetmar, S., Murphy, D. (2010). Personal Financial Planning Attitudes - A Study. Management Research Review/ Emerald Publications, 33(8), pp. 811 – 817. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Monte Ahuja College of Business at EngagedScholarship@CSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Business Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of EngagedScholarship@CSU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Personal financial planning attitudes: a preliminary study of graduate students David S. Murphy School of Business and Economics, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Virginia, USA, and Scott Yetmar College of Business Administration, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA Abstract Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to report on a survey about the personal financial planning attitudes of MBA students in the USA. Design/methodology/approach - The study surveyed 206 MBA students about their attitudes to personal financial planning. Participants were asked about their level of knowledge, whether they had prepared components of a financial plan, where they might seek assistance in such a process and the criteria for selecting a financial planner. In addition, participants were asked to indicate their level of confidence in a financial plan's capacity to help them meet their long-term needs and the likelihood that they would implement such a plan. Findings - The findings indicate that, while most respondents feel both that financial planning is important and that they are interested in developing a financial plan, very few feel that they have the necessary skills and knowledge to prepare their own plan. In addition, the participants indicated a strong preference for professional personal financial planning advice. The study also indicates that less than 13 percent have prepared a comprehensive personal financial plan. When asked to identify the one professional from whom they would seek advice, certified financial planners were the preferred resource. Research limitations/implications - While the results are not generalizable to the wider population, the views of this group are important because one might expect that educated individuals would be both more interested in personal financial planning and more capable of prepaJing their own plans compaJ'ed with average Americans. Practical implications - The study presents some implications for practice and financial literacy education from a US perspective. Originality/value - A perceived need of respondents is to feel that their financial planner will put their needs first. While some professionals believe this to be the hallmark of "independence," the respondents placed less impOltance on planner independence. In order to foster client confidence, planners must act in ways that convey clearly the primacy of their clients' needs. Keywords Graduates, United States of America, Financial services, Personal finance Paper type Research paper Introduction The need for financial security, especially during retirement years, has been met historically in the United States (USA) in three ways: personal savings (including insurance and annuities), social insurance programs like social security and employersponsored pension programs. Employer-sponsored pension programs have been the cornerstone of these financial security tools. Consequently, pension programs have been the target of continual legislative actions. The Employee Retimnent Income and Security Act of 1974 made significant and wide-sweeping changes that affected most aspects of corporate and self-employed pension programs (that is, legal, tax, investment and actuarial) and initiated 4010,) programs. These changes lead to an increase in the popularity of defined-contribution pension plans. Number oj participants Female lVIale Mean age Hig/zest educatiollal/evel Bachelor's degree lVIaster's degree Doctoral degree Mean years of work experience Number employed in accounting or finance lVIean annual income (USD) (%) Jl = 206 104 50.98 102 49.02 29.1 years 17l 85.9 23 11.6 5 2.5 6.5 years Table II. 25 12.25 Summary participant 47,558 demographics Attitudes toward planning Participants were asked specifically whether they thought that preparing a personal financial plan was important; whether they were interested in preparing such a plan; whether they had time to do so; and whether or not they felt that they had the necessary skills and knowledge to prepare a personal financial plan. The results of these four questions are summarized in Table III. It is interesting to note that the percentage of participants who indicated that they had the skills and knowledge necessary to prepare a personal financial plan (33 percent) is slightly lower than the percentage of Americans in the University of Michigan study who had tried to calculate their retirement fund needs (Employee Benefit News, 2005). Of the 68 participants who indicated that they had the necessary skills and lmowledge to prepare a personal financial plan, 47 indicated employment in accotmting or finance positions. Only 69 of the subjects (33.5 percent) indicated that they had prepared a written, comprehensive personal financial plan. A complete financial plan addresses many issues, some of which are not applicable to all individuals. Consequently, the participants were also asked to identify plan components that they had prepared. These results are summarized in Table IV. As evident in Table Iv, the participants in the study have not prepared many of the components of a comprehensive financial plan. About the same percentage of participants who reported that they had the skills and knowledge needed to prepare a financial plan (33 percent) had actually prepared such a plan (33.5 percent). Approximately one in five participants had prepared an educational funding analysis. Affirmative responses (%) Personal financial planning is important 156 75.7 Interested in personal financial planning 138 67 Table m. Have the time to prepare a personal financial plan 83 40 Financial planning Have the skills and knowledge to prepare a personal financial plan 68 33 interest and knowledge Accountants (CPA) were selected by 19.4 percent of the respondents. This percentage was divided between CPAlPFS (15.5 percent) and CPAs (3.9 percent). Other financial planning designations (for example, Charted Life Underwriter [CLUJ, Certified Fund Specialist [CFS] and Charted Financial Consultant [ChFCl) were included in the study but were selected by only a few participants. Weston (2008) indicates that there are about 250,000 individuals in the marketplace who identify themselves as financial planners. Of that number, about 56,000 have earned some kind of professional certification. The CFp® designation appears to be the most popular with about 58,000 certificate holders (CFP Board, 2008). Participants' reported preference for CFPs® is consistent with the predominance of CFp® certificate holders in the marketplace. When asked whether they preferred fee only, fee and compensation or compensation only planners, the majority of participants (127 or 61.7 percent) indicated that they preferred fee·only planners. Only 30 participants (14.6 percent) indicated a preference for working with a fee and commission planner while 49 (23.8 percent) indicated that they would seek the advice of a commission only planner. Participants were also asked to rank six different reasons for selecting a specific planner. The results of their rankings are shown in Table VI. The most important planner characteristic, as suggested by the participants, is that the planner places the client's needs first. This predisposition is consistent with the expressed desire by the majority of the respondents to work with a fee·only planner. The desire that the planner demonstrates high levels of product familiarity means that fee·only planners must be as familiar with the products that they recommend, as are commission-only planners. Fee-only planners often use noload funds for plan implementation, products for which they do not receive a commission. Low transactions costs or the use of commissionfree financial products ranked last in importance among the participants. Participants ranked freedom of choice third in importance. Thus, it may be important for all planners to present clients with a menu of choices for plan implementation. Selecting a number of different funds, for example, with similar risk-return characteristics and time horizons and letting the client make the final selection may help meet this perceived need. Planner independence and confidence ranked considerably lower than did meeting clients needs first and product familiarity. Independence is an attribute often used as a selling point by CPAlPFSs. It appears that this independence may give them little competitive advantage in the marketplace or at least among graduate business students. Finally, participants were asked to indicate their level of confidence in a financial plan's capacity to help them meet their long-term needs (measured on a scale of 1 = not at all confident to 5 = extremely confident) and the likelihood that they would Criteria Mean ranka SD I want to know that the planner will put my needs first Planner's familiarity with products I want to preserve my freedom of choice in product selection I want to feel that the financial planner is confident in hislher recommendations I want to feel that my planner is independent Reduced transaction costs Note: "1 = Most important to 6 = least important 1.78 1.61 3.08 1.59 3.37 1.30 3.60 1.48 3.99 1.68 4.86 1.44 Table VI. Planner selection criteria the majority of them do not view their CPAs as potential providers of financial planning advice. Very few of the respondents indicated that they would seek the advice of CFS, ChFC or CLU. These are designations normally held by insurance professionals. This also is surprising because the most frequently mentioned professional relationship was with an insurance agent. Indeed, 40.7 percent of the respondents had established such a relationship. It appears that both the insurance and public accounting professions have not had the same success in promoting members of their professions as personal financial planners. A perceived need by the respondents to feel that their financial planner will put the client's needs first is clearly apparent in Table VI. While some professionals may feel that this is the hallmark of "independence", the respondents placed much less importance on a planner's independence. Thus, to foster a client's confidence, planners must act in ways that very clearly convey the message to the client that their needs are paramount. References CFP Board of Standards (2008), "CFP certificant profile", available at: www.cfp.net/media/ profile.asp#link4 (accessed 14 September 2008). Employee Benefit News (2005), "Lack of basic financial knowledge impairs retirement", available at: www.benefitnews.com/retire/detai1.cfrn?id=8116 (accessed 28 November 2005). Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis (2005), National Economic Trends, available at: http:// research.stlouisfed.org/publicaitons/netl20051101/neL20051108.pdf (accessed 28 November 2005). Harris Interactive (2005), "Nearly half of US workers participate in a 401(k) or 403(b) plan, New Wall Street Journal OnlinelHarris interactive personal finance poll", available at: www. harrisinteractive.comlnews/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=976 (accessed 10 October 2005). US Department of Labor (2005), Preiimillmy Private Pension Plan Bulletin, Abstract of 2000, Form 5500 Annual Reports. Weston, L.P. (2008), 8 Things YOUI' Financial Planner Won't Tell YOIl, available at: http:// artic1es.moneycentra1.msn.comlRetirementandWills/CreateaPlan/8Things YourFinancial PlannerWontTellYou.aspx (accessed 14 September 2008). Further reading Rattiner, J,H. (2005), Getting Started as a Financial Planner, revised ed., Bloomberg Press, New York, NY.

Respond only with information present in the document. If the information is not present, respond with "This information is not available". When possible, use quotations and cite the document directly. What were the results of the study? 2010 Personal Financial Planning Attitudes - A Study Scott A. Yetmar Cleveland State University, [email protected] D. Murphy Follow this and additional works at: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/bus_facpub Part of the Finance and Financial Management Commons How does access to this work benefit you? Let us know! Original Published Citation Yetmar, S., Murphy, D. (2010). Personal Financial Planning Attitudes - A Study. Management Research Review/ Emerald Publications, 33(8), pp. 811 – 817. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Monte Ahuja College of Business at EngagedScholarship@CSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Business Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of EngagedScholarship@CSU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Personal financial planning attitudes: a preliminary study of graduate students David S. Murphy School of Business and Economics, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Virginia, USA, and Scott Yetmar College of Business Administration, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA Abstract Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to report on a survey about the personal financial planning attitudes of MBA students in the USA. Design/methodology/approach - The study surveyed 206 MBA students about their attitudes to personal financial planning. Participants were asked about their level of knowledge, whether they had prepared components of a financial plan, where they might seek assistance in such a process and the criteria for selecting a financial planner. In addition, participants were asked to indicate their level of confidence in a financial plan's capacity to help them meet their long-term needs and the likelihood that they would implement such a plan. Findings - The findings indicate that, while most respondents feel both that financial planning is important and that they are interested in developing a financial plan, very few feel that they have the necessary skills and knowledge to prepare their own plan. In addition, the participants indicated a strong preference for professional personal financial planning advice. The study also indicates that less than 13 percent have prepared a comprehensive personal financial plan. When asked to identify the one professional from whom they would seek advice, certified financial planners were the preferred resource. Research limitations/implications - While the results are not generalizable to the wider population, the views of this group are important because one might expect that educated individuals would be both more interested in personal financial planning and more capable of prepaJing their own plans compaJ'ed with average Americans. Practical implications - The study presents some implications for practice and financial literacy education from a US perspective. Originality/value - A perceived need of respondents is to feel that their financial planner will put their needs first. While some professionals believe this to be the hallmark of "independence," the respondents placed less impOltance on planner independence. In order to foster client confidence, planners must act in ways that convey clearly the primacy of their clients' needs. Keywords Graduates, United States of America, Financial services, Personal finance Paper type Research paper Introduction The need for financial security, especially during retirement years, has been met historically in the United States (USA) in three ways: personal savings (including insurance and annuities), social insurance programs like social security and employersponsored pension programs. Employer-sponsored pension programs have been the cornerstone of these financial security tools. Consequently, pension programs have been the target of continual legislative actions. The Employee Retimnent Income and Security Act of 1974 made significant and wide-sweeping changes that affected most aspects of corporate and self-employed pension programs (that is, legal, tax, investment and actuarial) and initiated 4010,) programs. These changes lead to an increase in the popularity of defined-contribution pension plans. Number oj participants Female lVIale Mean age Hig/zest educatiollal/evel Bachelor's degree lVIaster's degree Doctoral degree Mean years of work experience Number employed in accounting or finance lVIean annual income (USD) (%) Jl = 206 104 50.98 102 49.02 29.1 years 17l 85.9 23 11.6 5 2.5 6.5 years Table II. 25 12.25 Summary participant 47,558 demographics Attitudes toward planning Participants were asked specifically whether they thought that preparing a personal financial plan was important; whether they were interested in preparing such a plan; whether they had time to do so; and whether or not they felt that they had the necessary skills and knowledge to prepare a personal financial plan. The results of these four questions are summarized in Table III. It is interesting to note that the percentage of participants who indicated that they had the skills and knowledge necessary to prepare a personal financial plan (33 percent) is slightly lower than the percentage of Americans in the University of Michigan study who had tried to calculate their retirement fund needs (Employee Benefit News, 2005). Of the 68 participants who indicated that they had the necessary skills and lmowledge to prepare a personal financial plan, 47 indicated employment in accotmting or finance positions. Only 69 of the subjects (33.5 percent) indicated that they had prepared a written, comprehensive personal financial plan. A complete financial plan addresses many issues, some of which are not applicable to all individuals. Consequently, the participants were also asked to identify plan components that they had prepared. These results are summarized in Table IV. As evident in Table Iv, the participants in the study have not prepared many of the components of a comprehensive financial plan. About the same percentage of participants who reported that they had the skills and knowledge needed to prepare a financial plan (33 percent) had actually prepared such a plan (33.5 percent). Approximately one in five participants had prepared an educational funding analysis. Affirmative responses (%) Personal financial planning is important 156 75.7 Interested in personal financial planning 138 67 Table m. Have the time to prepare a personal financial plan 83 40 Financial planning Have the skills and knowledge to prepare a personal financial plan 68 33 interest and knowledge Accountants (CPA) were selected by 19.4 percent of the respondents. This percentage was divided between CPAlPFS (15.5 percent) and CPAs (3.9 percent). Other financial planning designations (for example, Charted Life Underwriter [CLUJ, Certified Fund Specialist [CFS] and Charted Financial Consultant [ChFCl) were included in the study but were selected by only a few participants. Weston (2008) indicates that there are about 250,000 individuals in the marketplace who identify themselves as financial planners. Of that number, about 56,000 have earned some kind of professional certification. The CFp® designation appears to be the most popular with about 58,000 certificate holders (CFP Board, 2008). Participants' reported preference for CFPs® is consistent with the predominance of CFp® certificate holders in the marketplace. When asked whether they preferred fee only, fee and compensation or compensation only planners, the majority of participants (127 or 61.7 percent) indicated that they preferred fee·only planners. Only 30 participants (14.6 percent) indicated a preference for working with a fee and commission planner while 49 (23.8 percent) indicated that they would seek the advice of a commission only planner. Participants were also asked to rank six different reasons for selecting a specific planner. The results of their rankings are shown in Table VI. The most important planner characteristic, as suggested by the participants, is that the planner places the client's needs first. This predisposition is consistent with the expressed desire by the majority of the respondents to work with a fee·only planner. The desire that the planner demonstrates high levels of product familiarity means that fee·only planners must be as familiar with the products that they recommend, as are commission-only planners. Fee-only planners often use noload funds for plan implementation, products for which they do not receive a commission. Low transactions costs or the use of commissionfree financial products ranked last in importance among the participants. Participants ranked freedom of choice third in importance. Thus, it may be important for all planners to present clients with a menu of choices for plan implementation. Selecting a number of different funds, for example, with similar risk-return characteristics and time horizons and letting the client make the final selection may help meet this perceived need. Planner independence and confidence ranked considerably lower than did meeting clients needs first and product familiarity. Independence is an attribute often used as a selling point by CPAlPFSs. It appears that this independence may give them little competitive advantage in the marketplace or at least among graduate business students. Finally, participants were asked to indicate their level of confidence in a financial plan's capacity to help them meet their long-term needs (measured on a scale of 1 = not at all confident to 5 = extremely confident) and the likelihood that they would Criteria Mean ranka SD I want to know that the planner will put my needs first Planner's familiarity with products I want to preserve my freedom of choice in product selection I want to feel that the financial planner is confident in hislher recommendations I want to feel that my planner is independent Reduced transaction costs Note: "1 = Most important to 6 = least important 1.78 1.61 3.08 1.59 3.37 1.30 3.60 1.48 3.99 1.68 4.86 1.44 Table VI. Planner selection criteria the majority of them do not view their CPAs as potential providers of financial planning advice. Very few of the respondents indicated that they would seek the advice of CFS, ChFC or CLU. These are designations normally held by insurance professionals. This also is surprising because the most frequently mentioned professional relationship was with an insurance agent. Indeed, 40.7 percent of the respondents had established such a relationship. It appears that both the insurance and public accounting professions have not had the same success in promoting members of their professions as personal financial planners. A perceived need by the respondents to feel that their financial planner will put the client's needs first is clearly apparent in Table VI. While some professionals may feel that this is the hallmark of "independence", the respondents placed much less importance on a planner's independence. Thus, to foster a client's confidence, planners must act in ways that very clearly convey the message to the client that their needs are paramount. References CFP Board of Standards (2008), "CFP certificant profile", available at: www.cfp.net/media/ profile.asp#link4 (accessed 14 September 2008). Employee Benefit News (2005), "Lack of basic financial knowledge impairs retirement", available at: www.benefitnews.com/retire/detai1.cfrn?id=8116 (accessed 28 November 2005). Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis (2005), National Economic Trends, available at: http:// research.stlouisfed.org/publicaitons/netl20051101/neL20051108.pdf (accessed 28 November 2005). Harris Interactive (2005), "Nearly half of US workers participate in a 401(k) or 403(b) plan, New Wall Street Journal OnlinelHarris interactive personal finance poll", available at: www. harrisinteractive.comlnews/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=976 (accessed 10 October 2005). US Department of Labor (2005), Preiimillmy Private Pension Plan Bulletin, Abstract of 2000, Form 5500 Annual Reports. Weston, L.P. (2008), 8 Things YOUI' Financial Planner Won't Tell YOIl, available at: http:// artic1es.moneycentra1.msn.comlRetirementandWills/CreateaPlan/8Things YourFinancial PlannerWontTellYou.aspx (accessed 14 September 2008). Further reading Rattiner, J,H. (2005), Getting Started as a Financial Planner, revised ed., Bloomberg Press, New York, NY.

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. [user request] [context document]

What are the main differences between owning an LLC or Sole proprietorship? Which is better for a small business? what are the steps I would have to take to get either one?

Your business structure affects how much you pay in taxes, your ability to raise money, the paperwork you need to file, and your personal liability. You'll need to choose a business structure before you register your business with the state. Most businesses will also need to get a tax ID number and file for the appropriate licenses and permits. Choose carefully. While you may convert to a different business structure in the future, there may be restrictions based on your location. This could also result in tax consequences and unintended dissolution, among other complications. Consulting with business counselors, attorneys, and accountants can prove helpful. Review common business structures Sole proprietorship A sole proprietorship is easy to form and gives you complete control of your business. You're automatically considered to be a sole proprietorship if you do business activities but don't register as any other kind of business. Sole proprietorships do not produce a separate business entity. This means your business assets and liabilities are not separate from your personal assets and liabilities. You can be held personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business. Sole proprietors are still able to get a trade name. It can also be hard to raise money because you can't sell stock, and banks are hesitant to lend to sole proprietorships. Sole proprietorships can be a good choice for low-risk businesses and owners who want to test their business idea before forming a more formal business. Partnership Partnerships are the simplest structure for two or more people to own a business together. There are two common kinds of partnerships: limited partnerships (LP) and limited liability partnerships (LLP). Limited partnerships have only one general partner with unlimited liability, and all other partners have limited liability. The partners with limited liability also tend to have limited control over the company, which is documented in a partnership agreement. Profits are passed through to personal tax returns, and the general partner — the partner without limited liability — must also pay self-employment taxes. Limited liability partnerships are similar to limited partnerships, but give limited liability to every owner. An LLP protects each partner from debts against the partnership, they won't be responsible for the actions of other partners. Partnerships can be a good choice for businesses with multiple owners, professional groups (like attorneys), and groups who want to test their business idea before forming a more formal business. Limited liability company (LLC) An LLC lets you take advantage of the benefits of both the corporation and partnership business structures. LLCs protect you from personal liability in most instances, your personal assets — like your vehicle, house, and savings accounts — won't be at risk in case your LLC faces bankruptcy or lawsuits. Profits and losses can get passed through to your personal income without facing corporate taxes. However, members of an LLC are considered self-employed and must pay self-employment tax contributions towards Medicare and Social Security. LLCs can have a limited life in many states. When a member joins or leaves an LLC, some states may require the LLC to be dissolved and re-formed with new membership — unless there's already an agreement in place within the LLC for buying, selling, and transferring ownership. LLCs can be a good choice for medium- or higher-risk businesses, owners with significant personal assets they want protected, and owners who want to pay a lower tax rate than they would with a corporation. Corporation C corp A corporation, sometimes called a C corp, is a legal entity that's separate from its owners. Corporations can make a profit, be taxed, and can be held legally liable. Corporations offer the strongest protection to its owners from personal liability, but the cost to form a corporation is higher than other structures. Corporations also require more extensive record-keeping, operational processes, and reporting. Unlike sole proprietors, partnerships, and LLCs, corporations pay income tax on their profits. In some cases, corporate profits are taxed twice — first, when the company makes a profit, and again when dividends are paid to shareholders on their personal tax returns. Corporations have a completely independent life separate from its shareholders. If a shareholder leaves the company or sells his or her shares, the C corp can continue doing business relatively undisturbed. Corporations have an advantage when it comes to raising capital because they can raise funds through the sale of stock, which can also be a benefit in attracting employees. Corporations can be a good choice for medium- or higher-risk businesses, those that need to raise money, and businesses that plan to "go public" or eventually be sold. S corp An S corporation, sometimes called an S corp, is a special type of corporation that's designed to avoid the double taxation drawback of regular C corps. S corps allow profits, and some losses, to be passed through directly to owners' personal income without ever being subject to corporate tax rates. Not all states tax S corps equally, but most recognize them the same way the federal government does and tax the shareholders accordingly. Some states tax S corps on profits above a specified limit and other states don't recognize the S corp election at all, simply treating the business as a C corp. S corps must file with the IRS to get S corp status, a different process from registering with their state. There are special limits on S corps. Check the IRS website for eligibility requirements(Link is external). You'll still have to follow the strict filing and operational processes of a C corp. S corps also have an independent life, just like C corps. If a shareholder leaves the company or sells his or her shares, the S corp can continue doing business relatively undisturbed. S corps can be a good choice for a businesses that would otherwise be a C corp, but meet the criteria to file as an S corp Compare business structures Compare the general traits of these business structures, but remember that ownership rules, liability, taxes, and filing requirements for each business structure can vary by state. The following table is intended only as a guideline. Please confer with a business tax specialist to confirm your specific business needs. Business structure Ownership Liability Taxes Sole proprietorship One person Unlimited personal liability Self-employment tax Partnerships Two or more people Unlimited personal liability unless structured as a limited partnership Self-employment tax (except for limited partners) Limited liability company (LLC) One or more people Owners are not personally liable Self-employment tax

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. What are the main differences between owning an LLC or Sole proprietorship? Which is better for a small business? what are the steps I would have to take to get either one? Your business structure affects how much you pay in taxes, your ability to raise money, the paperwork you need to file, and your personal liability. You'll need to choose a business structure before you register your business with the state. Most businesses will also need to get a tax ID number and file for the appropriate licenses and permits. Choose carefully. While you may convert to a different business structure in the future, there may be restrictions based on your location. This could also result in tax consequences and unintended dissolution, among other complications. Consulting with business counselors, attorneys, and accountants can prove helpful. Review common business structures Sole proprietorship A sole proprietorship is easy to form and gives you complete control of your business. You're automatically considered to be a sole proprietorship if you do business activities but don't register as any other kind of business. Sole proprietorships do not produce a separate business entity. This means your business assets and liabilities are not separate from your personal assets and liabilities. You can be held personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business. Sole proprietors are still able to get a trade name. It can also be hard to raise money because you can't sell stock, and banks are hesitant to lend to sole proprietorships. Sole proprietorships can be a good choice for low-risk businesses and owners who want to test their business idea before forming a more formal business. Partnership Partnerships are the simplest structure for two or more people to own a business together. There are two common kinds of partnerships: limited partnerships (LP) and limited liability partnerships (LLP). Limited partnerships have only one general partner with unlimited liability, and all other partners have limited liability. The partners with limited liability also tend to have limited control over the company, which is documented in a partnership agreement. Profits are passed through to personal tax returns, and the general partner — the partner without limited liability — must also pay self-employment taxes. Limited liability partnerships are similar to limited partnerships, but give limited liability to every owner. An LLP protects each partner from debts against the partnership, they won't be responsible for the actions of other partners. Partnerships can be a good choice for businesses with multiple owners, professional groups (like attorneys), and groups who want to test their business idea before forming a more formal business. Limited liability company (LLC) An LLC lets you take advantage of the benefits of both the corporation and partnership business structures. LLCs protect you from personal liability in most instances, your personal assets — like your vehicle, house, and savings accounts — won't be at risk in case your LLC faces bankruptcy or lawsuits. Profits and losses can get passed through to your personal income without facing corporate taxes. However, members of an LLC are considered self-employed and must pay self-employment tax contributions towards Medicare and Social Security. LLCs can have a limited life in many states. When a member joins or leaves an LLC, some states may require the LLC to be dissolved and re-formed with new membership — unless there's already an agreement in place within the LLC for buying, selling, and transferring ownership. LLCs can be a good choice for medium- or higher-risk businesses, owners with significant personal assets they want protected, and owners who want to pay a lower tax rate than they would with a corporation. Corporation C corp A corporation, sometimes called a C corp, is a legal entity that's separate from its owners. Corporations can make a profit, be taxed, and can be held legally liable. Corporations offer the strongest protection to its owners from personal liability, but the cost to form a corporation is higher than other structures. Corporations also require more extensive record-keeping, operational processes, and reporting. Unlike sole proprietors, partnerships, and LLCs, corporations pay income tax on their profits. In some cases, corporate profits are taxed twice — first, when the company makes a profit, and again when dividends are paid to shareholders on their personal tax returns. Corporations have a completely independent life separate from its shareholders. If a shareholder leaves the company or sells his or her shares, the C corp can continue doing business relatively undisturbed. Corporations have an advantage when it comes to raising capital because they can raise funds through the sale of stock, which can also be a benefit in attracting employees. Corporations can be a good choice for medium- or higher-risk businesses, those that need to raise money, and businesses that plan to "go public" or eventually be sold. S corp An S corporation, sometimes called an S corp, is a special type of corporation that's designed to avoid the double taxation drawback of regular C corps. S corps allow profits, and some losses, to be passed through directly to owners' personal income without ever being subject to corporate tax rates. Not all states tax S corps equally, but most recognize them the same way the federal government does and tax the shareholders accordingly. Some states tax S corps on profits above a specified limit and other states don't recognize the S corp election at all, simply treating the business as a C corp. S corps must file with the IRS to get S corp status, a different process from registering with their state. There are special limits on S corps. Check the IRS website for eligibility requirements(Link is external). You'll still have to follow the strict filing and operational processes of a C corp. S corps also have an independent life, just like C corps. If a shareholder leaves the company or sells his or her shares, the S corp can continue doing business relatively undisturbed. S corps can be a good choice for a businesses that would otherwise be a C corp, but meet the criteria to file as an S corp Compare business structures Compare the general traits of these business structures, but remember that ownership rules, liability, taxes, and filing requirements for each business structure can vary by state. The following table is intended only as a guideline. Please confer with a business tax specialist to confirm your specific business needs. Business structure Ownership Liability Taxes Sole proprietorship One person Unlimited personal liability Self-employment tax Partnerships Two or more people Unlimited personal liability unless structured as a limited partnership Self-employment tax (except for limited partners) Limited liability company (LLC) One or more people Owners are not personally liable Self-employment tax https://www.sba.gov/business-guide/launch-your-business/choose-business-structure

Use only the provided text to formulate your answer; use no other sources. Answer in a maximum of two short paragraphs.

Why might a ticket be available in the secondary market?

Each year, millions of Americans purchase tickets for live entertainment events, such as concerts, theatrical performances, and sporting events. In 2023, about 81 million fans in North America and 145 million fans across the world attended events that were produced by Live Nation Entertainment—a firm that promotes events, owns venues, and provides ticketing services through its subsidiary, Ticketmaster.1 IBISWorld, a market research firm, projects revenue for online ticket sales in the United States in 2024 will be $12.7 billion, with $4.2 billion (33.3%) spent on sporting events; $3.9 billion (30.7%) on concerts; and $1.5 billion (11.8%) on dance, opera, and theatrical performances.2 Congress has held hearings, 3 debated bills, and passed legislation4 related to tickets for live events (Appendix). Some Members of the 118th Congress have called attention to event ticketing issues, such as rising ticket prices (potentially due to higher ticketing service fees), and efforts to increase consumer protection (e.g., by requiring full price disclosure for tickets from the beginning of a transaction). 5 Some states have enacted legislation related to event ticketing, including legislation that seeks to address these same concerns. 6 This report provides an overview of event ticketing and actions taken by the federal government related to event ticketing. It also discusses selected legislative proposals from the 118th Congress. Overview of Event Ticketing and Selected Issues Tickets for live events initially are sold in the primary market. In the primary market, firms that provide ticketing services (i.e., ticketers) work directly with venues, promoters, producers, sports teams, and other entities to sell tickets to consumers (see Figure 1). Most tickets in the primary market are sold online,7 although some tickets may be available through other outlets, such as a local box office or call center.8 Events typically have one primary ticketer selling tickets online. For example, the primary ticketer for most Major League Baseball (MLB) teams is Tickets.com 1 Live Nation Entertainment, Inc., Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2023, pp. 30, 36. 2 IBISWorld, Online Event Ticket Sales in the U.S., April 2024, pp. 8-9 (hereinafter IBISWorld, Online Event Ticket Sales in the U.S.). 3 For example, see U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, That’s the Ticket: Promoting Competition and Protecting Consumers in Live Entertainment, hearing, 118th Cong., 1st sess., January 24, 2023, S.Hrg. 118-31 (Washington, DC: GPO, 2023), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118shrg52250/pdf/CHRG118shrg52250.pdf (hereinafter Senate Judiciary hearing, That’s the Ticket), and U.S. Congress, House Energy and Commerce Committee, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, In the Dark: Lack of Transparency in the Live Event Ticketing Industry, hearing, 116th Cong., 2nd sess., February 26, 2020, https://docs.house.gov/Committee/ Calendar/ByEvent.aspx?EventId=110588. 4 The 114th Congress passed the Better Online Ticket Sales Act of 2016 (BOTS Act; P.L. 114-274). For more information about the BOTS Act, see “Federal Oversight of Event Ticketing.” 5 Senate Judiciary hearing, That’s the Ticket. 6 For example, some states require the total price of a ticket, including any taxes and fees, to be provided when the price is initially displayed (e.g., Connecticut General Statute §53-289a, Georgia Code Annotated §43-4B-28(a)(3), and New York Arts and Cultural Affairs Law §25.23). 7 For example, in 2022, Live Nation estimated that it sold 56%, 42%, and 2% of its tickets through mobile apps, websites, and ticket outlets, respectively. Live Nation Entertainment, Inc., SEC Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2022, p. 11. 8 IBISWorld, Online Event Ticket Sales in the U.S., p. 12; and U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Event Ticket Sales: Market Characteristics and Consumer Protection Issues, April 2018, pp. 4-5, https://www.gao.gov/assets/ 700/691247.pdf (hereinafter GAO, Event Ticket Sales). E Tickets for Live Entertainment Events Congressional Research Service 2 (a subsidiary of MLB Advanced Media),9 and the primary ticketer for most National Football League (NFL) teams is Ticketmaster. 10 A portion of tickets might be sold through presales (e.g., an artist’s fan club or season tickets), bundled together as a package (e.g., group tickets), or held for certain individuals (e.g., sponsors, media, high-profile guests). 11 Some live event tickets might be nontransferable—consumers might be required to show the credit or debit card that was used to make the purchase and a matching photo ID to enter the event.12 Tickets for some live events also are available in the secondary market. In the secondary market, individuals who purchased tickets in the primary market can resell their tickets, typically using ticketers that operate in the secondary market. Individuals selling tickets in the secondary market can include consumers who cannot or no longer wish to attend the event, as well as ticket brokers who purchase tickets in the primary market with the intention of reselling them in the secondary market for a profit. Some event organizers provide tickets directly to ticket brokers. 13 Thus, an event can have multiple individuals using different secondary ticketers.

Use only the provided text to formulate your answer; use no other sources. Answer in a maximum of two short paragraphs. Provided text: Each year, millions of Americans purchase tickets for live entertainment events, such as concerts, theatrical performances, and sporting events. In 2023, about 81 million fans in North America and 145 million fans across the world attended events that were produced by Live Nation Entertainment—a firm that promotes events, owns venues, and provides ticketing services through its subsidiary, Ticketmaster.1 IBISWorld, a market research firm, projects revenue for online ticket sales in the United States in 2024 will be $12.7 billion, with $4.2 billion (33.3%) spent on sporting events; $3.9 billion (30.7%) on concerts; and $1.5 billion (11.8%) on dance, opera, and theatrical performances.2 Congress has held hearings, 3 debated bills, and passed legislation4 related to tickets for live events (Appendix). Some Members of the 118th Congress have called attention to event ticketing issues, such as rising ticket prices (potentially due to higher ticketing service fees), and efforts to increase consumer protection (e.g., by requiring full price disclosure for tickets from the beginning of a transaction). 5 Some states have enacted legislation related to event ticketing, including legislation that seeks to address these same concerns. 6 This report provides an overview of event ticketing and actions taken by the federal government related to event ticketing. It also discusses selected legislative proposals from the 118th Congress. Overview of Event Ticketing and Selected Issues Tickets for live events initially are sold in the primary market. In the primary market, firms that provide ticketing services (i.e., ticketers) work directly with venues, promoters, producers, sports teams, and other entities to sell tickets to consumers (see Figure 1). Most tickets in the primary market are sold online,7 although some tickets may be available through other outlets, such as a local box office or call center.8 Events typically have one primary ticketer selling tickets online. For example, the primary ticketer for most Major League Baseball (MLB) teams is Tickets.com 1 Live Nation Entertainment, Inc., Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2023, pp. 30, 36. 2 IBISWorld, Online Event Ticket Sales in the U.S., April 2024, pp. 8-9 (hereinafter IBISWorld, Online Event Ticket Sales in the U.S.). 3 For example, see U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, That’s the Ticket: Promoting Competition and Protecting Consumers in Live Entertainment, hearing, 118th Cong., 1st sess., January 24, 2023, S.Hrg. 118-31 (Washington, DC: GPO, 2023), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118shrg52250/pdf/CHRG118shrg52250.pdf (hereinafter Senate Judiciary hearing, That’s the Ticket), and U.S. Congress, House Energy and Commerce Committee, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, In the Dark: Lack of Transparency in the Live Event Ticketing Industry, hearing, 116th Cong., 2nd sess., February 26, 2020, https://docs.house.gov/Committee/ Calendar/ByEvent.aspx?EventId=110588. 4 The 114th Congress passed the Better Online Ticket Sales Act of 2016 (BOTS Act; P.L. 114-274). For more information about the BOTS Act, see “Federal Oversight of Event Ticketing.” 5 Senate Judiciary hearing, That’s the Ticket. 6 For example, some states require the total price of a ticket, including any taxes and fees, to be provided when the price is initially displayed (e.g., Connecticut General Statute §53-289a, Georgia Code Annotated §43-4B-28(a)(3), and New York Arts and Cultural Affairs Law §25.23). 7 For example, in 2022, Live Nation estimated that it sold 56%, 42%, and 2% of its tickets through mobile apps, websites, and ticket outlets, respectively. Live Nation Entertainment, Inc., SEC Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2022, p. 11. 8 IBISWorld, Online Event Ticket Sales in the U.S., p. 12; and U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Event Ticket Sales: Market Characteristics and Consumer Protection Issues, April 2018, pp. 4-5, https://www.gao.gov/assets/ 700/691247.pdf (hereinafter GAO, Event Ticket Sales). E Tickets for Live Entertainment Events Congressional Research Service 2 (a subsidiary of MLB Advanced Media),9 and the primary ticketer for most National Football League (NFL) teams is Ticketmaster. 10 A portion of tickets might be sold through presales (e.g., an artist’s fan club or season tickets), bundled together as a package (e.g., group tickets), or held for certain individuals (e.g., sponsors, media, high-profile guests). 11 Some live event tickets might be nontransferable—consumers might be required to show the credit or debit card that was used to make the purchase and a matching photo ID to enter the event.12 Tickets for some live events also are available in the secondary market. In the secondary market, individuals who purchased tickets in the primary market can resell their tickets, typically using ticketers that operate in the secondary market. Individuals selling tickets in the secondary market can include consumers who cannot or no longer wish to attend the event, as well as ticket brokers who purchase tickets in the primary market with the intention of reselling them in the secondary market for a profit. Some event organizers provide tickets directly to ticket brokers. 13 Thus, an event can have multiple individuals using different secondary ticketers. Why might a ticket be available in the secondary market?

Base your entire response on the document I gave you. I need to know the absolute basic information about what is being said here.

What are the Golden Rules of Great Customer Service?

GOLDEN RULES TO GREAT CUSTOMER SERVICE Presented by Bill Huninghake & Rich York THE GOLDEN RULE DO UNTO OTHERS AS YOU WOULD HAVE THEM DO UNTO YOU. GOLDEN RULES TO GREAT CUSTOMER SERVICE 1. A CUSTOMER IN NEED IS A CUSTOMER INDEED. 2. HIRE PEOPLE WITH GOOD CUSTOMER SKILLS 3. TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES ON STORE POLICIES. 4. CROSS TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES. 5. TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO BUILD RAPPORT. 6. KNOW YOUR CUSTOMERS NAMES AND USE THEM. 7. TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO ASK OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS. 8. INSTILL A SENSE OF URGENCY IN HELPING CUSTOMERS. 9. TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO HANDLE ANGRY CUSTOMERS. 10. DON’T LET AN UNHAPPY CUSTOMER LEAVE YOUR STORE. WHAT IS YOUR GOLDEN EGG? 1. IMPROVE CUSTOMER RETENTION 2. COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT 3. INCREASE NEW CUSTOMERS 4. FRIENDLIEST PLACE AROUND 5. BEST PERISHABLES IN TOWN 6. BEST MEAT DEPARTMENT AROUND SUPERCENTER AFFILIATED FOODS STORE WHY DID THE CUSTOMER CROSS THE ROAD? Why Customers Quit Shopping Your Store Die, 1% Move, 3% Other Friendship, 5% Competition, 9% Product Dissatisfaction, 14% Attitude of an Employee 68% FIRST GOLDEN RULE A CUSTOMER IN NEED IS A CUSTOMER INDEED When there is not much difference between your product and the product of your competitor, there needs to be a BIG difference in the quality of service you provide your customer. SECOND GOLDEN RULE HIRE PEOPLE WITH GOOD CUSTOMER SERVICE SKILLS A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A -- 1 T -- 20 T -- 20 I -- 9 T -- 20 U -- 21 D -- 4 E -- 5 Attitude equals 100%. ATTITUDE IS A LITTLE THING THAT MAKES A BIG DIFFERENCE HOW TO HIRE GREAT EMPLOYEES: Seek out the great employees who already work for you. Interview them, find out what makes them tick. Write profiles of great employees. Find out what qualities they have in common. Then look to hire people with the same qualities. THIRD GOLDEN RULE TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES ON STORE POLICIES BE THE EXAMPLE FOR YOUR EMPLOYEES TO EMULATE. DON’T ASK YOUR EMPLOYEES TO DO SOMETHING YOU WOULDN’T. EXAMPLE POLICIES • Visit with customers • No whispering • Walk the customer to product • Don’t get in the customer’s way when working in the aisles • 10 ft rule – Greet the customer • 2 is company but 3 is a crowd – more than two in line call for help • 3 sacks = mandatory carry out • Thank the Customer no matter what FOURTH GOLDEN RULE CROSS TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES Provide opportunities for employees to learn. The kind of employees you want are the kind who want to learn. Good workers improve their skills in many areas of work and life. They can either do it on their own, and be more inclined to go elsewhere for continued challenge and learning, or they can learn under your auspices, and develop close ties to your organization while they do. • Communicate the task. Describe exactly what you want done, when you want it done, and what end results you expect. • Furnish context for the task. Explain why the task needs to be done, its importance in the overall scheme of things, and possible complications that may arise during its performance • Determine standards. Agree on the standards that you will use to measure the success of a task's completion. These standards should be realistic and attainable. FIFTH GOLDEN RULE TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO BUILD RAPPORT WITH THE CUSTOMER Teach your employees how to create excellent customer service through human interaction • All customers are greeted politely and courteously. • Create an atmosphere of friendliness throughout each customer interaction. • Professionalism is displayed through word and deeds. • Show empathy and understanding for a customer with a problem • All customers are treated fairly in every interaction with the store • Conduct yourself with tact SIXTH GOLDEN RULE KNOW YOUR CUSTOMERS NAMES AND USE THEM Use the following to build positive relationships with your customers • KIDS NAMES • ACHIEVEMENTS • HONOR ROLL • MARRIAGE • NEW CAR • HAIR STYLE CHANGE **STAY AWAY FROM PERSONAL SENSITIVE SUBJECTS EVERYONE HAS AN INVISIBLE SIGN HANGING FROM HIS OR HER NECK THAT READS “MAKE ME FEEL IMPORTANT,” NEVER FORGET THIS WHEN WORKING WITH PEOPLE. SEVENTH GOLDEN RULE TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO ASK OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS Open-ended questions are questions that encourage people to talk about whatever is important to them. They help to establish rapport, gather information, and increase understanding. They are the opposite of closed-ended questions that typically require a simple brief response such “yes” or “no.” Examples of open-ended questions: • How can I be of help? • · Would you tell me more about ___? • · Could you help me understand ___? • · What are the good things and the less good things about ___? • · What do you think you will lose if you give up ___? • · What have you tried before? • · What do you want to do next? Affirmations Affirmations are statements and gestures that recognize client strengths and acknowledge behaviors that lead in the direction of positive change, no matter how big or small. Affirmations build confidence in one’s ability to change. To be effective, affirmations must be genuine and congruent. Examples of affirmation statements: · Thank you for … · I really like the way you … · That was a very creative how you … · You showed a lot of self-control in the way you … · It may not seem like much, but I think it was very impressive how you … · You have a real gift for … “TO GIVE REAL SERVICE YOU MUST ADD SOMETHING WHICH CANNOT BE BOUGHT OR MEASURED WITH MONEY, AND THAT IS SINCERITY AND INTEGRITY” -Donald A. Adams EIGHTH GOLDEN RULE INSTILL A SENSE OF URGENCY IN HELPING CUSTOMERS WHAT DO THESE CUSTOMERS HAVE IN COMMON? EDUCATE YOUR EMPLOYEES ON FIVE PRINCIPLES OF A GOOD EMPLOYEE • URGENCY • OWNERSHIP • LEARN-BY-DOING • LIFELONG LEARNING • MOTIVATION Customers don’t expect you to be perfect. They do expect you to fix things when they go wrong NINTH GOLDEN RULE TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO HANDLE ANGRY CUSTOMERS NEVER ARGUE WITH A CUSTOMER . LISTEN! CLOSE YOUR MOUTH AND LISTEN!! WHEN THAT DOESN’T WORK……. Saying I’m sorry will often times reduce anger. Apologies even if it was not your fault. Defusing Angry Customers using the LARSON approach • Listen let them vent. Empathize, take notes • Agreement find areas of agreement • Repeat/Restate use the customers words for clarification of issue • Seek Resolution Ask what can be done to resolve the problem • Offer a sincere apology We’re sorry this happened and if were responsible we will make it right • Now solve the problem immediately THE FOUR R’S • REPEAT • REVIEW • RESPOND • RESOLVE TENTH GOLDEN RULE DON’T LET AN ANGRY CUSTOMER LEAVE YOUR STORE 10 WAYS TO BUILD CUSTOMER LOYALTY 1. Take ownership of your customer’s problem. Even if you are not the cause of it. 2. Follow up with every customer who was upset or had a difficult problem. 3. Ask yourself with every customer interaction you have, “If this were me, what would I want?” 4. Thank your customers and co-workers every chance you get! 5. Fax articles or other materials to your customers if you think they can benefit from the information. 10 WAYS TO BUILD CUSTOMER LOYALTY (Continued) 6. Remember personal details about your customers such as birthdays, children’s names and accomplishments. 7. SMILE every time you are on the telephone. 8. Look for ways to bend the rules and remove service obstacles. 9. Time is a person’s most precious commodity. Respect your customer’s time and schedule. 10. Provide your customers with respect, friendliness, and knowledge, and oh, yes, the products and services you sell. COMPARING A KNIGHT IN SHINING ARMOR TO A CUSTOMER SERVICE REPRESENTATIVE WE CONTROL OUR OWN DESTINY AND WE WILL GET THE RESULTS WE WANT BY WORKING THE GOLDEN RULES THANK YOU FOR SPENDING TIME WITH ME TODAY THE END INSERT CLIP FROM PICKLE

Base your entire response on the document I gave you. I need to know the absolute basic information about what is being said here. What are the Golden Rules of Great Customer Service? GOLDEN RULES TO GREAT CUSTOMER SERVICE Presented by Bill Huninghake & Rich York THE GOLDEN RULE DO UNTO OTHERS AS YOU WOULD HAVE THEM DO UNTO YOU. GOLDEN RULES TO GREAT CUSTOMER SERVICE 1. A CUSTOMER IN NEED IS A CUSTOMER INDEED. 2. HIRE PEOPLE WITH GOOD CUSTOMER SKILLS 3. TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES ON STORE POLICIES. 4. CROSS TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES. 5. TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO BUILD RAPPORT. 6. KNOW YOUR CUSTOMERS NAMES AND USE THEM. 7. TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO ASK OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS. 8. INSTILL A SENSE OF URGENCY IN HELPING CUSTOMERS. 9. TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO HANDLE ANGRY CUSTOMERS. 10. DON’T LET AN UNHAPPY CUSTOMER LEAVE YOUR STORE. WHAT IS YOUR GOLDEN EGG? 1. IMPROVE CUSTOMER RETENTION 2. COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT 3. INCREASE NEW CUSTOMERS 4. FRIENDLIEST PLACE AROUND 5. BEST PERISHABLES IN TOWN 6. BEST MEAT DEPARTMENT AROUND SUPERCENTER AFFILIATED FOODS STORE WHY DID THE CUSTOMER CROSS THE ROAD? Why Customers Quit Shopping Your Store Die, 1% Move, 3% Other Friendship, 5% Competition, 9% Product Dissatisfaction, 14% Attitude of an Employee 68% FIRST GOLDEN RULE A CUSTOMER IN NEED IS A CUSTOMER INDEED When there is not much difference between your product and the product of your competitor, there needs to be a BIG difference in the quality of service you provide your customer. SECOND GOLDEN RULE HIRE PEOPLE WITH GOOD CUSTOMER SERVICE SKILLS A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A -- 1 T -- 20 T -- 20 I -- 9 T -- 20 U -- 21 D -- 4 E -- 5 Attitude equals 100%. ATTITUDE IS A LITTLE THING THAT MAKES A BIG DIFFERENCE HOW TO HIRE GREAT EMPLOYEES: Seek out the great employees who already work for you. Interview them, find out what makes them tick. Write profiles of great employees. Find out what qualities they have in common. Then look to hire people with the same qualities. THIRD GOLDEN RULE TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES ON STORE POLICIES BE THE EXAMPLE FOR YOUR EMPLOYEES TO EMULATE. DON’T ASK YOUR EMPLOYEES TO DO SOMETHING YOU WOULDN’T. EXAMPLE POLICIES • Visit with customers • No whispering • Walk the customer to product • Don’t get in the customer’s way when working in the aisles • 10 ft rule – Greet the customer • 2 is company but 3 is a crowd – more than two in line call for help • 3 sacks = mandatory carry out • Thank the Customer no matter what FOURTH GOLDEN RULE CROSS TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES Provide opportunities for employees to learn. The kind of employees you want are the kind who want to learn. Good workers improve their skills in many areas of work and life. They can either do it on their own, and be more inclined to go elsewhere for continued challenge and learning, or they can learn under your auspices, and develop close ties to your organization while they do. • Communicate the task. Describe exactly what you want done, when you want it done, and what end results you expect. • Furnish context for the task. Explain why the task needs to be done, its importance in the overall scheme of things, and possible complications that may arise during its performance • Determine standards. Agree on the standards that you will use to measure the success of a task's completion. These standards should be realistic and attainable. FIFTH GOLDEN RULE TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO BUILD RAPPORT WITH THE CUSTOMER Teach your employees how to create excellent customer service through human interaction • All customers are greeted politely and courteously. • Create an atmosphere of friendliness throughout each customer interaction. • Professionalism is displayed through word and deeds. • Show empathy and understanding for a customer with a problem • All customers are treated fairly in every interaction with the store • Conduct yourself with tact SIXTH GOLDEN RULE KNOW YOUR CUSTOMERS NAMES AND USE THEM Use the following to build positive relationships with your customers • KIDS NAMES • ACHIEVEMENTS • HONOR ROLL • MARRIAGE • NEW CAR • HAIR STYLE CHANGE **STAY AWAY FROM PERSONAL SENSITIVE SUBJECTS EVERYONE HAS AN INVISIBLE SIGN HANGING FROM HIS OR HER NECK THAT READS “MAKE ME FEEL IMPORTANT,” NEVER FORGET THIS WHEN WORKING WITH PEOPLE. SEVENTH GOLDEN RULE TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO ASK OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS Open-ended questions are questions that encourage people to talk about whatever is important to them. They help to establish rapport, gather information, and increase understanding. They are the opposite of closed-ended questions that typically require a simple brief response such “yes” or “no.” Examples of open-ended questions: • How can I be of help? • · Would you tell me more about ___? • · Could you help me understand ___? • · What are the good things and the less good things about ___? • · What do you think you will lose if you give up ___? • · What have you tried before? • · What do you want to do next? Affirmations Affirmations are statements and gestures that recognize client strengths and acknowledge behaviors that lead in the direction of positive change, no matter how big or small. Affirmations build confidence in one’s ability to change. To be effective, affirmations must be genuine and congruent. Examples of affirmation statements: · Thank you for … · I really like the way you … · That was a very creative how you … · You showed a lot of self-control in the way you … · It may not seem like much, but I think it was very impressive how you … · You have a real gift for … “TO GIVE REAL SERVICE YOU MUST ADD SOMETHING WHICH CANNOT BE BOUGHT OR MEASURED WITH MONEY, AND THAT IS SINCERITY AND INTEGRITY” -Donald A. Adams EIGHTH GOLDEN RULE INSTILL A SENSE OF URGENCY IN HELPING CUSTOMERS WHAT DO THESE CUSTOMERS HAVE IN COMMON? EDUCATE YOUR EMPLOYEES ON FIVE PRINCIPLES OF A GOOD EMPLOYEE • URGENCY • OWNERSHIP • LEARN-BY-DOING • LIFELONG LEARNING • MOTIVATION Customers don’t expect you to be perfect. They do expect you to fix things when they go wrong NINTH GOLDEN RULE TRAIN YOUR EMPLOYEES HOW TO HANDLE ANGRY CUSTOMERS NEVER ARGUE WITH A CUSTOMER . LISTEN! CLOSE YOUR MOUTH AND LISTEN!! WHEN THAT DOESN’T WORK……. Saying I’m sorry will often times reduce anger. Apologies even if it was not your fault. Defusing Angry Customers using the LARSON approach • Listen let them vent. Empathize, take notes • Agreement find areas of agreement • Repeat/Restate use the customers words for clarification of issue • Seek Resolution Ask what can be done to resolve the problem • Offer a sincere apology We’re sorry this happened and if were responsible we will make it right • Now solve the problem immediately THE FOUR R’S • REPEAT • REVIEW • RESPOND • RESOLVE TENTH GOLDEN RULE DON’T LET AN ANGRY CUSTOMER LEAVE YOUR STORE 10 WAYS TO BUILD CUSTOMER LOYALTY 1. Take ownership of your customer’s problem. Even if you are not the cause of it. 2. Follow up with every customer who was upset or had a difficult problem. 3. Ask yourself with every customer interaction you have, “If this were me, what would I want?” 4. Thank your customers and co-workers every chance you get! 5. Fax articles or other materials to your customers if you think they can benefit from the information. 10 WAYS TO BUILD CUSTOMER LOYALTY (Continued) 6. Remember personal details about your customers such as birthdays, children’s names and accomplishments. 7. SMILE every time you are on the telephone. 8. Look for ways to bend the rules and remove service obstacles. 9. Time is a person’s most precious commodity. Respect your customer’s time and schedule. 10. Provide your customers with respect, friendliness, and knowledge, and oh, yes, the products and services you sell. COMPARING A KNIGHT IN SHINING ARMOR TO A CUSTOMER SERVICE REPRESENTATIVE WE CONTROL OUR OWN DESTINY AND WE WILL GET THE RESULTS WE WANT BY WORKING THE GOLDEN RULES THANK YOU FOR SPENDING TIME WITH ME TODAY THE END INSERT CLIP FROM PICKLE

Use the source provided only.

Please answer the following based on the legal specifications: what happens if there is a price change or conflict in a promotion?

Page # 1 OVERVIEW 1. BY PLACING AN ORDER FOR PRODUCTS FROM THIS WEBSITE, YOU AFFIRM THAT YOU ARE OF LEGAL AGE TO ENTER INTO THIS AGREEMENT, AND YOU ACCEPT AND ARE BOUND BY THESE TERMS AND CONDITIONS. YOU MAY NOT ORDER OR OBTAIN PRODUCTS OR SERVICES FROM THIS WEBSITE IF YOU (A) DO NOT AGREE TO THESE TERMS, (B) ARE NOT THE OLDER OF (i) AT LEAST 18 YEARS OF AGE OR (ii) LEGAL AGE TO FORM A BINDING CONTRACT WITH LAZARUS NATURALS, OR (C) ARE PROHIBITED FROM ACCESSING OR USING THIS WEBSITE OR ANY OF THIS WEBSITE’S CONTENTS, GOODS OR SERVICES BY APPLICABLE LAW. These terms and conditions (these “Terms”) apply to the purchase and sale of products and services through the Lazarus Naturals website (the “Website”). These Terms are subject to change by Lazarus Naturals (referred to as “us”, “we”, or “our” as the context may require) without prior written notice at any time, in our sole discretion. Any changes to the Terms will be in effect as of the “Last Updated Date” referenced on the Website. 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No assignment or delegation relieves you of any of your obligations under these Terms. 

Use the source provided only. Please answer the following based on the legal specifications: what happens if there is a price change or conflict in a promotion? Page # 1 OVERVIEW 1. BY PLACING AN ORDER FOR PRODUCTS FROM THIS WEBSITE, YOU AFFIRM THAT YOU ARE OF LEGAL AGE TO ENTER INTO THIS AGREEMENT, AND YOU ACCEPT AND ARE BOUND BY THESE TERMS AND CONDITIONS. YOU MAY NOT ORDER OR OBTAIN PRODUCTS OR SERVICES FROM THIS WEBSITE IF YOU (A) DO NOT AGREE TO THESE TERMS, (B) ARE NOT THE OLDER OF (i) AT LEAST 18 YEARS OF AGE OR (ii) LEGAL AGE TO FORM A BINDING CONTRACT WITH LAZARUS NATURALS, OR (C) ARE PROHIBITED FROM ACCESSING OR USING THIS WEBSITE OR ANY OF THIS WEBSITE’S CONTENTS, GOODS OR SERVICES BY APPLICABLE LAW. These terms and conditions (these “Terms”) apply to the purchase and sale of products and services through the Lazarus Naturals website (the “Website”). These Terms are subject to change by Lazarus Naturals (referred to as “us”, “we”, or “our” as the context may require) without prior written notice at any time, in our sole discretion. Any changes to the Terms will be in effect as of the “Last Updated Date” referenced on the Website. You should review these Terms prior to purchasing any product or services that are available through this Website. Your ordering of products or services, or continued use of this Website after the “Last Updated Date,’ will constitute your acceptance of and agreement to such changes. 2. Order Acceptance and Cancellation. You agree that your order is an offer to buy, under these Terms, all products and services listed in your order. All orders must be accepted by us or we will not be obligated to sell the products or services to you. We may choose not to accept orders at our sole discretion, even after we send you a confirmation email with your order number and details of the items you have ordered. 3. Prices and Payment Terms. (a) All prices, discounts, and promotions posted on this Website are subject to change without notice. The price charged for a product or service will be the price in effect at the time the order is placed and will be set out in your order confirmation email. Price increases will only apply to orders placed after such changes. Posted prices do not include taxes or charges for shipping and handling. All such taxes and charges will be added to your merchandise total, and will be itemized in your shopping cart and in your order confirmation email. We strive to display accurate price information, however we may, on occasion, make inadvertent typographical errors, inaccuracies or omissions related to pricing and availability. 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You may only use the text included in this prompt for your answer. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge.

How would a digital asset that had been deemed a security be reevaluated?

C. Reasonable Expectation of Profits Derived from Efforts of Others Usually, the main issue in analyzing a digital asset under the Howey test is whether a purchaser has a reasonable expectation of profits (or other financial returns) derived from the efforts of others. A purchaser may expect to realize a return through participating in distributions or through other methods of realizing appreciation on the asset, such as selling at a gain in a secondary market. When a promoter, sponsor, or other third party (or affiliated group of third parties) (each, an “Active Participant” or “AP”) provides essential managerial efforts that affect the success of the enterprise, and investors reasonably expect to derive profit from those efforts, then this prong of the test is met. Relevant to this inquiry is the “economic reality”12 of the transaction and “what character the instrument is given in commerce by the terms of the offer, the plan of distribution, and the economic inducements held out to the prospect.”13 The inquiry, therefore, is an objective one, focused on the transaction itself and the manner in which the digital asset is offered and sold. The following characteristics are especially relevant in an analysis of whether the third prong of the Howey test is satisfied. 1. Reliance on the Efforts of Others The inquiry into whether a purchaser is relying on the efforts of others focuses on two key issues: Does the purchaser reasonably expect to rely on the efforts of an AP? Are those efforts “the undeniably significant ones, those essential managerial efforts which affect the failure or success of the enterprise,”14 as opposed to efforts that are more ministerial in nature? Although no one of the following characteristics is necessarily determinative, the stronger their presence, the more likely it is that a purchaser of a digital asset is relying on the “efforts of others”: An AP is responsible for the development, improvement (or enhancement), operation, or promotion of the network,15 particularly if purchasers of the digital asset expect an AP to be performing or overseeing tasks that are necessary for the network or digital asset to achieve or retain its intended purpose or functionality.16 o Where the network or the digital asset is still in development and the network or digital asset is not fully functional at the time of the offer or sale, purchasers would reasonably expect an AP to further develop the functionality of the network or digital asset (directly or indirectly). This particularly would be the case where an AP promises further developmental efforts in order for the digital asset to attain or grow in value. There are essential tasks or responsibilities performed and expected to be performed by an AP, rather than an unaffiliated, dispersed community of network users (commonly known as a “decentralized” network). An AP creates or supports a market for,17 or the price of, the digital asset. This can include, for example, an AP that: (1) controls the creation and issuance of the digital asset; or (2) takes other actions to support a market price of the digital asset, such as by limiting supply or ensuring scarcity, through, for example, buybacks, “burning,” or other activities. An AP has a lead or central role in the direction of the ongoing development of the network or the digital asset. In particular, an AP plays a lead or central role in deciding governance issues, code updates, or how third parties participate in the validation of transactions that occur with respect to the digital asset. An AP has a continuing managerial role in making decisions about or exercising judgment concerning the network or the characteristics or rights the digital asset represents including, for example: o Determining whether and how to compensate persons providing services to the network or to the entity or entities charged with oversight of the network. o Determining whether and where the digital asset will trade. For example, purchasers may reasonably rely on an AP for liquidity, such as where the AP has arranged, or promised to arrange for, the trading of the digital asset on a secondary market or platform. o Determining who will receive additional digital assets and under what conditions. o Making or contributing to managerial level business decisions, such as how to deploy funds raised from sales of the digital asset. o Playing a leading role in the validation or confirmation of transactions on the network, or in some other way having responsibility for the ongoing security of the network. o Making other managerial judgements or decisions that will directly or indirectly impact the success of the network or the value of the digital asset generally. Purchasers would reasonably expect the AP to undertake efforts to promote its own interests and enhance the value of the network or digital asset, such as where: o The AP has the ability to realize capital appreciation from the value of the digital asset. This can be demonstrated, for example, if the AP retains a stake or interest in the digital asset. In these instances, purchasers would reasonably expect the AP to undertake efforts to promote its own interests and enhance the value of the network or digital asset. o The AP distributes the digital asset as compensation to management or the AP’s compensation is tied to the price of the digital asset in the secondary market. To the extent these facts are present, the compensated individuals can be expected to take steps to build the value of the digital asset. o The AP owns or controls ownership of intellectual property rights of the network or digital asset, directly or indirectly. o The AP monetizes the value of the digital asset, especially where the digital asset has limited functionality. In evaluating whether a digital asset previously sold as a security should be reevaluated at the time of later offers or sales, there would be additional considerations as they relate to the “efforts of others,” including but not limited to: Whether or not the efforts of an AP, including any successor AP, continue to be important to the value of an investment in the digital asset. Whether the network on which the digital asset is to function operates in such a manner that purchasers would no longer reasonably expect an AP to carry out essential managerial or entrepreneurial efforts. Whether the efforts of an AP are no longer affecting the enterprise’s success.

You may only use the text included in this prompt for your answer. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge. How would a digital asset that had been deemed a security be reevaluated? C. Reasonable Expectation of Profits Derived from Efforts of Others Usually, the main issue in analyzing a digital asset under the Howey test is whether a purchaser has a reasonable expectation of profits (or other financial returns) derived from the efforts of others. A purchaser may expect to realize a return through participating in distributions or through other methods of realizing appreciation on the asset, such as selling at a gain in a secondary market. When a promoter, sponsor, or other third party (or affiliated group of third parties) (each, an “Active Participant” or “AP”) provides essential managerial efforts that affect the success of the enterprise, and investors reasonably expect to derive profit from those efforts, then this prong of the test is met. Relevant to this inquiry is the “economic reality”12 of the transaction and “what character the instrument is given in commerce by the terms of the offer, the plan of distribution, and the economic inducements held out to the prospect.”13 The inquiry, therefore, is an objective one, focused on the transaction itself and the manner in which the digital asset is offered and sold. The following characteristics are especially relevant in an analysis of whether the third prong of the Howey test is satisfied. 1. Reliance on the Efforts of Others The inquiry into whether a purchaser is relying on the efforts of others focuses on two key issues: Does the purchaser reasonably expect to rely on the efforts of an AP? Are those efforts “the undeniably significant ones, those essential managerial efforts which affect the failure or success of the enterprise,”14 as opposed to efforts that are more ministerial in nature? Although no one of the following characteristics is necessarily determinative, the stronger their presence, the more likely it is that a purchaser of a digital asset is relying on the “efforts of others”: An AP is responsible for the development, improvement (or enhancement), operation, or promotion of the network,15 particularly if purchasers of the digital asset expect an AP to be performing or overseeing tasks that are necessary for the network or digital asset to achieve or retain its intended purpose or functionality.16 o Where the network or the digital asset is still in development and the network or digital asset is not fully functional at the time of the offer or sale, purchasers would reasonably expect an AP to further develop the functionality of the network or digital asset (directly or indirectly). This particularly would be the case where an AP promises further developmental efforts in order for the digital asset to attain or grow in value. There are essential tasks or responsibilities performed and expected to be performed by an AP, rather than an unaffiliated, dispersed community of network users (commonly known as a “decentralized” network). An AP creates or supports a market for,17 or the price of, the digital asset. This can include, for example, an AP that: (1) controls the creation and issuance of the digital asset; or (2) takes other actions to support a market price of the digital asset, such as by limiting supply or ensuring scarcity, through, for example, buybacks, “burning,” or other activities. An AP has a lead or central role in the direction of the ongoing development of the network or the digital asset. In particular, an AP plays a lead or central role in deciding governance issues, code updates, or how third parties participate in the validation of transactions that occur with respect to the digital asset. An AP has a continuing managerial role in making decisions about or exercising judgment concerning the network or the characteristics or rights the digital asset represents including, for example: o Determining whether and how to compensate persons providing services to the network or to the entity or entities charged with oversight of the network. o Determining whether and where the digital asset will trade. For example, purchasers may reasonably rely on an AP for liquidity, such as where the AP has arranged, or promised to arrange for, the trading of the digital asset on a secondary market or platform. o Determining who will receive additional digital assets and under what conditions. o Making or contributing to managerial level business decisions, such as how to deploy funds raised from sales of the digital asset. o Playing a leading role in the validation or confirmation of transactions on the network, or in some other way having responsibility for the ongoing security of the network. o Making other managerial judgements or decisions that will directly or indirectly impact the success of the network or the value of the digital asset generally. Purchasers would reasonably expect the AP to undertake efforts to promote its own interests and enhance the value of the network or digital asset, such as where: o The AP has the ability to realize capital appreciation from the value of the digital asset. This can be demonstrated, for example, if the AP retains a stake or interest in the digital asset. In these instances, purchasers would reasonably expect the AP to undertake efforts to promote its own interests and enhance the value of the network or digital asset. o The AP distributes the digital asset as compensation to management or the AP’s compensation is tied to the price of the digital asset in the secondary market. To the extent these facts are present, the compensated individuals can be expected to take steps to build the value of the digital asset. o The AP owns or controls ownership of intellectual property rights of the network or digital asset, directly or indirectly. o The AP monetizes the value of the digital asset, especially where the digital asset has limited functionality. In evaluating whether a digital asset previously sold as a security should be reevaluated at the time of later offers or sales, there would be additional considerations as they relate to the “efforts of others,” including but not limited to: Whether or not the efforts of an AP, including any successor AP, continue to be important to the value of an investment in the digital asset. Whether the network on which the digital asset is to function operates in such a manner that purchasers would no longer reasonably expect an AP to carry out essential managerial or entrepreneurial efforts. Whether the efforts of an AP are no longer affecting the enterprise’s success.

Present your answer without any extraneous information.

What is optimal foraging theory when compared to automotive theft?

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257885522 Prey selection among Los Angeles car thieves Article in Crime Science · December 2013 DOI: 10.1186/2193-7680-2-3 CITATIONS 14 READS 183 1 author: P. Jeffrey Brantingham University of California, Los Angeles 159 PUBLICATIONS 8,448 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by P. Jeffrey Brantingham on 17 April 2020. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. R E S EAR CH Open Access Prey selection among Los Angeles car thieves P Jeffrey Brantingham Abstract More than 63,000 cars were reported stolen in Los Angeles in 2003–04. However, the distribution of thefts across car types is very uneven. Some cars types such as the Honda Civic were stolen at much higher frequencies than the majority of car types. Charnov’s classic prey selection model suggests that such uneven targeting should be related to variations in the environmental abundance, expected payoffs, and handling costs associated with different car types. Street-based surveys in Los Angeles suggest that differences in abundance explain the majority of thefts. Cars stolen despite being rare may reflect offender preference based on differential payoffs, probably in some non-monetary currency such as prestige or excitement. Differential handling costs play a more ambiguous role in target selection, but may underlie thieves’ decisions to ignore some cars common in the environment. The unspecialized nature of car theft in Los Angeles suggests that the behavioral and cognitive capacities needed to be a successful car thief are generic. The evolved capacity to solve foraging problems in boundedly-rational ways, mixed with small amounts of trial-and-error and/or social learning, are sufficient to produce experts from inexperienced thieves. Keywords: Crime; Environmental criminology; Behavioral ecology; Optimal foraging; Bounded-rationality; Social learning Background The rational choice theory of crime holds that offenders engage in crime because they stand to receive significant short-term benefits with little attendant risk and small associated costs (Cornish and Clarke 1986, 1987). Presented with a suitable target or victim, unguarded by an effective security measure, the reasoning offender generally capitalizes on that opportunity (Felson and Clarke 1998; Freeman 1996). Beyond implying a common-sense relationship between benefits and costs, however, rational choice theory does not immediately identify what makes any given victim or target suitable. A conceptual framework introduced by Clarke (1999) suggests that property targets are suitable when they are concealable, removable, available, valuable, enjoyable and disposable, capturing several of the dimensions of costs and benefits that are important in offender decision making. While useful, the so-called CRAVED approach also leaves much unspecified about the relative importance of relationships among the different dimensions of target suitability. Here I turn to theory arising outside of criminology to provide a formal framework in which understand the relationships between target characteristics and offender target selection. Specifically, I use Charnov’s (1976) prey selection model to evaluate offender choice to steal different car types. The prey selection model postulates that a forager will ignore a particular prey type upon encounter if the expected return from a future prey encounter is greater. Preference in Charnov’s model is defined in terms of the relative abundance of different prey types and their respective handling costs and payoffs upon consumption. Intuitively, prey that are easy to handle or have high payoffs may be preferred but rarely taken, if they are rarely encountered. Prey that are hard to handle or have low payoffs may still be taken, if more profitable prey are rarely encountered. Here the predictions of Charnov’s prey selection model are rejected based on findings that unique car types are stolen almost exclusively in response to their environmental availability. Only occasionally are cars targeted because they have higher perceived payoffs. Overall, Los Angeles car thieves operate primarily as unspecialized foragers. Correspondence: [email protected] Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, 341 Haines Hall, UCLA, Box 951553, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1553, USA © 2013 Brantingham; licensee Springer. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 Optimal foraging theory and crime Foraging theory is the branch of ecology that seeks to understand how animal behavior facilitates the encounter, acquisition and processing of resources necessary to survival (Stephens and Krebs 1986). The foraging challenges facing an animal are substantial. Essential resources are rarely located in the same location as the animal needing them, necessitating behaviors that either carry the animal to the resources, or position the animal to intercept resources that move. Many resource types possess defenses that aim to thwart acquisition, even after a forager has encountered them. Animals therefore need behavioral strategies designed discriminate among resource types and defeat their defenses once they have decided to acquire them. Finally, even after a resource as been encountered and acquired, it may contain a mixture of useable and unusable constituents. Behaviors may play a key role in sorting and separating these constituents. Only after jumping these foraging hurdles may an animal benefit from the resource. Recognize, however, that the behaviors deployed to facilitate encounter, acquisition and processing of a resources are not cost free. Optimal foraging theory therefore posits that evolution and/or learning has shaped animal behavior to maximize the average or long-term return rate from essential resources, net the costs of encounter, acquisition and processing. Here I cast car theft as a foraging problem and test the proposition that the specific car types stolen represent behaviors consistent with optimal foraging theory. Three conditions must be met to consider car theft as an optimal foraging problem (see also Bernasco 2009; Felson 2006; Johnson et al. 2009). First, car theft should satisfy a need that is perceived by the offender to be essential. Car thieves report a range of motivations for stealing cars including financial motives such as theftfor-export or an immediate need for cash, mundane or routine motives such as transportation, and recreational motives such as a search for excitement, prestige or status (Copes 2003; Dhami 2008; Kellett and Gross 2006; Lantsman 2013; Light et al. 1993). With the exception of theft-for-transport, car theft is not remarkable in motivation compared with other crimes (Wright et al. 2006; Wright and Decker 1994). However, car theft may be a comparably low risk alternative to satisfy these needs (Copes and Tewksbury 2011). Between 2003 and 2006, ~12.9% of reported car thefts in the US were cleared by arrests, while robberies over the same period were cleared at a rate twice as high ~25.8% (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2003–2006). The vast majority of car thefts therefore entail no negative consequences, at least over the short term (Freeman 1999). The benefits may therefore be substantial. Payoffs to car theft might be calculated in a cash currency, if cars and/or their parts are being fenced (Clarke 1999; Tremblay et al. 2001). Payoffs might also be calculated in non-cash commodities such as barter value in drugs (Stevenson and Forsythe 1998) or prestige and excitement—an essential resource for joy riding teenagers (Copes 2003; Jacobs et al. 2003; Kellett and Gross 2006). Second, car thieves must also have behavioral alternatives to deploy during foraging and these alternatives must result in different payoff outcomes. Ethnographic evidence indicates that car theft involves choices between alternative search strategies, tools and techniques for gaining entry and ‘hot wiring’ targeted vehicles, and strategies for escape and disposal of stolen vehicles (Copes and Cherbonneau 2006; Copes and Tewksbury 2011; Farrell et al. 2011; Langworthy and Lebeau 1992; Lantsman 2013; Light et al. 1993; Lu 2003). Whether these different behavioral alternatives lead to real differences in payoffs is an open question. The observation that different car types are stolen to satisfy different needs may imply differential payoffs (Clarke 1999). However, the extent to which alternative behavioral strategies drive these payoffs, as required by optimal foraging theory, is unknown. Finally, there must be a mechanism by which car thieves select among the alternative behaviors, yielding near-optimal strategies for locating, stealing and disposing of cars. Simple trial-and-error and/or social learning in the context of co-offending appear to play this role (Akers 2008; Reiss and Farrington 1991). Juvenile car thieves often start as passengers, observing the actions of their more experienced friends (Light et al. 1993). Such learning mechanisms seem capable quickly producing effective cognitive scripts that car thieves can adhere to during commission of a crime (Tremblay et al. 2001). The prey selection model The foraging problem confronted by car thieves is similar in many ways to prey selection, a classical problem in behavioral ecology studied by Charnov (1976) and others (see Krebs et al. 1977; Stephens and Krebs 1986). Given sequential encounters with prey types, each having different expected returns and handling costs, which types should be pursued and captured? Let ei, hi and λi be the expected payoff, handling cost and local density of a prey of type i. Prey types i = 1, 2, … N are ranked in descending order of the ratio of payoff to handling cost ei/hi. The prey classification algorithm says that prey types i = 1, 2, … j should be pursued and captured upon encounter, but prey type j + 1 should be ignored if its payoff to handling cost ratio is below the mean for all higher ranked prey: Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 2 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 X j i¼1 λiei 1 þX j i¼1 λihi > ejþ1 hjþ1 ð1Þ In other words, if the expected return from future prey encounters is higher than would be gained by taking the current target, then it is better to wait. The prey choice model makes two distinctive predictions. First, prey types are either always taken upon encounter, or always ignored. This is the so-called “zero–one” rule in reference to the analytical result that an attack on prey type i will occur with probability qi = 0, or qi = 1, and nothing in between (Stephens and Krebs 1986). Second, whether or not a prey type is taken is dependent only on the encounter rate with higherranked prey, not its own encounter rate. Note that the term λi appears only on the left-hand side in Equation (1). The implication is that only changes in the encounter rate with higher ranked prey items will impact the decision to attack a lower ranked prey item once it has been encountered. Thus, if a higher ranked prey type becomes very scarce, a lower ranked prey type may be added to the diet. However, if a lower ranked prey type suddenly becomes very common, it will not necessarily be added to the diet without a concomitant change in the rate of encounter with higher ranked types. Empirical evidence from both animal (Hughes and Dunkin 1984; Prugh 2005; but see Pyke 1984) and human foragers (Hames and Vickers 1982; Smith 1991) suggests that the prey classification algorithm provides insights into prey selection behavior across a diverse range of taxa and foraging contexts. Car theft may be considered a special case of prey selection if car types vary in expected payoffs, handling costs and/or local abundance and offenders are attentive to these differences. As discussed in the Methods section, the available data on payoffs and handling times do not allow for a fine-grained test of either the zero–one rule, or the hypothesis that changes in the encounter rate with higher-ranked car types impact the inclusion of lower ranked car types in an offender’s ‘diet’. A strict reading of the prey choice model also suggests that car theft may not perfectly conform to all of its assumptions (see for comparison Smith 1991). The prey choice model assumes that: (1) foragers are long-term rate maximizers, meaning that average results of stealing cars over long time periods, rather than short-term gains, are optimized by different foraging strategies; (2) searching for and handling of targeted vehicles are mutually exclusive; (3) encounters with vehicles follow a Poisson process, meaning that two cars cannot be encountered simultaneously and each encounter is statistically independent of all others; (4) the payoff to stealing cars ei, the handling costs hi, and encounter rates λi are environmentally fixed in time and space; and (5) that the foraging car thief has perfect information about ei, hi and λi. Assumptions 1, 2, 3 and 5 may be reasonable for car theft. The notion that criminal behavioral strategies might be shaped by learning to produce long-term average rate maximization (Assumption 1) seems far fetched at first (but see Tremblay and Morselli 2000). Criminal offenders tend to be present-oriented (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990; Nagin and Paternoster 1994) and therefore appear little concerned with the long-term costs and benefits of crime (Wilson and Abrahamse 1992). However, the question at hand is not whether crime pays relative to non-crime alternatives, but rather whether stealing one car type is more profitable in the long run than stealing an alternative car type. It is conceivable that offenders adopt strategies that maximize the longterm or average payoffs from car theft by making discriminating choices about which cars to steal. It is also reasonable to suppose that simultaneous search for cars to steal and the physical act stealing a car are mutually exclusive activities (Assumption 2). This is made more complicated by co-offending, which is quite common for younger car thieves (Light et al. 1993), if some in an offending party search nearby targets while others are breaking into a given car. It is unknown whether encounters with cars to steal follow a Poisson process (Assumption 3). Ultimately, this is an empirical question for which data need to be collected. Conceptually, however, a motivated car thief walking down a linear street segment encounters cars sequentially and independently. Whether such conditions hold in a parking lot may depend on situational factors such as the layout of and available observation points in the lot. The prey choice model is not obviated under these circumstances (Stephens and Krebs 1986: 38–45), but additional costs associated with discriminating between simultaneously encountered car types must be taken into account. Perhaps the greatest challenge comes from strictly assuming that the key parameters of prey selection remain fixed in time and space (Assumption 4) (Suresh and Tewksbury 2013). At intermediate time scales (months to years), the payoffs to stealing different car types certainly change with turnover in the composition of cars on the street. Early and late model years may differ significantly in both perceived or actual value as well as handling costs, for example, following the introduction of RFID keys for ignition systems (Farrell et al. 2011). Similarly, there may be short-term (hourly-daily) fluctuations in environmental abundance of cars parked in locations where they might be stolen. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to assume that car thieves have relatively Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 3 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 accurate knowledge of the encounter rates, payoffs and handling costs associated with different cars, or learn them very quickly when conditions change (Assumption 5) (Akers 2008; Light et al. 1993). Given the above limitations, I test a conservative null hypothesis in place of the two detailed predictions made by the prey selection model: H0. If every car yields the same payoff and all are equally difficult to steal (i. e., ei/hi = ej/hj ∀ i, j), then differences in theft rates arise only from differences in relative abundances of car types λi. In other words, if all cars rank equally in the ratio of payoffs to handling costs, then all cars are part of the ‘diet’ and should be taken immediately upon encounter. Cars encountered more frequently will appear in the diet more often and, in fact, will be stolen at a frequency proportional to λi. One should therefore expect a strong correlation between relative abundances and theft rates if the null hypothesis is true. Failure to reject the null hypothesis implies that car thieves are unspecialized foragers and take only what is presented to them by the environment. Rejection of the null hypothesis, for all or even some car types, may constitute evidence that differential payoffs and/or handling costs enter into car thieves’ situational foraging decisions. Under these circumstances we can evaluate the role that payoffs and/or handling costs may play in driving target choice. Methods Car types are defined as unique make-models or, where necessary, make-model-years. For example, 1992 and 2002 Honda Civics may be different car types, from the point of view of the offender, because they have different perceived payoffs and may also differ in how easy they are to break into and ‘hot wire’ (Farrell et al. 2011). An initial database of car make-model-years was assembled using a popular car shopping and research website, www.edmonds.com. A student assistant was then trained to quickly and accurately identify car types in pilot surveys of a university campus parking structures. Street-based surveys were conducted in three Los Angeles zip codes (90034, 90045 and 90291) during two excursions in October-December 2004 and OctoberDecember 2005. The three survey locations had the highest volume of car thefts in 2003 among zip codes on the Los Angeles West Side. Surveys involved walking between one and three contiguous blocks, first up one side and then down the other. Surveys on the exact same block segments were conducted at two-hour intervals between 6AM and 6PM. The most dramatic change in density of cars parked on the street occurred between 6AM and 8AM. I therefore assume that the mix of car types seen at 6AM represents the overnight diversity. Only vehicles in publically accessible street locations were recorded. The observed relative frequency of each car type i is used as a measure of encounter rate λi. Expected value on the illegal market is used as a proxy for the payoffs ei associated with stealing different car types (Copes 2003; Matsueda et al. 1992). I do not assume that all car thieves seek cash. Rather, illegal market value is a generic currency that is expected to be positively correlated with non-monetary payoffs. For example, a ‘hot car’ is not only more likely to demand more money in an illegal market context, but it is also expected to have a higher payoff in excitement and prestige for the teenage car thief. Illegal market value is calculated as ei = f ∑ ipivi, where pi is the proportion of cars of a given make-model-year stolen, vi is the legal market value of the car at the time of theft as determined from the Kelley Blue Book (DeBacker 2003), and f is the fraction of the legal market value realized on the illegal market. I assume that f = 0.1, but choice of a different constant does not impact the results. I use break-in times as a proxy for overall handling costs hi. The UK-based “What Car?” Security Supertest (Secured by Design 2000, 2003) conducted attack testing of new cars marketed in the UK. The tests evaluated the ability of new vehicles to withstand attacks by trained locksmiths using the non-destructive entry techniques commonly deployed by car thieves. The tests included 123 unique make-models and measured the time, in seconds, needed to gain entry to each vehicle. A car was considered to pass the test if it was not possible to gain entry within two minutes. Break-in time represents only one of the handling costs associated with car theft. I assume, however, that the handling costs at different critical points in the theft process are positively correlated. For example, if a car is easy to enter, it is also more likely to be easy to ‘hot wire’, less likely to have a geo-location device installed and be easier to chop. Evaluation of the relationships between car theft, environmental abundances, payoffs and handling costs is conducted using non-parametric statistics that are robust to ordinal scale data and non-normal distribution characteristics (Conover 1998). Theft frequencies and environmental abundances are compared using Kendall’s τ, a generalized correlation coefficient that measures the similarity of ranked order lists. Kendall’s τ b allows for rank order ties. Illegal market values and break-in times among common and rare cares are non-normally distributed. Medians therefore provide the most robust measure of central tendency and the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U the most appropriate corresponding statistical test. Differences in distribution shape are computed using the non-parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnov D. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 4 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 Results Between 1 Jan 2003 and 31 December 2004, 63,528 vehicles were reported stolen within the City of Los Angeles (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2003–2006). In zip codes 90034, 90045 and 90291, located on the West Side of Los Angeles and representing ~3.5% of the land area of the City, a total of 2,251 cars were stolen during the same period, or ~3.5% of all thefts. These cars are divided into 271 unique make-model types. The Honda Civic and Accord, Toyota Camry and Corolla, and Nissan Sentra together comprise ~25% of the total thefts and 87 car types are represented by single thefts (Figure 1A, Table 1). To test whether the observed bias in thefts towards some car types is driven by environmental abundance, I conducted surveys of main artery and residential streets (see Methods). A total of 1,825 cars were observed and these were classified into 262 unique make-model types. As with reported thefts, the cars available on the streets are dominated by a few types (Figure 1B). Seventy seven types identified in the survey are singletons. The distribution is qualitatively similar to rank species abundance curves in ecology, which show environments numerically dominated by a few species, but most of the richness is accumulated through species with small numbers of individuals Hubbell (2001). Here I focus on the top 25 most commonly stolen cars. These car types account for 53% of the total observed volume of stolen cars (N = 1198) and the bulk of the variation in theft frequency. A comparison of theft and density rank order frequencies shows a significant positive relationship (Kendall’s τ b = 0.491, p < 0.001) (Figure 2). Thirteen of the top 25 most stolen cars are also in the top 25 for abundance (Table 1). In general, the most common cars on the street are also the most stolen. The positive relationship between abundance and theft is particularly strong among the top nine most stolen cars (Kendall’s τ b = 0.611, p = 0.022). Honda Civics are the most abundant cars and the most frequently stolen. For the top nine cars it is difficult to reject the null hypothesis that environmental abundance is driving the targeting of these vehicles for theft. Note, however, that approximately one half (N = 12) of the top 25 most stolen cars are not in the top 25 for abundance. Several of these are significant outliers (Table 1). For example, the Chrysler 300M is ranked 14, with 33 thefts in 2003–04, but was observed only 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 1 10 19 28 37 46 55 64 73 82 91 100 109 118 127 136 145 154 163 172 181 190 199 208 217 226 235 244 253 262 271 Number of Thefts Theft Rank Honda Civic Toyota Camry Honda Accord Jeep Grand Cherokee Ferrari 360 N = 2,251 A 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Number of Cars Honda Civic Honda Accord Toyota Corolla Chevy Cavalier Porsche Carerra N = 1,825 B Figure 1 Rank order plots of make-model car types stolen and observed in street-based surveys in three Los Angeles zip codes. (A) Cars stolen in zip codes 90034, 90045 and 90291 between Jan 1, 2003 and December 31, 2004 are numerically dominated by a few car types. (B) The rank order abundance of car types in the same zip codes, observed in street surveys conducted in 2004 and 2005, reveals the structure of car theft opportunities. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 5 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 once in the 1,825 cars identified in street surveys (survey rank = 224). Similarly, the Pontiac Grand AM was ranked 10, with 44 thefts, but was observed only four times in the same surveys (survey rank = 110.5). It may be that thieves targeted these rare cars based on specialized evaluation of the expected payoffs, handling costs, or both, made at the time of encounter. Taking into account car make, model and year, I calculated the expected illegal market value for each car stolen in 2003 as 10% of the Kelley Blue Book value at the time of theft (see Methods) (DeBacker 2003; Stevenson and Forsythe 1998; Tremblay et al. 2001). Illegal market value is used as broad proxy for both monetary and non-monetary payoffs. Figure 3 shows that the distribution of expected illegal market values for the outliers is significantly different from that associated with environmentally common cars (Mann–Whitney U = 8562, Wilcoxon = 73542, Z = −11.327, p < .001). Among the environmentally common cars, the median expected illegal market value is $740 (min = $293, max = $2,916). Among the environmentally rare cars, the median is twice as large at $1,515 (min = $210, max $4,493). These data suggest that the outliers within the sample of stolen cars may be targeted because they offer a higher expected payoff. It is also possible that ease-of-theft is responsible for the observed outliers (Farrell et al. 2011; Light et al. 1993; Wiles and Costello 2000). The UK-based “WhatCar?” Security Supertest (Secured by Design 2000, 2003), evaluated the ability of a range of new vehicles to withstand attacks using non-destructive entry techniques (see Methods). Break-in time is used as a proxy for handling costs at all stages of the theft process. The aggregated results from 2000 and 2003, excluding those cars that passed the test, show a weak, but significant relationship between break-in times and Table 1 The top 25 most stolen car types in 2003–2004 and their environmental densities in Los Angeles zip codes 90034, 90045 and 90291 Make-model Theft N Survey N Recovery N Theft p Survey p Recovery p Theft rank Survey rank HONDA CIVIC 155 128 110 0.069 0.070 0.710 1 1 TOYOTA CAMRY 151 59 118 0.067 0.032 0.781 2 4 HONDA ACCORD 109 94 81 0.048 0.052 0.743 3 2 TOYOTA COROLLA 68 86 47 0.030 0.047 0.691 4 3 NISSAN SENTRA 60 33 45 0.027 0.018 0.750 5 9 ACURA INTEGRA 52 21 28 0.023 0.012 0.538 6 14 FORD MUSTANG 50 20 41 0.022 0.011 0.820 7 16 FORD EXPLORER 49 57 35 0.022 0.031 0.714 8 5 FORD TAURUS 46 28 36 0.020 0.015 0.783 9 11 PONTIAC GRAND AM/PRIX 43 4 38 0.019 0.002 0.884 10 110.5 NISSAN ALTIMA 35 42 27 0.016 0.023 0.771 11 7 CHEVY IMPALA 34 6 26 0.015 0.003 0.765 12.5 79.5 DODGE STRATUS 34 5 30 0.015 0.003 0.882 12.5 93.5 CHRYSLER 300M 33 1 31 0.015 0.001 0.939 14 224 CHEVY BLAZER 32 15 24 0.014 0.008 0.750 15 25 CHRYSLER PT CRUISER 31 8 26 0.014 0.004 0.839 16 58 DODGE CARAVAN 28 8 18 0.012 0.004 0.643 17.5 58 DODGE INTREPID 28 9 23 0.012 0.005 0.821 17.5 49.5 JEEP CHEROKEE 27 34 16 0.012 0.019 0.593 19 8 LINCOLN TOWN CAR 24 4 22 0.011 0.002 0.917 20 110.5 DODGE NEON 23 2 19 0.010 0.001 0.826 21.5 165.5 FORD FOCUS 23 7 20 0.010 0.004 0.870 21.5 68.5 CHRYSLER SEBRING 21 3 15 0.009 0.002 0.714 24 132.5 FORD EXPEDITION 21 12 13 0.009 0.007 0.619 24 32.5 JEEP GRAND CHEROKEE 21 20 14 0.009 0.011 0.667 24 16 Note: Theft and recovery proportions are calculated with respect to all 2,251 cars stolen. Survey proportions are calculated with respect to the 1,825 unique car types identified in street-based surveys. Environmental densities were measured in two survey periods October-December 2004 and October-December 2005. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 6 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 market price in US Dollars (r 2 = .258, p < .001) (Figure 4A). The median break-in time for all vehicle types successfully attacked was 29 seconds and the minimum time was two seconds. Twenty three cars (~19%) have break-in times under 15 seconds. Vehicle make-models are not equivalent between the UK and US markets, despite similar names, and comparable data are not available from US contexts. It is not possible therefore to map break-in times from the Security Supertests directly to car types stolen in the US Number of Thefts 100 80 60 40 20 0 Illegal Market Value in $ 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 100 80 60 40 20 0 A B Figure 3 Frequency histograms of the estimated illegal market values show much lower expected payoffs may be attributed to the top nine most stolen cars (A), where density is expected to the major determinant of theft, compared with the outliers (B), where environmental density is not implicated. 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 50 100 150 200 250 Theft Rank Survey Rank Chrysler300M Dodge Neon Chevy Impala Pontriac Grand Prix/Am Dodge Stratus Chrysler Sebring Lincoln Town Car Ford Focus Chrysler PT Cruiser Dodge Caravan Dodge Intrepid Figure 2 A scatter plot of abundance rank order against theft rank order shows a strong positive relationship between car availability and theft risk. Eleven car-types are stolen much more frequently than their environmental abundance would suggest. Line represents a hypothetical 1:1 relationship between rank abundance and rank theft. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 7 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 using the UK data. However, some indication of handling costs may be gained by examining patterns within manufactures. Seven of the cars stolen in disproportion to their environmental density were manufactured by Daimler-Chrysler, three by Ford and two by GM (Table 1). Of the 123 cars tested in the Security Supertests, 44 were vehicles by these manufacturers. Eleven (25%) successfully withstood attacks lasting two minutes, compared with 24 of the remaining 79 car types (44%). The data may suggest that Daimler-Chrysler, GM and Ford vehicles are more broadly susceptible to attack. However, a range of break-in times characterize the vehicles that did not pass the test (Table 2). Low and high-mid market cars sold under the Chrysler brand (e.g., Neon, Grand Voyager) have minimum break-in times of between four and six seconds, while one low-market GM car sold under the Vauxhall brand had a brake-in time of two seconds. Midmarket GM cars, also sold under the Vauxhall brand, had a mean break-in time of 81 seconds. The aggregate results do not indicate that cars made by DaimlerChrysler, Ford or GM are disproportionately easier for car thieves to handle. Indeed, cars marketed by other manufacturers show a significant skew towards shorter break-in times and, by implication, lower handling costs for thieves (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z = 1.349, p = 0.053) (Figure 4B,C). Discussion and conclusion It is difficult to reject the null hypothesis that environmental abundance is the primary determinant of what cars are targeted for theft. There is a particularly strong relationship between abundance and theft rank for the top-nine most stolen cars. In the CRAVED conceptual framework put forward by Clarke (1999), availability would seem to outweigh other dimensions that might influence theft choice. In the instances where cars are targeted despite being rare, payoff differences may play some role. Car recovery rates provide one measure of the importance of non-monetary, or possibly limited monetary payoffs to car theft (Clarke and Harris 1992). There is little systematic difference in the rate of recovery across car types (Table 1), suggesting that none of the top 25 most stolen cars are disproportionately landing in fully-body chop shops or being stolen for export. The payoffs here seem to be primarily non-monetary. Furthermore, among the outliers that are stolen despite being rare, it appears that the newest model years are targeted. For example, eight of 12 Chrysler 300s and seven of 13 Chrysler Sebrings stolen during 2003 were 2004 model years, which became available only in the last five months of the year. The implication is that these cars, though rare, were targeted precisely because they were perceived to be ‘hot rides’ (Wiles and Costello 2000). That some cars are more valuable or enjoyable can override their low availability, but this occurs infrequently. It is less apparent that lower handling costs biased thieves’ decisions to target environmentally rare cars, although ethnographic work suggests that handling costs are often a significant concern (Clarke 1999; Light et al. 1993; Wiles and Costello 2000). Recent research suggests that the potential for encountering opposition from car owners is a major concern (Copes and Tewksbury 2011), but it is uncertain how the probability of opposition might relate to car type. Direct handling costs may have played a role in driving Los Angeles car thieves to A BC Figure 4 Break-in times for UK make-models measured by the “WhatCar?” Security Supertest in 2000 and 2003. (A) Scatter plot of break-in time versus US market price implies only a weak relationship between payoffs and handling costs. Frequency histograms of the break-in times for (B) GM-, Daimler-Chrysler- and Ford-group cars and (C) all other car types. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 8 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 ignore certain environmentally common cars. Seven make-model types including the Volkswagen Jetta, Toyota RAV4 and Nissan Xterra ranked within the top 25 for abundance, but were rarely or never stolen (Table 3). An average of 57% of the vehicles sold by the corresponding manufactures in the UK passed the Security Supertests. This is compared only 25% of Daimler-Chrysler, GM and Ford cars representative of the environmentally rare group. The implication is that these cars may be ignored because they are more resistant to attack. Detailed attack analyses of cars from the US market could help resolve the exact role of handling costs in the differential targeting of some cars. In spite of the narrow role that differential payoffs and handling costs appear to play the choice of which cars to steal, one must be careful to not fall prey to the ecological fallacy. Ethnographic evidence points to a degree of specialization among car thieves, with distinctions among those engaged in opportunistic theft and those in organized crime, and among younger and older offenders. Such specializations are not directly visible in aggregate car theft data. It is possible that the population of Los Angeles car thieves consists of several different types each with their preferred prey. The observed frequency of stolen car types might therefore represent a mixture of fixed, independent strategies, some rare and Table 3 Environmentally abundant cars of low theft rank in zip codes 90034, 90045 and 90291 and the aggregated 2000 and 2003 “WhatCar?” Security Supertest results for cars from the corresponding manufacturers Make-model Theft N Survey N Theft rank Survey rank N tested Passing p Models failing Mean (s) σ (s) Min (s) Max (s) Volkswagen Jetta 9 56 63 6 6 0.50 Lupo 1.4S, Polo Gti, Golf 1.6SE 32 16.09 19 50 Toyota RAV4 5 19 91 18 8 0.63 Yaris Verso, Corolla, Avensis 46.33 15.50 31 46 Lexus ES 15 229 25 3 0.67 IS 111 Nissan Xterra 2 16 164 21 5 0.80 Micra 1.3 SE 14 Volvo S Class 17 229 19.5 3 0.67 XC90 70 Subaru Outback 2 15 164 25 3 0.00 Impreza, Impreza Turbo, Legacy 22.67 24.79 5 51 Table 2 Break-in times in seconds for Daimler-Chrysler, Ford and GM brands sold in the UK tested in the “WhatCar?” Security Supertest in 2000 and 2003 Manufacturer Make-model Market N Mean (seconds) σ (seconds) Min (seconds) Max (seconds) Daimler-Chysler Chrysler Neon Low 1 4 Daimler-Chysler Mercedes A Class Mid 1 30 Daimler-Chysler Chrysler Grand Voyager High-mid 1 6 Daimler-Chysler Mercedes C, E Class High 2 70 7.07 65 75 Ford Fiesta, Focus Ghia Estate, Ka 3, Mazda 626 Sport Low 4 40.75 15.9 23 60 Ford Focus TDi Ghia, Ka, Streetka, Landrover Freelander, Mazda MPV, Mazda Premacy Mid 6 33.83 17.08 19 65 Ford Focus, Land Rover Discovery, Mazda 6 High-mid 3 43 13.45 28 54 Ford Mondeo, Jaguar XKR, Range Rover 4.0 HSE, Volvo XC90 High 4 69 21.76 40 93 GM Vauxall Agilla, Astra Low 2 12 13.44 2 21 GM Vauxall Corsa, Frontera, Meriva, Zafira Mid 4 81 40.04 21 108 GM Saab 93, Saab 95, Vauxall Astra High-mid 3 45.67 10.69 39 58 GM Cadillac Seville STS, Vauxall Vectra High 2 58 74.95 5 111 Total Daimler-Chrysler, GM, Ford 33 46.88 30.68 2 111 Other Car types 55 32.22 29.36 2 115 Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 9 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 some common, not variation in the behavior of offenders in general. The converse is also potentially true. There is a danger of falling prey to an ethnographic fallacy that confounds our ability to infer aggregate characteristics from ethnographically rich data collected at an individual scale. To wit, given interviews with tens of car thieves about their offending preferences, can we reliably infer the population characteristics of the many thousands of individuals likely responsible for the 63,000 cars stolen in Los Angeles in 2003-2004? There is no easy way to resolve the ecological or ethnographic fallacy. I suspect, however, that the unspecialized foragers responding primarily to environmental abundances greatly outnumber the specialists, making the latter practically invisible in aggregate data. The results described here are important for understanding the broader causes of criminal behavior and may suggest novel approaches to crime prevention based on formal ecological models (see also Bernasco 2009; Brantingham et al. 2012; Felson 2006). The unspecialized nature of car theft in Los Angeles implies that the behavioral and cognitive capacities needed to be a successful thief are generic. Indeed, humans are well-equipped to become effective foragers for criminal opportunities given an evolved psychology to solve foraging problems in boundedly-rational ways (Hutchinson et al. 2007), combined with small amounts of individual trial-and-error or social learning (Akers 2008; Boyd and Richerson 1985). Indeed, the co-offending that characterizes the early careers (<20 years old) of most offenders, including car thieves, is ideally suited to the transmission of the simple skills sufficient to produce experts from inexperienced thieves (Reiss and Farrington 1991). That auto theft in Los Angeles is driven primarily by environmental structure provides further evidence that the greatest gains in crime prevention are to be had in altering the structure of criminal opportunity (Brantingham and Brantingham 1981; Farrell et al. 2011; Felson and Clarke 1998). How environmental alterations impact situational foraging behaviors and longer-term population trajectories are well-studied within ecology (Henle et al. 2004; Kerr et al. 2007), suggesting a way forward for formal crime ecology. Competing interests The author declares that he has no competing interests. Acknowledgements This work was supported in part by grants NSF-FRG DMS-0968309, ONR N000141010221, ARO-MURI W911NF-11-1-0332, and AFOSR-MURI FA9550-10-1-0569, and by the UCLA Faculty Senate. I am indebted to the Los Angeles Police Department for providing the data analyzed here. Thank you to David Bell from Secured by Design and Silas Borden for assistance with the street-based surveys. 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Patterns in criminal achievement: Wilson and Abrahamse revisited. Criminology, 38(2), 633–659. Tremblay, P, Talon, B, & Hurley, D. (2001). Body switching and related adaptations in the resale of stolen vehicles. Script elaborations and aggregate crime learning curves. British Journal of Criminology, 41(4), 561–579. Wiles, P, & Costello, A (2000). The 'Road to Nowhere': The Evidence for Travelling Criminals (Report 207). London: Home Office. Wilson, JQ, & Abrahamse, A. (1992). Does crime pay? Justice Quarterly, 9, 359–377. Wright, R, Brookman, F, & Bennett, T. (2006). The foreground dynamics of street robbery in Britain. British Journal of Criminology, 46(1), 1–15. Wright, RT, & Decker, SH (1994). Burglars on the Job: Streetlife and Residential Breakins. Boston: Northeastern University Press. doi:10.1186/2193-7680-2-3 Cite this article as: Brantingham: Prey selection among Los Angeles car thieves. Crime Science 2013 2:3. 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Present your answer without any extraneous information. What is optimal foraging theory when compared to automotive theft? See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257885522 Prey selection among Los Angeles car thieves Article in Crime Science · December 2013 DOI: 10.1186/2193-7680-2-3 CITATIONS 14 READS 183 1 author: P. Jeffrey Brantingham University of California, Los Angeles 159 PUBLICATIONS 8,448 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by P. Jeffrey Brantingham on 17 April 2020. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. R E S EAR CH Open Access Prey selection among Los Angeles car thieves P Jeffrey Brantingham Abstract More than 63,000 cars were reported stolen in Los Angeles in 2003–04. However, the distribution of thefts across car types is very uneven. Some cars types such as the Honda Civic were stolen at much higher frequencies than the majority of car types. Charnov’s classic prey selection model suggests that such uneven targeting should be related to variations in the environmental abundance, expected payoffs, and handling costs associated with different car types. Street-based surveys in Los Angeles suggest that differences in abundance explain the majority of thefts. Cars stolen despite being rare may reflect offender preference based on differential payoffs, probably in some non-monetary currency such as prestige or excitement. Differential handling costs play a more ambiguous role in target selection, but may underlie thieves’ decisions to ignore some cars common in the environment. The unspecialized nature of car theft in Los Angeles suggests that the behavioral and cognitive capacities needed to be a successful car thief are generic. The evolved capacity to solve foraging problems in boundedly-rational ways, mixed with small amounts of trial-and-error and/or social learning, are sufficient to produce experts from inexperienced thieves. Keywords: Crime; Environmental criminology; Behavioral ecology; Optimal foraging; Bounded-rationality; Social learning Background The rational choice theory of crime holds that offenders engage in crime because they stand to receive significant short-term benefits with little attendant risk and small associated costs (Cornish and Clarke 1986, 1987). Presented with a suitable target or victim, unguarded by an effective security measure, the reasoning offender generally capitalizes on that opportunity (Felson and Clarke 1998; Freeman 1996). Beyond implying a common-sense relationship between benefits and costs, however, rational choice theory does not immediately identify what makes any given victim or target suitable. A conceptual framework introduced by Clarke (1999) suggests that property targets are suitable when they are concealable, removable, available, valuable, enjoyable and disposable, capturing several of the dimensions of costs and benefits that are important in offender decision making. While useful, the so-called CRAVED approach also leaves much unspecified about the relative importance of relationships among the different dimensions of target suitability. Here I turn to theory arising outside of criminology to provide a formal framework in which understand the relationships between target characteristics and offender target selection. Specifically, I use Charnov’s (1976) prey selection model to evaluate offender choice to steal different car types. The prey selection model postulates that a forager will ignore a particular prey type upon encounter if the expected return from a future prey encounter is greater. Preference in Charnov’s model is defined in terms of the relative abundance of different prey types and their respective handling costs and payoffs upon consumption. Intuitively, prey that are easy to handle or have high payoffs may be preferred but rarely taken, if they are rarely encountered. Prey that are hard to handle or have low payoffs may still be taken, if more profitable prey are rarely encountered. Here the predictions of Charnov’s prey selection model are rejected based on findings that unique car types are stolen almost exclusively in response to their environmental availability. Only occasionally are cars targeted because they have higher perceived payoffs. Overall, Los Angeles car thieves operate primarily as unspecialized foragers. Correspondence: [email protected] Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, 341 Haines Hall, UCLA, Box 951553, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1553, USA © 2013 Brantingham; licensee Springer. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 Optimal foraging theory and crime Foraging theory is the branch of ecology that seeks to understand how animal behavior facilitates the encounter, acquisition and processing of resources necessary to survival (Stephens and Krebs 1986). The foraging challenges facing an animal are substantial. Essential resources are rarely located in the same location as the animal needing them, necessitating behaviors that either carry the animal to the resources, or position the animal to intercept resources that move. Many resource types possess defenses that aim to thwart acquisition, even after a forager has encountered them. Animals therefore need behavioral strategies designed discriminate among resource types and defeat their defenses once they have decided to acquire them. Finally, even after a resource as been encountered and acquired, it may contain a mixture of useable and unusable constituents. Behaviors may play a key role in sorting and separating these constituents. Only after jumping these foraging hurdles may an animal benefit from the resource. Recognize, however, that the behaviors deployed to facilitate encounter, acquisition and processing of a resources are not cost free. Optimal foraging theory therefore posits that evolution and/or learning has shaped animal behavior to maximize the average or long-term return rate from essential resources, net the costs of encounter, acquisition and processing. Here I cast car theft as a foraging problem and test the proposition that the specific car types stolen represent behaviors consistent with optimal foraging theory. Three conditions must be met to consider car theft as an optimal foraging problem (see also Bernasco 2009; Felson 2006; Johnson et al. 2009). First, car theft should satisfy a need that is perceived by the offender to be essential. Car thieves report a range of motivations for stealing cars including financial motives such as theftfor-export or an immediate need for cash, mundane or routine motives such as transportation, and recreational motives such as a search for excitement, prestige or status (Copes 2003; Dhami 2008; Kellett and Gross 2006; Lantsman 2013; Light et al. 1993). With the exception of theft-for-transport, car theft is not remarkable in motivation compared with other crimes (Wright et al. 2006; Wright and Decker 1994). However, car theft may be a comparably low risk alternative to satisfy these needs (Copes and Tewksbury 2011). Between 2003 and 2006, ~12.9% of reported car thefts in the US were cleared by arrests, while robberies over the same period were cleared at a rate twice as high ~25.8% (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2003–2006). The vast majority of car thefts therefore entail no negative consequences, at least over the short term (Freeman 1999). The benefits may therefore be substantial. Payoffs to car theft might be calculated in a cash currency, if cars and/or their parts are being fenced (Clarke 1999; Tremblay et al. 2001). Payoffs might also be calculated in non-cash commodities such as barter value in drugs (Stevenson and Forsythe 1998) or prestige and excitement—an essential resource for joy riding teenagers (Copes 2003; Jacobs et al. 2003; Kellett and Gross 2006). Second, car thieves must also have behavioral alternatives to deploy during foraging and these alternatives must result in different payoff outcomes. Ethnographic evidence indicates that car theft involves choices between alternative search strategies, tools and techniques for gaining entry and ‘hot wiring’ targeted vehicles, and strategies for escape and disposal of stolen vehicles (Copes and Cherbonneau 2006; Copes and Tewksbury 2011; Farrell et al. 2011; Langworthy and Lebeau 1992; Lantsman 2013; Light et al. 1993; Lu 2003). Whether these different behavioral alternatives lead to real differences in payoffs is an open question. The observation that different car types are stolen to satisfy different needs may imply differential payoffs (Clarke 1999). However, the extent to which alternative behavioral strategies drive these payoffs, as required by optimal foraging theory, is unknown. Finally, there must be a mechanism by which car thieves select among the alternative behaviors, yielding near-optimal strategies for locating, stealing and disposing of cars. Simple trial-and-error and/or social learning in the context of co-offending appear to play this role (Akers 2008; Reiss and Farrington 1991). Juvenile car thieves often start as passengers, observing the actions of their more experienced friends (Light et al. 1993). Such learning mechanisms seem capable quickly producing effective cognitive scripts that car thieves can adhere to during commission of a crime (Tremblay et al. 2001). The prey selection model The foraging problem confronted by car thieves is similar in many ways to prey selection, a classical problem in behavioral ecology studied by Charnov (1976) and others (see Krebs et al. 1977; Stephens and Krebs 1986). Given sequential encounters with prey types, each having different expected returns and handling costs, which types should be pursued and captured? Let ei, hi and λi be the expected payoff, handling cost and local density of a prey of type i. Prey types i = 1, 2, … N are ranked in descending order of the ratio of payoff to handling cost ei/hi. The prey classification algorithm says that prey types i = 1, 2, … j should be pursued and captured upon encounter, but prey type j + 1 should be ignored if its payoff to handling cost ratio is below the mean for all higher ranked prey: Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 2 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 X j i¼1 λiei 1 þX j i¼1 λihi > ejþ1 hjþ1 ð1Þ In other words, if the expected return from future prey encounters is higher than would be gained by taking the current target, then it is better to wait. The prey choice model makes two distinctive predictions. First, prey types are either always taken upon encounter, or always ignored. This is the so-called “zero–one” rule in reference to the analytical result that an attack on prey type i will occur with probability qi = 0, or qi = 1, and nothing in between (Stephens and Krebs 1986). Second, whether or not a prey type is taken is dependent only on the encounter rate with higherranked prey, not its own encounter rate. Note that the term λi appears only on the left-hand side in Equation (1). The implication is that only changes in the encounter rate with higher ranked prey items will impact the decision to attack a lower ranked prey item once it has been encountered. Thus, if a higher ranked prey type becomes very scarce, a lower ranked prey type may be added to the diet. However, if a lower ranked prey type suddenly becomes very common, it will not necessarily be added to the diet without a concomitant change in the rate of encounter with higher ranked types. Empirical evidence from both animal (Hughes and Dunkin 1984; Prugh 2005; but see Pyke 1984) and human foragers (Hames and Vickers 1982; Smith 1991) suggests that the prey classification algorithm provides insights into prey selection behavior across a diverse range of taxa and foraging contexts. Car theft may be considered a special case of prey selection if car types vary in expected payoffs, handling costs and/or local abundance and offenders are attentive to these differences. As discussed in the Methods section, the available data on payoffs and handling times do not allow for a fine-grained test of either the zero–one rule, or the hypothesis that changes in the encounter rate with higher-ranked car types impact the inclusion of lower ranked car types in an offender’s ‘diet’. A strict reading of the prey choice model also suggests that car theft may not perfectly conform to all of its assumptions (see for comparison Smith 1991). The prey choice model assumes that: (1) foragers are long-term rate maximizers, meaning that average results of stealing cars over long time periods, rather than short-term gains, are optimized by different foraging strategies; (2) searching for and handling of targeted vehicles are mutually exclusive; (3) encounters with vehicles follow a Poisson process, meaning that two cars cannot be encountered simultaneously and each encounter is statistically independent of all others; (4) the payoff to stealing cars ei, the handling costs hi, and encounter rates λi are environmentally fixed in time and space; and (5) that the foraging car thief has perfect information about ei, hi and λi. Assumptions 1, 2, 3 and 5 may be reasonable for car theft. The notion that criminal behavioral strategies might be shaped by learning to produce long-term average rate maximization (Assumption 1) seems far fetched at first (but see Tremblay and Morselli 2000). Criminal offenders tend to be present-oriented (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990; Nagin and Paternoster 1994) and therefore appear little concerned with the long-term costs and benefits of crime (Wilson and Abrahamse 1992). However, the question at hand is not whether crime pays relative to non-crime alternatives, but rather whether stealing one car type is more profitable in the long run than stealing an alternative car type. It is conceivable that offenders adopt strategies that maximize the longterm or average payoffs from car theft by making discriminating choices about which cars to steal. It is also reasonable to suppose that simultaneous search for cars to steal and the physical act stealing a car are mutually exclusive activities (Assumption 2). This is made more complicated by co-offending, which is quite common for younger car thieves (Light et al. 1993), if some in an offending party search nearby targets while others are breaking into a given car. It is unknown whether encounters with cars to steal follow a Poisson process (Assumption 3). Ultimately, this is an empirical question for which data need to be collected. Conceptually, however, a motivated car thief walking down a linear street segment encounters cars sequentially and independently. Whether such conditions hold in a parking lot may depend on situational factors such as the layout of and available observation points in the lot. The prey choice model is not obviated under these circumstances (Stephens and Krebs 1986: 38–45), but additional costs associated with discriminating between simultaneously encountered car types must be taken into account. Perhaps the greatest challenge comes from strictly assuming that the key parameters of prey selection remain fixed in time and space (Assumption 4) (Suresh and Tewksbury 2013). At intermediate time scales (months to years), the payoffs to stealing different car types certainly change with turnover in the composition of cars on the street. Early and late model years may differ significantly in both perceived or actual value as well as handling costs, for example, following the introduction of RFID keys for ignition systems (Farrell et al. 2011). Similarly, there may be short-term (hourly-daily) fluctuations in environmental abundance of cars parked in locations where they might be stolen. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to assume that car thieves have relatively Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 3 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 accurate knowledge of the encounter rates, payoffs and handling costs associated with different cars, or learn them very quickly when conditions change (Assumption 5) (Akers 2008; Light et al. 1993). Given the above limitations, I test a conservative null hypothesis in place of the two detailed predictions made by the prey selection model: H0. If every car yields the same payoff and all are equally difficult to steal (i. e., ei/hi = ej/hj ∀ i, j), then differences in theft rates arise only from differences in relative abundances of car types λi. In other words, if all cars rank equally in the ratio of payoffs to handling costs, then all cars are part of the ‘diet’ and should be taken immediately upon encounter. Cars encountered more frequently will appear in the diet more often and, in fact, will be stolen at a frequency proportional to λi. One should therefore expect a strong correlation between relative abundances and theft rates if the null hypothesis is true. Failure to reject the null hypothesis implies that car thieves are unspecialized foragers and take only what is presented to them by the environment. Rejection of the null hypothesis, for all or even some car types, may constitute evidence that differential payoffs and/or handling costs enter into car thieves’ situational foraging decisions. Under these circumstances we can evaluate the role that payoffs and/or handling costs may play in driving target choice. Methods Car types are defined as unique make-models or, where necessary, make-model-years. For example, 1992 and 2002 Honda Civics may be different car types, from the point of view of the offender, because they have different perceived payoffs and may also differ in how easy they are to break into and ‘hot wire’ (Farrell et al. 2011). An initial database of car make-model-years was assembled using a popular car shopping and research website, www.edmonds.com. A student assistant was then trained to quickly and accurately identify car types in pilot surveys of a university campus parking structures. Street-based surveys were conducted in three Los Angeles zip codes (90034, 90045 and 90291) during two excursions in October-December 2004 and OctoberDecember 2005. The three survey locations had the highest volume of car thefts in 2003 among zip codes on the Los Angeles West Side. Surveys involved walking between one and three contiguous blocks, first up one side and then down the other. Surveys on the exact same block segments were conducted at two-hour intervals between 6AM and 6PM. The most dramatic change in density of cars parked on the street occurred between 6AM and 8AM. I therefore assume that the mix of car types seen at 6AM represents the overnight diversity. Only vehicles in publically accessible street locations were recorded. The observed relative frequency of each car type i is used as a measure of encounter rate λi. Expected value on the illegal market is used as a proxy for the payoffs ei associated with stealing different car types (Copes 2003; Matsueda et al. 1992). I do not assume that all car thieves seek cash. Rather, illegal market value is a generic currency that is expected to be positively correlated with non-monetary payoffs. For example, a ‘hot car’ is not only more likely to demand more money in an illegal market context, but it is also expected to have a higher payoff in excitement and prestige for the teenage car thief. Illegal market value is calculated as ei = f ∑ ipivi, where pi is the proportion of cars of a given make-model-year stolen, vi is the legal market value of the car at the time of theft as determined from the Kelley Blue Book (DeBacker 2003), and f is the fraction of the legal market value realized on the illegal market. I assume that f = 0.1, but choice of a different constant does not impact the results. I use break-in times as a proxy for overall handling costs hi. The UK-based “What Car?” Security Supertest (Secured by Design 2000, 2003) conducted attack testing of new cars marketed in the UK. The tests evaluated the ability of new vehicles to withstand attacks by trained locksmiths using the non-destructive entry techniques commonly deployed by car thieves. The tests included 123 unique make-models and measured the time, in seconds, needed to gain entry to each vehicle. A car was considered to pass the test if it was not possible to gain entry within two minutes. Break-in time represents only one of the handling costs associated with car theft. I assume, however, that the handling costs at different critical points in the theft process are positively correlated. For example, if a car is easy to enter, it is also more likely to be easy to ‘hot wire’, less likely to have a geo-location device installed and be easier to chop. Evaluation of the relationships between car theft, environmental abundances, payoffs and handling costs is conducted using non-parametric statistics that are robust to ordinal scale data and non-normal distribution characteristics (Conover 1998). Theft frequencies and environmental abundances are compared using Kendall’s τ, a generalized correlation coefficient that measures the similarity of ranked order lists. Kendall’s τ b allows for rank order ties. Illegal market values and break-in times among common and rare cares are non-normally distributed. Medians therefore provide the most robust measure of central tendency and the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U the most appropriate corresponding statistical test. Differences in distribution shape are computed using the non-parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnov D. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 4 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 Results Between 1 Jan 2003 and 31 December 2004, 63,528 vehicles were reported stolen within the City of Los Angeles (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2003–2006). In zip codes 90034, 90045 and 90291, located on the West Side of Los Angeles and representing ~3.5% of the land area of the City, a total of 2,251 cars were stolen during the same period, or ~3.5% of all thefts. These cars are divided into 271 unique make-model types. The Honda Civic and Accord, Toyota Camry and Corolla, and Nissan Sentra together comprise ~25% of the total thefts and 87 car types are represented by single thefts (Figure 1A, Table 1). To test whether the observed bias in thefts towards some car types is driven by environmental abundance, I conducted surveys of main artery and residential streets (see Methods). A total of 1,825 cars were observed and these were classified into 262 unique make-model types. As with reported thefts, the cars available on the streets are dominated by a few types (Figure 1B). Seventy seven types identified in the survey are singletons. The distribution is qualitatively similar to rank species abundance curves in ecology, which show environments numerically dominated by a few species, but most of the richness is accumulated through species with small numbers of individuals Hubbell (2001). Here I focus on the top 25 most commonly stolen cars. These car types account for 53% of the total observed volume of stolen cars (N = 1198) and the bulk of the variation in theft frequency. A comparison of theft and density rank order frequencies shows a significant positive relationship (Kendall’s τ b = 0.491, p < 0.001) (Figure 2). Thirteen of the top 25 most stolen cars are also in the top 25 for abundance (Table 1). In general, the most common cars on the street are also the most stolen. The positive relationship between abundance and theft is particularly strong among the top nine most stolen cars (Kendall’s τ b = 0.611, p = 0.022). Honda Civics are the most abundant cars and the most frequently stolen. For the top nine cars it is difficult to reject the null hypothesis that environmental abundance is driving the targeting of these vehicles for theft. Note, however, that approximately one half (N = 12) of the top 25 most stolen cars are not in the top 25 for abundance. Several of these are significant outliers (Table 1). For example, the Chrysler 300M is ranked 14, with 33 thefts in 2003–04, but was observed only 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 1 10 19 28 37 46 55 64 73 82 91 100 109 118 127 136 145 154 163 172 181 190 199 208 217 226 235 244 253 262 271 Number of Thefts Theft Rank Honda Civic Toyota Camry Honda Accord Jeep Grand Cherokee Ferrari 360 N = 2,251 A 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Number of Cars Honda Civic Honda Accord Toyota Corolla Chevy Cavalier Porsche Carerra N = 1,825 B Figure 1 Rank order plots of make-model car types stolen and observed in street-based surveys in three Los Angeles zip codes. (A) Cars stolen in zip codes 90034, 90045 and 90291 between Jan 1, 2003 and December 31, 2004 are numerically dominated by a few car types. (B) The rank order abundance of car types in the same zip codes, observed in street surveys conducted in 2004 and 2005, reveals the structure of car theft opportunities. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 5 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 once in the 1,825 cars identified in street surveys (survey rank = 224). Similarly, the Pontiac Grand AM was ranked 10, with 44 thefts, but was observed only four times in the same surveys (survey rank = 110.5). It may be that thieves targeted these rare cars based on specialized evaluation of the expected payoffs, handling costs, or both, made at the time of encounter. Taking into account car make, model and year, I calculated the expected illegal market value for each car stolen in 2003 as 10% of the Kelley Blue Book value at the time of theft (see Methods) (DeBacker 2003; Stevenson and Forsythe 1998; Tremblay et al. 2001). Illegal market value is used as broad proxy for both monetary and non-monetary payoffs. Figure 3 shows that the distribution of expected illegal market values for the outliers is significantly different from that associated with environmentally common cars (Mann–Whitney U = 8562, Wilcoxon = 73542, Z = −11.327, p < .001). Among the environmentally common cars, the median expected illegal market value is $740 (min = $293, max = $2,916). Among the environmentally rare cars, the median is twice as large at $1,515 (min = $210, max $4,493). These data suggest that the outliers within the sample of stolen cars may be targeted because they offer a higher expected payoff. It is also possible that ease-of-theft is responsible for the observed outliers (Farrell et al. 2011; Light et al. 1993; Wiles and Costello 2000). The UK-based “WhatCar?” Security Supertest (Secured by Design 2000, 2003), evaluated the ability of a range of new vehicles to withstand attacks using non-destructive entry techniques (see Methods). Break-in time is used as a proxy for handling costs at all stages of the theft process. The aggregated results from 2000 and 2003, excluding those cars that passed the test, show a weak, but significant relationship between break-in times and Table 1 The top 25 most stolen car types in 2003–2004 and their environmental densities in Los Angeles zip codes 90034, 90045 and 90291 Make-model Theft N Survey N Recovery N Theft p Survey p Recovery p Theft rank Survey rank HONDA CIVIC 155 128 110 0.069 0.070 0.710 1 1 TOYOTA CAMRY 151 59 118 0.067 0.032 0.781 2 4 HONDA ACCORD 109 94 81 0.048 0.052 0.743 3 2 TOYOTA COROLLA 68 86 47 0.030 0.047 0.691 4 3 NISSAN SENTRA 60 33 45 0.027 0.018 0.750 5 9 ACURA INTEGRA 52 21 28 0.023 0.012 0.538 6 14 FORD MUSTANG 50 20 41 0.022 0.011 0.820 7 16 FORD EXPLORER 49 57 35 0.022 0.031 0.714 8 5 FORD TAURUS 46 28 36 0.020 0.015 0.783 9 11 PONTIAC GRAND AM/PRIX 43 4 38 0.019 0.002 0.884 10 110.5 NISSAN ALTIMA 35 42 27 0.016 0.023 0.771 11 7 CHEVY IMPALA 34 6 26 0.015 0.003 0.765 12.5 79.5 DODGE STRATUS 34 5 30 0.015 0.003 0.882 12.5 93.5 CHRYSLER 300M 33 1 31 0.015 0.001 0.939 14 224 CHEVY BLAZER 32 15 24 0.014 0.008 0.750 15 25 CHRYSLER PT CRUISER 31 8 26 0.014 0.004 0.839 16 58 DODGE CARAVAN 28 8 18 0.012 0.004 0.643 17.5 58 DODGE INTREPID 28 9 23 0.012 0.005 0.821 17.5 49.5 JEEP CHEROKEE 27 34 16 0.012 0.019 0.593 19 8 LINCOLN TOWN CAR 24 4 22 0.011 0.002 0.917 20 110.5 DODGE NEON 23 2 19 0.010 0.001 0.826 21.5 165.5 FORD FOCUS 23 7 20 0.010 0.004 0.870 21.5 68.5 CHRYSLER SEBRING 21 3 15 0.009 0.002 0.714 24 132.5 FORD EXPEDITION 21 12 13 0.009 0.007 0.619 24 32.5 JEEP GRAND CHEROKEE 21 20 14 0.009 0.011 0.667 24 16 Note: Theft and recovery proportions are calculated with respect to all 2,251 cars stolen. Survey proportions are calculated with respect to the 1,825 unique car types identified in street-based surveys. Environmental densities were measured in two survey periods October-December 2004 and October-December 2005. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 6 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 market price in US Dollars (r 2 = .258, p < .001) (Figure 4A). The median break-in time for all vehicle types successfully attacked was 29 seconds and the minimum time was two seconds. Twenty three cars (~19%) have break-in times under 15 seconds. Vehicle make-models are not equivalent between the UK and US markets, despite similar names, and comparable data are not available from US contexts. It is not possible therefore to map break-in times from the Security Supertests directly to car types stolen in the US Number of Thefts 100 80 60 40 20 0 Illegal Market Value in $ 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 100 80 60 40 20 0 A B Figure 3 Frequency histograms of the estimated illegal market values show much lower expected payoffs may be attributed to the top nine most stolen cars (A), where density is expected to the major determinant of theft, compared with the outliers (B), where environmental density is not implicated. 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 50 100 150 200 250 Theft Rank Survey Rank Chrysler300M Dodge Neon Chevy Impala Pontriac Grand Prix/Am Dodge Stratus Chrysler Sebring Lincoln Town Car Ford Focus Chrysler PT Cruiser Dodge Caravan Dodge Intrepid Figure 2 A scatter plot of abundance rank order against theft rank order shows a strong positive relationship between car availability and theft risk. Eleven car-types are stolen much more frequently than their environmental abundance would suggest. Line represents a hypothetical 1:1 relationship between rank abundance and rank theft. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 7 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 using the UK data. However, some indication of handling costs may be gained by examining patterns within manufactures. Seven of the cars stolen in disproportion to their environmental density were manufactured by Daimler-Chrysler, three by Ford and two by GM (Table 1). Of the 123 cars tested in the Security Supertests, 44 were vehicles by these manufacturers. Eleven (25%) successfully withstood attacks lasting two minutes, compared with 24 of the remaining 79 car types (44%). The data may suggest that Daimler-Chrysler, GM and Ford vehicles are more broadly susceptible to attack. However, a range of break-in times characterize the vehicles that did not pass the test (Table 2). Low and high-mid market cars sold under the Chrysler brand (e.g., Neon, Grand Voyager) have minimum break-in times of between four and six seconds, while one low-market GM car sold under the Vauxhall brand had a brake-in time of two seconds. Midmarket GM cars, also sold under the Vauxhall brand, had a mean break-in time of 81 seconds. The aggregate results do not indicate that cars made by DaimlerChrysler, Ford or GM are disproportionately easier for car thieves to handle. Indeed, cars marketed by other manufacturers show a significant skew towards shorter break-in times and, by implication, lower handling costs for thieves (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z = 1.349, p = 0.053) (Figure 4B,C). Discussion and conclusion It is difficult to reject the null hypothesis that environmental abundance is the primary determinant of what cars are targeted for theft. There is a particularly strong relationship between abundance and theft rank for the top-nine most stolen cars. In the CRAVED conceptual framework put forward by Clarke (1999), availability would seem to outweigh other dimensions that might influence theft choice. In the instances where cars are targeted despite being rare, payoff differences may play some role. Car recovery rates provide one measure of the importance of non-monetary, or possibly limited monetary payoffs to car theft (Clarke and Harris 1992). There is little systematic difference in the rate of recovery across car types (Table 1), suggesting that none of the top 25 most stolen cars are disproportionately landing in fully-body chop shops or being stolen for export. The payoffs here seem to be primarily non-monetary. Furthermore, among the outliers that are stolen despite being rare, it appears that the newest model years are targeted. For example, eight of 12 Chrysler 300s and seven of 13 Chrysler Sebrings stolen during 2003 were 2004 model years, which became available only in the last five months of the year. The implication is that these cars, though rare, were targeted precisely because they were perceived to be ‘hot rides’ (Wiles and Costello 2000). That some cars are more valuable or enjoyable can override their low availability, but this occurs infrequently. It is less apparent that lower handling costs biased thieves’ decisions to target environmentally rare cars, although ethnographic work suggests that handling costs are often a significant concern (Clarke 1999; Light et al. 1993; Wiles and Costello 2000). Recent research suggests that the potential for encountering opposition from car owners is a major concern (Copes and Tewksbury 2011), but it is uncertain how the probability of opposition might relate to car type. Direct handling costs may have played a role in driving Los Angeles car thieves to A BC Figure 4 Break-in times for UK make-models measured by the “WhatCar?” Security Supertest in 2000 and 2003. (A) Scatter plot of break-in time versus US market price implies only a weak relationship between payoffs and handling costs. Frequency histograms of the break-in times for (B) GM-, Daimler-Chrysler- and Ford-group cars and (C) all other car types. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 8 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 ignore certain environmentally common cars. Seven make-model types including the Volkswagen Jetta, Toyota RAV4 and Nissan Xterra ranked within the top 25 for abundance, but were rarely or never stolen (Table 3). An average of 57% of the vehicles sold by the corresponding manufactures in the UK passed the Security Supertests. This is compared only 25% of Daimler-Chrysler, GM and Ford cars representative of the environmentally rare group. The implication is that these cars may be ignored because they are more resistant to attack. Detailed attack analyses of cars from the US market could help resolve the exact role of handling costs in the differential targeting of some cars. In spite of the narrow role that differential payoffs and handling costs appear to play the choice of which cars to steal, one must be careful to not fall prey to the ecological fallacy. Ethnographic evidence points to a degree of specialization among car thieves, with distinctions among those engaged in opportunistic theft and those in organized crime, and among younger and older offenders. Such specializations are not directly visible in aggregate car theft data. It is possible that the population of Los Angeles car thieves consists of several different types each with their preferred prey. The observed frequency of stolen car types might therefore represent a mixture of fixed, independent strategies, some rare and Table 3 Environmentally abundant cars of low theft rank in zip codes 90034, 90045 and 90291 and the aggregated 2000 and 2003 “WhatCar?” Security Supertest results for cars from the corresponding manufacturers Make-model Theft N Survey N Theft rank Survey rank N tested Passing p Models failing Mean (s) σ (s) Min (s) Max (s) Volkswagen Jetta 9 56 63 6 6 0.50 Lupo 1.4S, Polo Gti, Golf 1.6SE 32 16.09 19 50 Toyota RAV4 5 19 91 18 8 0.63 Yaris Verso, Corolla, Avensis 46.33 15.50 31 46 Lexus ES 15 229 25 3 0.67 IS 111 Nissan Xterra 2 16 164 21 5 0.80 Micra 1.3 SE 14 Volvo S Class 17 229 19.5 3 0.67 XC90 70 Subaru Outback 2 15 164 25 3 0.00 Impreza, Impreza Turbo, Legacy 22.67 24.79 5 51 Table 2 Break-in times in seconds for Daimler-Chrysler, Ford and GM brands sold in the UK tested in the “WhatCar?” Security Supertest in 2000 and 2003 Manufacturer Make-model Market N Mean (seconds) σ (seconds) Min (seconds) Max (seconds) Daimler-Chysler Chrysler Neon Low 1 4 Daimler-Chysler Mercedes A Class Mid 1 30 Daimler-Chysler Chrysler Grand Voyager High-mid 1 6 Daimler-Chysler Mercedes C, E Class High 2 70 7.07 65 75 Ford Fiesta, Focus Ghia Estate, Ka 3, Mazda 626 Sport Low 4 40.75 15.9 23 60 Ford Focus TDi Ghia, Ka, Streetka, Landrover Freelander, Mazda MPV, Mazda Premacy Mid 6 33.83 17.08 19 65 Ford Focus, Land Rover Discovery, Mazda 6 High-mid 3 43 13.45 28 54 Ford Mondeo, Jaguar XKR, Range Rover 4.0 HSE, Volvo XC90 High 4 69 21.76 40 93 GM Vauxall Agilla, Astra Low 2 12 13.44 2 21 GM Vauxall Corsa, Frontera, Meriva, Zafira Mid 4 81 40.04 21 108 GM Saab 93, Saab 95, Vauxall Astra High-mid 3 45.67 10.69 39 58 GM Cadillac Seville STS, Vauxall Vectra High 2 58 74.95 5 111 Total Daimler-Chrysler, GM, Ford 33 46.88 30.68 2 111 Other Car types 55 32.22 29.36 2 115 Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 9 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 some common, not variation in the behavior of offenders in general. The converse is also potentially true. There is a danger of falling prey to an ethnographic fallacy that confounds our ability to infer aggregate characteristics from ethnographically rich data collected at an individual scale. To wit, given interviews with tens of car thieves about their offending preferences, can we reliably infer the population characteristics of the many thousands of individuals likely responsible for the 63,000 cars stolen in Los Angeles in 2003-2004? There is no easy way to resolve the ecological or ethnographic fallacy. I suspect, however, that the unspecialized foragers responding primarily to environmental abundances greatly outnumber the specialists, making the latter practically invisible in aggregate data. The results described here are important for understanding the broader causes of criminal behavior and may suggest novel approaches to crime prevention based on formal ecological models (see also Bernasco 2009; Brantingham et al. 2012; Felson 2006). The unspecialized nature of car theft in Los Angeles implies that the behavioral and cognitive capacities needed to be a successful thief are generic. Indeed, humans are well-equipped to become effective foragers for criminal opportunities given an evolved psychology to solve foraging problems in boundedly-rational ways (Hutchinson et al. 2007), combined with small amounts of individual trial-and-error or social learning (Akers 2008; Boyd and Richerson 1985). Indeed, the co-offending that characterizes the early careers (<20 years old) of most offenders, including car thieves, is ideally suited to the transmission of the simple skills sufficient to produce experts from inexperienced thieves (Reiss and Farrington 1991). That auto theft in Los Angeles is driven primarily by environmental structure provides further evidence that the greatest gains in crime prevention are to be had in altering the structure of criminal opportunity (Brantingham and Brantingham 1981; Farrell et al. 2011; Felson and Clarke 1998). How environmental alterations impact situational foraging behaviors and longer-term population trajectories are well-studied within ecology (Henle et al. 2004; Kerr et al. 2007), suggesting a way forward for formal crime ecology. Competing interests The author declares that he has no competing interests. Acknowledgements This work was supported in part by grants NSF-FRG DMS-0968309, ONR N000141010221, ARO-MURI W911NF-11-1-0332, and AFOSR-MURI FA9550-10-1-0569, and by the UCLA Faculty Senate. I am indebted to the Los Angeles Police Department for providing the data analyzed here. Thank you to David Bell from Secured by Design and Silas Borden for assistance with the street-based surveys. Received: 29 November 2012 Accepted: 29 April 2013 Published: 3 July 2013 References Akers, R (2008). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Bernasco, W. (2009). Foraging strategies of homo criminalis: lessons from behavioral ecology. Crime Patterns and Analysis, 2(1), 5–16. Boyd, R, & Richerson, PJ (1985). Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Brantingham, PJ, & Brantingham, PL (1981). Environmental Criminology. Beverly Hills: Sage. Brantingham, PJ, Tita, GE, Short, MB, & Reid, SE. (2012). The ecology of gang territorial boundaries. Criminology, 50(3), 851–885. Charnov, EL. (1976). Optimal foraging - attack strategy of a mantid. American Naturalist, 110(971), 141–151. Clarke, RV. (1999). Hot Products: Understanding, Anticipating and Reducing Demand for Stolen Goods (Police Research Series, Paper 112.). London: Home Office. Clarke, RV, & Harris, PM (1992). Auto Theft and its Prevention. In M Tonry (Ed.), Crime and Justice: A Review of Research (Vol. 16, pp. 1–54). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Conover, WJ. (1998). Practical Nonparametric Statistics. Hoboken: Wiley. Copes, H. (2003). Streetlife and the rewards of auto theft. Deviant Behavior, 24(4), 309–332. Copes, H, & Cherbonneau, M. (2006). The key to auto theft - Emerging methods of auto theft from the offenders' perspective. British Journal of Criminology, 46(5), 917–934. Copes, H, & Tewksbury, R. (2011). Criminal experience and perceptions of risk: what auto thieves fear when stealing cars. Journal of Crime and Justice, 34(1), 62–79. Cornish, DB, & Clarke, RV (1986). Introduction. In DB Cornish & RV Clarke (Eds.), The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Criminal Offending. New York: Springer-Verlag. Cornish, DB, & Clarke, RV. (1987). Understanding crime displacement: An application of rational choice theory. Criminology, 25(4), 933–947. DeBacker, P (Ed.). (2003). Kelley Blue Book Used Car Guide Consumer Edition 1988–2002. Irvine, CA: Kelly Blue Book. Dhami, MK. (2008). Youth auto theft: a survey of a general population of canadian youth. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 50(2), 187–209. Farrell, G, Tseloni, A, & Tilley, N. (2011). The effectiveness of vehicle security devices and their role in the crime drop. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 11(1), 21–35. Federal Bureau of Investigation (2003–2006). Crime in the United States, Uniform Crime Reports. http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm. Felson, M (2006). Crime and Nature. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Felson, M, & Clarke, RV (1998). Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for Crime Prevention (Police Research Series Paper 98). London: Home Office Policing and Reducing Crime Unit. Freeman, RB. (1996). Why do so many young american men commit crimes and what might we do about it? The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 10(1), 25–42. Freeman, RB. (1999). The economics of crime. Handbook of Labor Economics, 3, 3529–3571. Gottfredson, MR, & Hirschi, T (1990). A General Theory of Crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Hames, RB, & Vickers, WT. (1982). Optimal diet breadth theory as a model to explain variability in Amazonian hunting. American Ethnologist, 9(2), 358–378. Henle, K, Davies, KF, Kleyer, M, Margules, C, & Settele, J. (2004). Predictors of species sensitivity to fragmentation. Biodiversity and Conservation, 13(1), 207–251. Hubbell, SP (2001). The Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity and Biogeography. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Hughes, RN, & Dunkin, SD. (1984). Behavioral components of prey selection by Dogwhelks, Nucella-Lapillus (L), feeding on Mussels, Mytilus-Edulis-L, in the Laboratory. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 77(1–2), 45–68. Hutchinson, JMC, Wilke, A, & Todd, PM. (2007). Patch leaving in humans: can a generalist adapt its rules to dispersal of items across patches? Animal Behavior, 75, 1331–1349. Jacobs, BA, Topalli, V, & Wright, R. (2003). Carjacking, streetlife and offender motivation. British Journal of Criminology, 43(4), 673–688. Johnson, SD, Summers, L, & Pease, K. (2009). Offender as forager? a direct test of the boost account of victimization. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 25(2), 181–200. Brantingham Crime Science 2013, 2:3 Page 10 of 11 http://www.crimesciencejournal.com/content/2/1/3 Kellett, S, & Gross, H. (2006). Addicted to joyriding? An exploration of young offenders' accounts of their car crime. Psychology Crime & Law, 12(1), 39–59. Kerr, JT, Kharouba, HM, & Currie, DJ. (2007). The macroecological contribution to global change solutions. Science, 316(5831), 1581–1584. Krebs, JR, Erichsen, JT, Webber, MI, & Charnov, EL. (1977). Optimal prey selection in great tit (parus-major). Animal Behaviour, 25(FEB), 30–38. Langworthy, RH, & Lebeau, JL. (1992). The spatial-distribution of sting targets. Journal of Criminal Justice, 20(6), 541–551. Lantsman, L. (2013). “Moveable currency”: the role of seaports in export oriented vehicle theft. Crime, Law and Social Change, 59(2), 157–184. Light, R, Nee, C, & Ingham, H (1993). Car Theft: The Offender's Perspective (Home Office Rresearch Study No. 30). London: Home Office. Lu, YM. (2003). Getting away with the stolen vehicle: an investigation of journeyafter-crime. The Professional Geographer, 55(4), 422–433. Matsueda, RL, Piliavin, I, Gartner, R, & Polakowski, M. (1992). The prestige of criminal and conventional occupations: a subcultural model of criminal activity. American Sociological Review, 57(6), 752–770. Nagin, DS, & Paternoster, R. (1994). Personal capital and social control: the detterence implications of a theory of individual differences in criminal offending. Criminology, 32(4), 581–606. Prugh, LR. (2005). Coyote prey selection and community stability during a decline in food supply. Oikos, 110(2), 253–264. Pyke, GH. (1984). Optimal foraging theory - a critical-review. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 15, 523–575. Reiss, AJ, & Farrington, DP. (1991). Advancing knowledge about co-offending: results from a prospective longitudinal survey of London males. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 82(2), 360–395. Secured by Design (2000, 2003). The "WhatCar?" Security Supertests were conducted in 2000 and 2003. The attack tests are described online at http://www.whatcar.co.uk/news-special-report.aspx?NA=204498. Smith, EA (1991). Inujjuamiut Foraging Strategies: Evolutionary Ecology of an Arctic Hunting Economy. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Stephens, DW, & Krebs, JR (1986). Foraging Theory. In. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Stevenson, RJ, & Forsythe, LMV (1998). The Stolen Goods Market in New South Wales. Sydney: New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. Suresh, G, & Tewksbury, R. (2999). Locations of motor vehicle theft and recovery. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 1–16. Tremblay, P, & Morselli, C. (2000). Patterns in criminal achievement: Wilson and Abrahamse revisited. Criminology, 38(2), 633–659. Tremblay, P, Talon, B, & Hurley, D. (2001). Body switching and related adaptations in the resale of stolen vehicles. Script elaborations and aggregate crime learning curves. British Journal of Criminology, 41(4), 561–579. Wiles, P, & Costello, A (2000). The 'Road to Nowhere': The Evidence for Travelling Criminals (Report 207). London: Home Office. Wilson, JQ, & Abrahamse, A. (1992). Does crime pay? Justice Quarterly, 9, 359–377. Wright, R, Brookman, F, & Bennett, T. (2006). The foreground dynamics of street robbery in Britain. British Journal of Criminology, 46(1), 1–15. Wright, RT, & Decker, SH (1994). Burglars on the Job: Streetlife and Residential Breakins. Boston: Northeastern University Press. doi:10.1186/2193-7680-2-3 Cite this article as: Brantingham: Prey selection among Los Angeles car thieves. Crime Science 2013 2:3. 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Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. [user request] [context document]

Researchers at Foch Hospital in France published this study of pregnancy outcomes in two groups of patients. Please summarize outcomes across the three kinds of complications that the researchers studied.

Objectives: Maternal age has been increasing for several decades with many of these late pregnancies between 40 and 45 years old. The main objective of this study is to assess whether maternal age is an independent factor of obstetric, fetal, and neonatal complications. Patients and methods: A monocentric, French study “exposed-unexposed” was conducted during 11 years in a maternity level IIB. Maternal and perinatal outcomes were studied using univariates and multivariate analysis. We compared women aged 40 and above in a 1:1 ratio with women of 25–35 years old. Results: One thousand nine hundred eighty-two women were 40 or older (mean age: 41.9) on the day of their delivery and compared to other 1,982 women who were aged between 25 and 35 years old (mean age: 30.7) Preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, were significantly higher in the study group (4.6 vs. 1.5% and 14.5 vs. 6.9%, respectively, p < 0.001). We found also a significant difference for gestational hypertension (3.1 vs. 1.1% p < 0.001), preterm birth (10.4 vs. 6.5% p < 0.001), cesarean (16.6 vs. 5.4% for scheduled cesarean, and 50.4 vs. 13.9% for emergency cesarean, p < 0.001) and fetal death in utero (2.1 vs. 0.5% in the study group, p < 0.001). These results were also significantly different in multivariate analysis. Objectives The main objective of the study is to determine the incidence of obstetric, fetal, and neonatal complication and to assess whether age is an independent factor of these complications. The secondary objectives are to determine whether there is an association between some complications (pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, prematurity) and the conception mode associated with the type of pregnancy (singleton or twin). The obstetrical complications studied are gestational hypertension (defined as systolic >140 mmH and/or diastolic >90 mmHg without proteinuria), pre-eclampsia (systolic >140 mmHand/or diastolic >90 mmHg associated with a proteinuria of 24 h >300 mg), gestational diabetes (defined according to the recommendations of the 2015 CNGOF), cesarean section (CS), admission of women to the intensive care unit during their pregnancies, postpartum hemorrhage (loss of more than 500 cc of blood within 24 h after vaginal delivery or CS) and blood transfusion. The fetal complications studied are intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) (defined as having an estimation of fetal weight <5e p) and fetal death in utero (FDIU). The neonatal complications studied were prematurity (birth before 37 weeks), pH at birth (acidosis with pH <7.10), APGAR score (<7), and pediatric care just after the birth. Discussion Our study shows that advanced maternal age is an independent risk factor for obstetric and neonatal complications (14, 15). In fact, multivariate analysis found significant results for three of the most common pregnancy-related diseases: gestational hypertension, pre-eclampsia, and gestational diabetes. Our large sample significantly confirms the occurrence of pre-eclampsia in women aged 40 and above, unlike some studies with small samples that did not find this result in multivariate analysis (3). Moreover, there is a higher risk of pre-eclampsia when the patient has some other risk factor such as twin pregnancy or medical history (hypertension and/or diabetes and/or VTE/vascular disease/lupus) (16, 17). Even more, these women with advanced maternal age are at higher risk of developing cardiovascular and nephrological diseases in the long term (18). In the case of tobacco, it has not been found as an independent risk factor, which can probably be explained by a significant underestimation of women reporting smoking during pregnancy. The high proportion of cesareans in the study group of women over 40 is due to some contributing factors. On one hand, the percentage of scheduled cesareans is higher because there is a higher prevalence of uni or multi-cicatricial uterus. Cesareans for high maternal age or for maternal request finally represented a small sample (22 women/1,982, 1% in the exposed group vs. 1/1,982 in the unexposed group). There was also a higher rate about the emergency cesareans deliveries in the study group over 40 years old. Several physiological hypotheses have been mentioned in previous studies (2, 3): a higher rate of dystocia presentation and scarred uterus, uterine contractility less effective than for a woman aged 25–35. In our sample, the most common indications for CS were abnormalities of cardio-fetal rhythm and cervical dystocia (19). It is likely that CFR abnormalities are more severely judged by the obstetrician, in the context of older patients, especially if the pregnancy is a result of ART, putting some women at a risk of cesarean that is not always justified (20). In total, this large proportion of CS in women 40 years and older has also been shown in other studies (3, 4, 17, 20–22). However, these results should be taken with caution because some indications for CS are inherent to the protocols practiced in our unit. The association between advanced maternal age and fetal deaths in utero should also be taken into account. Among those 43 FDIUs, we have looked at every medical files of those women and we did not find any events that could explained this high number. Indeed, among the 43 FDIUs in women aged 40 and above, there were no more patients using ART, nor more patients with obstetric pathology. This can be explained by a small number of FDIU. The only common point in our study group was the advanced maternal age. In these circumstances, instead of worrying the patients, it might be more appropriate to give them clear and reassuring information while performing a pre-conception close monitoring and throughout the pregnancy. This would help detect and manage these complications much earlier. In addition, with the advanced technology, several risks are now monitored using non-invasive prenatal screening or even the pre-implantation diagnosis (23–26). The incidence of maternal complications is likely to increase over time due to increased maternal age. It will be difficult to reduce the incidence of these complications, but we can reduce the serious complications of preeclampsia, gestational diabetes (such as eclampsia, and macrosomia) through appropriate management (induce delivery before 41 weeks, close monitoring of the fetus) (27, 28). With regard to neonatal complications, few significant differences were found in our study, as well as in the literature (29, 30). This is partly explained by the fact that several obstetrical factors can interfere without being related to age (the length of the delivery, abnormalities of the RCF, chorioamnionitis (3, 31, 32). Our study has several advantages. On the one hand, our study was done on a large sample, with data processing from medical records with a complete search for missing data. International and European studies with large samples use public health registers, thereby providing a lot of information on the characteristics of the population (5, 10). However, this is often at the expense of information such as the type of delivery, the methods of neonatology care which are sometimes different in hospitals. On the other hand, we took a period of 11 years, to check if there had been a difference in daily practices. We did not notice any difference between the periods 2006–2010 and 2011–2017 except for the increasing number of patients who have access to ART. On the other hand, we matched each patient aged 40 and above to a patient aged between 25 and 35 whose delivery number followed the patient case. Indeed, this allowed us to limit as far as possible all the variability of practices on the delivery route (natural delivery vs. cesarean, neonatal care). We also had the advantage of separating fetuses, newborns, and mothers, which has not been realized in other studies, and which may lead to a classification bias regarding perinatal outcomes. Our study is yet limited by its monocentric character and retrospective aspect. In addition, Foch Hospital has an ART center, so our sample probably contained more patients using these techniques. However, we had the opportunity to have 18.2% of women over 40 using ART. This allowed us to highlight the significant increase in preeclampsia and prematurity in patients over 40 years of age who have used ART. After 44 years, 1 out of 2 women used the ART. This rate is surely underestimated because there is a large number of patients who voluntarily omit to declare their use of ART in particular the use of donated oocytes (33). It is especially remembered that maternal complications occurring decades ago are less morbid today than before (22, 34). Screening and management of maternal and neonatal complications are progressively improving, and a high-risk pregnancy at age 40 in the 1980s should no longer discourage patients and obstetricians in 2020.

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. Researchers at Foch Hospital in France published this study of pregnancy outcomes in two groups of patients. Please summarize outcomes across the three kinds of complications that the researchers studied. Objectives: Maternal age has been increasing for several decades with many of these late pregnancies between 40 and 45 years old. The main objective of this study is to assess whether maternal age is an independent factor of obstetric, fetal, and neonatal complications. Patients and methods: A monocentric, French study “exposed-unexposed” was conducted during 11 years in a maternity level IIB. Maternal and perinatal outcomes were studied using univariates and multivariate analysis. We compared women aged 40 and above in a 1:1 ratio with women of 25–35 years old. Results: One thousand nine hundred eighty-two women were 40 or older (mean age: 41.9) on the day of their delivery and compared to other 1,982 women who were aged between 25 and 35 years old (mean age: 30.7) Preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, were significantly higher in the study group (4.6 vs. 1.5% and 14.5 vs. 6.9%, respectively, p < 0.001). We found also a significant difference for gestational hypertension (3.1 vs. 1.1% p < 0.001), preterm birth (10.4 vs. 6.5% p < 0.001), cesarean (16.6 vs. 5.4% for scheduled cesarean, and 50.4 vs. 13.9% for emergency cesarean, p < 0.001) and fetal death in utero (2.1 vs. 0.5% in the study group, p < 0.001). These results were also significantly different in multivariate analysis. Objectives The main objective of the study is to determine the incidence of obstetric, fetal, and neonatal complication and to assess whether age is an independent factor of these complications. The secondary objectives are to determine whether there is an association between some complications (pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, prematurity) and the conception mode associated with the type of pregnancy (singleton or twin). The obstetrical complications studied are gestational hypertension (defined as systolic >140 mmH and/or diastolic >90 mmHg without proteinuria), pre-eclampsia (systolic >140 mmHand/or diastolic >90 mmHg associated with a proteinuria of 24 h >300 mg), gestational diabetes (defined according to the recommendations of the 2015 CNGOF), cesarean section (CS), admission of women to the intensive care unit during their pregnancies, postpartum hemorrhage (loss of more than 500 cc of blood within 24 h after vaginal delivery or CS) and blood transfusion. The fetal complications studied are intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) (defined as having an estimation of fetal weight <5e p) and fetal death in utero (FDIU). The neonatal complications studied were prematurity (birth before 37 weeks), pH at birth (acidosis with pH <7.10), APGAR score (<7), and pediatric care just after the birth. Discussion Our study shows that advanced maternal age is an independent risk factor for obstetric and neonatal complications (14, 15). In fact, multivariate analysis found significant results for three of the most common pregnancy-related diseases: gestational hypertension, pre-eclampsia, and gestational diabetes. Our large sample significantly confirms the occurrence of pre-eclampsia in women aged 40 and above, unlike some studies with small samples that did not find this result in multivariate analysis (3). Moreover, there is a higher risk of pre-eclampsia when the patient has some other risk factor such as twin pregnancy or medical history (hypertension and/or diabetes and/or VTE/vascular disease/lupus) (16, 17). Even more, these women with advanced maternal age are at higher risk of developing cardiovascular and nephrological diseases in the long term (18). In the case of tobacco, it has not been found as an independent risk factor, which can probably be explained by a significant underestimation of women reporting smoking during pregnancy. The high proportion of cesareans in the study group of women over 40 is due to some contributing factors. On one hand, the percentage of scheduled cesareans is higher because there is a higher prevalence of uni or multi-cicatricial uterus. Cesareans for high maternal age or for maternal request finally represented a small sample (22 women/1,982, 1% in the exposed group vs. 1/1,982 in the unexposed group). There was also a higher rate about the emergency cesareans deliveries in the study group over 40 years old. Several physiological hypotheses have been mentioned in previous studies (2, 3): a higher rate of dystocia presentation and scarred uterus, uterine contractility less effective than for a woman aged 25–35. In our sample, the most common indications for CS were abnormalities of cardio-fetal rhythm and cervical dystocia (19). It is likely that CFR abnormalities are more severely judged by the obstetrician, in the context of older patients, especially if the pregnancy is a result of ART, putting some women at a risk of cesarean that is not always justified (20). In total, this large proportion of CS in women 40 years and older has also been shown in other studies (3, 4, 17, 20–22). However, these results should be taken with caution because some indications for CS are inherent to the protocols practiced in our unit. The association between advanced maternal age and fetal deaths in utero should also be taken into account. Among those 43 FDIUs, we have looked at every medical files of those women and we did not find any events that could explained this high number. Indeed, among the 43 FDIUs in women aged 40 and above, there were no more patients using ART, nor more patients with obstetric pathology. This can be explained by a small number of FDIU. The only common point in our study group was the advanced maternal age. In these circumstances, instead of worrying the patients, it might be more appropriate to give them clear and reassuring information while performing a pre-conception close monitoring and throughout the pregnancy. This would help detect and manage these complications much earlier. In addition, with the advanced technology, several risks are now monitored using non-invasive prenatal screening or even the pre-implantation diagnosis (23–26). The incidence of maternal complications is likely to increase over time due to increased maternal age. It will be difficult to reduce the incidence of these complications, but we can reduce the serious complications of preeclampsia, gestational diabetes (such as eclampsia, and macrosomia) through appropriate management (induce delivery before 41 weeks, close monitoring of the fetus) (27, 28). With regard to neonatal complications, few significant differences were found in our study, as well as in the literature (29, 30). This is partly explained by the fact that several obstetrical factors can interfere without being related to age (the length of the delivery, abnormalities of the RCF, chorioamnionitis (3, 31, 32). Our study has several advantages. On the one hand, our study was done on a large sample, with data processing from medical records with a complete search for missing data. International and European studies with large samples use public health registers, thereby providing a lot of information on the characteristics of the population (5, 10). However, this is often at the expense of information such as the type of delivery, the methods of neonatology care which are sometimes different in hospitals. On the other hand, we took a period of 11 years, to check if there had been a difference in daily practices. We did not notice any difference between the periods 2006–2010 and 2011–2017 except for the increasing number of patients who have access to ART. On the other hand, we matched each patient aged 40 and above to a patient aged between 25 and 35 whose delivery number followed the patient case. Indeed, this allowed us to limit as far as possible all the variability of practices on the delivery route (natural delivery vs. cesarean, neonatal care). We also had the advantage of separating fetuses, newborns, and mothers, which has not been realized in other studies, and which may lead to a classification bias regarding perinatal outcomes. Our study is yet limited by its monocentric character and retrospective aspect. In addition, Foch Hospital has an ART center, so our sample probably contained more patients using these techniques. However, we had the opportunity to have 18.2% of women over 40 using ART. This allowed us to highlight the significant increase in preeclampsia and prematurity in patients over 40 years of age who have used ART. After 44 years, 1 out of 2 women used the ART. This rate is surely underestimated because there is a large number of patients who voluntarily omit to declare their use of ART in particular the use of donated oocytes (33). It is especially remembered that maternal complications occurring decades ago are less morbid today than before (22, 34). Screening and management of maternal and neonatal complications are progressively improving, and a high-risk pregnancy at age 40 in the 1980s should no longer discourage patients and obstetricians in 2020. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2020.00208/full

Use only the provided text to formulate your response. Do not rely on any outside knowledge. Provide me a three-paragraph response.

How does the second lien differ from the first lien?

Overview of Major Consumer Finance Markets The following sections examine specific issues within major consumer debt markets: mortgage lending, student loans, automobile loans, credit cards and payments, payday loans and other credit alternative financial products, and checking accounts and substitutes. The markets discussed are under the jurisdiction of the CFPB, and sometimes other regulators as well. Each section briefly describes the financial product, recent market developments, and selected policy issues that may lead each market away from its efficient price or outcomes. These sections focus on the consumer and household perspective as well as consumer protection policy issues in each market. Mortgage Lending Market A mortgage loan is a loan collateralized by a house and its land.47 Generally, consumers use these loans to purchase a new home or refinance an existing one. These types of mortgages are often called first liens, because if a consumer defaults on the loan, the lender is typically the first in line to be compensated through the proceeds of a home foreclosure. First-lien mortgage loans are usually installment loans, in which the consumer pays off the loan in monthly installments over 15 years or 30 years. Most mortgage loans in the United States have a fixed interest rate and fixed installment amount over the course of the loan, affected by the consumer’s credit score and market conditions.48 Households buying a new home and taking out a mortgage loan to purchase it generally cannot borrow for the full cost of the house’s value. To limit the risk to the lender, borrowers are typically required to make a down payment, the difference between the house’s value and the mortgage loan. If the down payment is less than 20% of the home’s value, the borrower is often required to pay for additional insurance. In addition to first-lien purchase mortgages, a consumer may choose to take out a home equity line of credit (often referred to as HELOC) or a smaller installment mortgage loan, which often is a second lien. A second lien means that the lender is second in line, after the first lien holder, to be compensated if the consumer defaults and the home is foreclosed upon. These loans are underwritten using the value of the home, but can be used for a variety of different purposes either related to the home or not. For example, second mortgages can be used to renovate the home, pay for college, or consolidate credit card debts. Mortgage loans are by far the largest consumer credit market in the United States, and homes are a large part of most households’ wealth. According to the Fed, more than $9 trillion of mortgage debt is currently outstanding,49 and more than $20 trillion in real estate equity is owned by households.50 As of the third quarter of 2020, 67.4% of U.S. households owned their home. 51 Many people view homeownership as an important way to build wealth over time, both through price appreciation and home equity by paying down their mortgage. Nevertheless, because home prices can fluctuate over time, this investment can be risky, especially if the home owner only stays in the home for a short time. Although homeownership has certain benefits, such as tax benefits like the mortgage interest tax deduction,52 it also imposes costs on the household, such as mortgage loan closing costs and home maintenance. As noted above, most experts believe that a housing price bubble was a central cause of the 2008 financial crisis. In response, Dodd-Frank reformed the mortgage market by attempting to strengthen mortgage underwriting standards, to reduce the risk that consumers’ default on their mortgages, even if house prices fluctuated in the future. Dodd-Frank also directed the CFPB to update federal mortgage disclosure forms (called the combined TILA/RESPA form) 53 and improve standards for mortgage servicing (a company who manages mortgage loans after the loan is originated).54 During and after the financial crisis, mortgage lenders tightened underwriting standards, making it harder for consumers to qualify for a loan.55 Although most borrowers with good credit scores continued to qualify for mortgage credit, other borrowers in weaker financial positions found it more difficult to obtain a mortgage.56 As the economy has recovered from the Great Recession, concerns exist about whether new consumer compliance regulation in the mortgage market has struck the right balance between prudent mortgage underwriting and access to credit for potential borrowers to build wealth.57 Certain features of mortgages during the mortgage boom that were considered to be particularly risky, such as teaser interest rates and loans with little or no income verification, are now uncommon in the mortgage market.58 However, research suggests that the regulation of underwriting standards may have caused lenders to prefer certain borrowers, such as those with lower debt-to-income ratios.59 Mortgage shopping is another policy issue in this market. Consumers do not tend to shop among lenders for more advantageous mortgage interest rates, even though large price differences exist in the market. According to the CFPB, nearly half of all borrowers only seriously consider one lender or broker before taking out a mortgage.60 Given the range of interest rates available to a consumer at any given time, the CFPB estimates that a consumer could save thousands of dollars on a mortgage by shopping for the best interest rates.61 More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the mortgage market. Many consumers who would likely have experienced difficulty repaying their mortgage loans received loan forbearance. 62 Loan forbearance plans can prevent a consumer from becoming delinquent, giving the consumer time to repay the debts owed rather than potentially experiencing adverse consequences, such as credit score declines or foreclosure.63 As previously mentioned, the CARES Act established consumer rights to be granted forbearance for federally backed mortgages for up to a year. The CARES Act’s consumer protections and financial institutions’ loan forbearance programs arguably helped avoid sharp increases in loan delinquencies by making it possible for many loans to receive forbearance during the spring and summer of 2020.64 However, when these programs expire, some consumers may fall delinquent on their loans, impacting the mortgage market. In addition, during the second and third quarters of 2020, mortgage debt balances increased as interest rates reached historic lows, causing more mortgage refinances and other mortgage finance activity. 65

Use only the provided text to formulate your response. Do not rely on any outside knowledge. Provide me a three-paragraph response. How does the second lien differ from the first lien? Overview of Major Consumer Finance Markets The following sections examine specific issues within major consumer debt markets: mortgage lending, student loans, automobile loans, credit cards and payments, payday loans and other credit alternative financial products, and checking accounts and substitutes. The markets discussed are under the jurisdiction of the CFPB, and sometimes other regulators as well. Each section briefly describes the financial product, recent market developments, and selected policy issues that may lead each market away from its efficient price or outcomes. These sections focus on the consumer and household perspective as well as consumer protection policy issues in each market. Mortgage Lending Market A mortgage loan is a loan collateralized by a house and its land.47 Generally, consumers use these loans to purchase a new home or refinance an existing one. These types of mortgages are often called first liens, because if a consumer defaults on the loan, the lender is typically the first in line to be compensated through the proceeds of a home foreclosure. First-lien mortgage loans are usually installment loans, in which the consumer pays off the loan in monthly installments over 15 years or 30 years. Most mortgage loans in the United States have a fixed interest rate and fixed installment amount over the course of the loan, affected by the consumer’s credit score and market conditions.48 Households buying a new home and taking out a mortgage loan to purchase it generally cannot borrow for the full cost of the house’s value. To limit the risk to the lender, borrowers are typically required to make a down payment, the difference between the house’s value and the mortgage loan. If the down payment is less than 20% of the home’s value, the borrower is often required to pay for additional insurance. In addition to first-lien purchase mortgages, a consumer may choose to take out a home equity line of credit (often referred to as HELOC) or a smaller installment mortgage loan, which often is a second lien. A second lien means that the lender is second in line, after the first lien holder, to be compensated if the consumer defaults and the home is foreclosed upon. These loans are underwritten using the value of the home, but can be used for a variety of different purposes either related to the home or not. For example, second mortgages can be used to renovate the home, pay for college, or consolidate credit card debts. Mortgage loans are by far the largest consumer credit market in the United States, and homes are a large part of most households’ wealth. According to the Fed, more than $9 trillion of mortgage debt is currently outstanding,49 and more than $20 trillion in real estate equity is owned by households.50 As of the third quarter of 2020, 67.4% of U.S. households owned their home. 51 Many people view homeownership as an important way to build wealth over time, both through price appreciation and home equity by paying down their mortgage. Nevertheless, because home prices can fluctuate over time, this investment can be risky, especially if the home owner only stays in the home for a short time. Although homeownership has certain benefits, such as tax benefits like the mortgage interest tax deduction,52 it also imposes costs on the household, such as mortgage loan closing costs and home maintenance. As noted above, most experts believe that a housing price bubble was a central cause of the 2008 financial crisis. In response, Dodd-Frank reformed the mortgage market by attempting to strengthen mortgage underwriting standards, to reduce the risk that consumers’ default on their mortgages, even if house prices fluctuated in the future. Dodd-Frank also directed the CFPB to update federal mortgage disclosure forms (called the combined TILA/RESPA form) 53 and improve standards for mortgage servicing (a company who manages mortgage loans after the loan is originated).54 During and after the financial crisis, mortgage lenders tightened underwriting standards, making it harder for consumers to qualify for a loan.55 Although most borrowers with good credit scores continued to qualify for mortgage credit, other borrowers in weaker financial positions found it more difficult to obtain a mortgage.56 As the economy has recovered from the Great Recession, concerns exist about whether new consumer compliance regulation in the mortgage market has struck the right balance between prudent mortgage underwriting and access to credit for potential borrowers to build wealth.57 Certain features of mortgages during the mortgage boom that were considered to be particularly risky, such as teaser interest rates and loans with little or no income verification, are now uncommon in the mortgage market.58 However, research suggests that the regulation of underwriting standards may have caused lenders to prefer certain borrowers, such as those with lower debt-to-income ratios.59 Mortgage shopping is another policy issue in this market. Consumers do not tend to shop among lenders for more advantageous mortgage interest rates, even though large price differences exist in the market. According to the CFPB, nearly half of all borrowers only seriously consider one lender or broker before taking out a mortgage.60 Given the range of interest rates available to a consumer at any given time, the CFPB estimates that a consumer could save thousands of dollars on a mortgage by shopping for the best interest rates.61 More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the mortgage market. Many consumers who would likely have experienced difficulty repaying their mortgage loans received loan forbearance. 62 Loan forbearance plans can prevent a consumer from becoming delinquent, giving the consumer time to repay the debts owed rather than potentially experiencing adverse consequences, such as credit score declines or foreclosure.63 As previously mentioned, the CARES Act established consumer rights to be granted forbearance for federally backed mortgages for up to a year. The CARES Act’s consumer protections and financial institutions’ loan forbearance programs arguably helped avoid sharp increases in loan delinquencies by making it possible for many loans to receive forbearance during the spring and summer of 2020.64 However, when these programs expire, some consumers may fall delinquent on their loans, impacting the mortgage market. In addition, during the second and third quarters of 2020, mortgage debt balances increased as interest rates reached historic lows, causing more mortgage refinances and other mortgage finance activity. 65

You must only use information contained in the included context block to answer the question. Your answer should be limited to no more than three paragraphs and no more than 200 words.

How did the Interim Final Rule change the Head Start rules that govern child safety?

47. Before November 30, 2021, Head Start rules (45 C.F.R. § 1302.94(a)) governed volunteer health only to the following limited extent: (a) A program must ensure regular volunteers have been screened for appropriate communicable diseases in accordance with state, tribal or local laws. In the absence of state, tribal or local law, the Health Services Advisory Committee must be consulted regarding the need for such screenings. 48. But now the Interim Final Rule revises paragraph (a) to read as follows: (a) A program must ensure volunteers have been screened for appropriate communicable diseases in accordance with state, tribal or local laws. In the absence of state, tribal, or local law, the Health Services Advisory Committee must be consulted regarding the need for such screenings. (1) All volunteers in classrooms or working directly with children other than their own must be fully vaccinated for COVID-19, other than those volunteers: (i) For whom a vaccine is medically contraindicated; (ii) For whom medical necessity requires a delay in vaccination; or (iii) Who are legally entitled to an accommodation with regard to the COVID19 vaccination requirements based on an applicable Federal law. (2) Those granted an accommodation outlined in paragraph (a)(1) of this section must undergo SARS-CoV-2 testing for current infection at least weekly with those who have negative test results to remain in the classroom or work directly with children. Those with positive test results must be immediately excluded from the facility, so they are away from children and staff until they are determined to no longer be infectious. 86 Fed. Reg. at 68,101. 49. The new paragraphs require volunteers to be vaccinated, and to get tested weekly if granted an accommodation against being vaccinated. No such requirement existed in the prior version. 50. Before November 30, 2021, Head Start rules (45 C.F.R. § 1302.47(b)(5)) governed child safety only to the following limited extent: (5) Safety practices. All staff and consultants follow appropriate practices to keep children safe during all activities, including, at a minimum: (i) Reporting of suspected or known child abuse and neglect, including that staff comply with applicable federal, state, local, and tribal laws; (ii) Safe sleep practices, including ensuring that all sleeping arrangements for children under 18 months of age use firm mattresses or cots, as appropriate, and for children under 12 months, soft bedding materials or toys must not be used; (iii) Appropriate indoor and outdoor supervision of children at all times; (iv) Only releasing children to an authorized adult, and; (v) All standards of conduct described in § 1302.90(c). 9 51. The Interim Final Rule adds paragraph (b)(5)(vi) to read as follows: (vi) Masking, using masks recommended by CDC, for all individuals 2 years of age or older when there are two or more individuals in a vehicle owned, leased, or arranged by the Head Start program; indoors in a setting when Head Start services are provided; and for those not fully vaccinated, outdoors in crowded settings or during activities that involve sustained close contact with other people, except: (A) Children or adults when they are either eating or drinking; (B) Children when they are napping; (C) When a person cannot wear a mask, or cannot safely wear a mask, because of a disability as defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act; or (D) When a child’s health care provider advises an alternative face covering to accommodate the child’s special health care needs. 86 Fed. Reg. at 68,101. 52. The new paragraph requires masking. No such requirement existed in the prior version. 53. Paragraph (vi) applies to all “individuals 2 years of age or older” who are “indoors in a setting when Head Start services are provided” and “outdoors in crowded settings or during activities that involve sustained close contact with other people” According to the Interim Final Rule, “The Office of Head Start notes that being outdoors with children inherently includes sustained close contact for the purposes of caring for and supervising children.” 86 Fed. Reg. at 68,060. Thus, the Mask Mandate appears to also apply to parents who enter a Head Start facility (either when dropping off or picking up their child or at any other time) and to parents are outside with their children (either when dropping them off, picking them up, or at any other time), since being outside with children “inherently includes sustained close contact.”

System Instructions: You must only use information contained in the included context block to answer the question. Your answer should be limited to no more than three paragraphs and no more than 200 words. Context Block: 47. Before November 30, 2021, Head Start rules (45 C.F.R. § 1302.94(a)) governed volunteer health only to the following limited extent: (a) A program must ensure regular volunteers have been screened for appropriate communicable diseases in accordance with state, tribal or local laws. In the absence of state, tribal or local law, the Health Services Advisory Committee must be consulted regarding the need for such screenings. 48. But now the Interim Final Rule revises paragraph (a) to read as follows: (a) A program must ensure volunteers have been screened for appropriate communicable diseases in accordance with state, tribal or local laws. In the absence of state, tribal, or local law, the Health Services Advisory Committee must be consulted regarding the need for such screenings. (1) All volunteers in classrooms or working directly with children other than their own must be fully vaccinated for COVID-19, other than those volunteers: (i) For whom a vaccine is medically contraindicated; (ii) For whom medical necessity requires a delay in vaccination; or (iii) Who are legally entitled to an accommodation with regard to the COVID19 vaccination requirements based on an applicable Federal law. (2) Those granted an accommodation outlined in paragraph (a)(1) of this section must undergo SARS-CoV-2 testing for current infection at least weekly with those who have negative test results to remain in the classroom or work directly with children. Those with positive test results must be immediately excluded from the facility, so they are away from children and staff until they are determined to no longer be infectious. 86 Fed. Reg. at 68,101. 49. The new paragraphs require volunteers to be vaccinated, and to get tested weekly if granted an accommodation against being vaccinated. No such requirement existed in the prior version. 50. Before November 30, 2021, Head Start rules (45 C.F.R. § 1302.47(b)(5)) governed child safety only to the following limited extent: (5) Safety practices. All staff and consultants follow appropriate practices to keep children safe during all activities, including, at a minimum: (i) Reporting of suspected or known child abuse and neglect, including that staff comply with applicable federal, state, local, and tribal laws; (ii) Safe sleep practices, including ensuring that all sleeping arrangements for children under 18 months of age use firm mattresses or cots, as appropriate, and for children under 12 months, soft bedding materials or toys must not be used; (iii) Appropriate indoor and outdoor supervision of children at all times; (iv) Only releasing children to an authorized adult, and; (v) All standards of conduct described in § 1302.90(c). 9 51. The Interim Final Rule adds paragraph (b)(5)(vi) to read as follows: (vi) Masking, using masks recommended by CDC, for all individuals 2 years of age or older when there are two or more individuals in a vehicle owned, leased, or arranged by the Head Start program; indoors in a setting when Head Start services are provided; and for those not fully vaccinated, outdoors in crowded settings or during activities that involve sustained close contact with other people, except: (A) Children or adults when they are either eating or drinking; (B) Children when they are napping; (C) When a person cannot wear a mask, or cannot safely wear a mask, because of a disability as defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act; or (D) When a child’s health care provider advises an alternative face covering to accommodate the child’s special health care needs. 86 Fed. Reg. at 68,101. 52. The new paragraph requires masking. No such requirement existed in the prior version. 53. Paragraph (vi) applies to all “individuals 2 years of age or older” who are “indoors in a setting when Head Start services are provided” and “outdoors in crowded settings or during activities that involve sustained close contact with other people” According to the Interim Final Rule, “The Office of Head Start notes that being outdoors with children inherently includes sustained close contact for the purposes of caring for and supervising children.” 86 Fed. Reg. at 68,060. Thus, the Mask Mandate appears to also apply to parents who enter a Head Start facility (either when dropping off or picking up their child or at any other time) and to parents are outside with their children (either when dropping them off, picking them up, or at any other time), since being outside with children “inherently includes sustained close contact.” Question: How did the Interim Final Rule change the Head Start rules that govern child safety?

"================ <TEXT PASSAGE> ======= [context document] ================ <QUESTION> ======= [user request] ================ <TASK> ======= You are an expert in question answering. Your task is to reply to a query or question, based only on the information provided by the user. It should only use information in the article provided."

Can you summarize the following text in bullet form. Each bullet must contain a quote from the passage supporting the summary point but still describe the points. Don't use the word AI and make sure to talk about all of the points made. PLease provide some specific examples and names/descriptions of organizations and can you describe the code of conduct stuff? Talk about specific acts and list out specific guidelines they are implementing. Limit it to 400 words.

Abraham Lincoln once observed: “In the world’s history, certain inventions and discoveries occurred of peculiar value . . . in facilitating all other inventions and discoveries.” Lincoln was speaking of the written word and, later, the printing press. But today, we are living through another such invention: artificial intelligence. Powerful generative AI systems like GPT-4 are ushering in a new era of this technology. They’re revolutionising the production of knowledge: vastly increasing the capacity of machines to generate original content, perform complex tasks and solve important problems. They are also dramatically lowering the barriers for people to access AI and its benefits. This new era brings serious potential hazards. These include the risk of AI generating false information, reinforcing bias and discrimination, being misused for repressive or destabilising purposes or proliferating the knowledge to make a bioweapon or conduct a cyber attack. But even with these risks — which we’re determined to minimise — AI holds an exhilarating potential to improve people’s lives and help solve some of the world’s biggest challenges, from curing cancer to mitigating the effects of climate change to solving global food insecurity. The future of AI — whether it makes our societies more or less equitable, unlocks breakthroughs or becomes a tool of authoritarians — is up to us. The question is not whether to use it, but how. The United States, as home to many of the leading companies, technologies and minds driving the AI revolution, has the ability and responsibility to lead on its governance. We are committed to doing so in partnership with others around the world to ensure the future reflects our shared values and vision for this technology. We have already taken action to guide AI’s use. We set out a Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights with principles for how automated systems are designed and used, and developed an AI Risk Management Framework to help improve user protections. Last week, President Joe Biden announced the next step with a set of commitments from leading companies designed to enhance safety, security and trust. These commitments will mitigate risks of AI including misuse, and support new technologies and standards to distinguish between human and AI-generated content. They will encourage companies and individuals to report on systems’ capabilities and limitations, and facilitate information sharing. And they will promote the development of AI systems designed to address society’s greatest challenges. The commitments offer a starting point for action to limit near-term risks while fostering innovation. They will be complemented by key lines of effort with partners around the world. Over the coming weeks, we will continue to work with the G7 through the Japan-led Hiroshima Process to expand and internationalise these commitments. We want AI governance to be guided by democratic values and those who embrace them, and G7-led action could inform an international code of conduct for private actors and governments, as well as common regulatory principles for states. As we co-ordinate globally, we will also align our domestic approaches in forums like the US-EU Trade and Technology Council. We will work intensively with other governments to build a shared understanding of longer-term AI risks and how to limit them. The US looks forward to participating in the UK’s Global Summit on AI Safety and other opportunities for global engagement to build a more secure future. The US is committed to making AI work for, and designing governance with, developing countries, whose voices are crucial to the global discussion. India will play a critical role, including through the Global Partnership on AI. We are also working on inclusivity for AI through discussions with the UN. We will partner with countries around the world, as well as the private sector and civil society, to advance a key goal of the commitments: creating AI systems that make people’s lives better. Today, we’re on track to meet just 12 per cent of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. AI could change that trajectory by accelerating efforts to deliver clean water and sanitation, eliminate poverty, advance public health and further other development goals. To shape the future of AI, we must act quickly. We must also act collectively. No country or company can shape the future of AI alone. The US has taken an important step — but only with the combined focus, ingenuity and co-operation of the international community will we be able to fully and safely harness the potential of AI. The writers are US secretary of state and US secretary of commerce

"================ <TEXT PASSAGE> ======= Abraham Lincoln once observed: “In the world’s history, certain inventions and discoveries occurred of peculiar value . . . in facilitating all other inventions and discoveries.” Lincoln was speaking of the written word and, later, the printing press. But today, we are living through another such invention: artificial intelligence. Powerful generative AI systems like GPT-4 are ushering in a new era of this technology. They’re revolutionising the production of knowledge: vastly increasing the capacity of machines to generate original content, perform complex tasks and solve important problems. They are also dramatically lowering the barriers for people to access AI and its benefits. This new era brings serious potential hazards. These include the risk of AI generating false information, reinforcing bias and discrimination, being misused for repressive or destabilising purposes or proliferating the knowledge to make a bioweapon or conduct a cyber attack. But even with these risks — which we’re determined to minimise — AI holds an exhilarating potential to improve people’s lives and help solve some of the world’s biggest challenges, from curing cancer to mitigating the effects of climate change to solving global food insecurity. The future of AI — whether it makes our societies more or less equitable, unlocks breakthroughs or becomes a tool of authoritarians — is up to us. The question is not whether to use it, but how. The United States, as home to many of the leading companies, technologies and minds driving the AI revolution, has the ability and responsibility to lead on its governance. We are committed to doing so in partnership with others around the world to ensure the future reflects our shared values and vision for this technology. We have already taken action to guide AI’s use. We set out a Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights with principles for how automated systems are designed and used, and developed an AI Risk Management Framework to help improve user protections. Last week, President Joe Biden announced the next step with a set of commitments from leading companies designed to enhance safety, security and trust. These commitments will mitigate risks of AI including misuse, and support new technologies and standards to distinguish between human and AI-generated content. They will encourage companies and individuals to report on systems’ capabilities and limitations, and facilitate information sharing. And they will promote the development of AI systems designed to address society’s greatest challenges. The commitments offer a starting point for action to limit near-term risks while fostering innovation. They will be complemented by key lines of effort with partners around the world. Over the coming weeks, we will continue to work with the G7 through the Japan-led Hiroshima Process to expand and internationalise these commitments. We want AI governance to be guided by democratic values and those who embrace them, and G7-led action could inform an international code of conduct for private actors and governments, as well as common regulatory principles for states. As we co-ordinate globally, we will also align our domestic approaches in forums like the US-EU Trade and Technology Council. We will work intensively with other governments to build a shared understanding of longer-term AI risks and how to limit them. The US looks forward to participating in the UK’s Global Summit on AI Safety and other opportunities for global engagement to build a more secure future. The US is committed to making AI work for, and designing governance with, developing countries, whose voices are crucial to the global discussion. India will play a critical role, including through the Global Partnership on AI. We are also working on inclusivity for AI through discussions with the UN. We will partner with countries around the world, as well as the private sector and civil society, to advance a key goal of the commitments: creating AI systems that make people’s lives better. Today, we’re on track to meet just 12 per cent of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. AI could change that trajectory by accelerating efforts to deliver clean water and sanitation, eliminate poverty, advance public health and further other development goals. To shape the future of AI, we must act quickly. We must also act collectively. No country or company can shape the future of AI alone. The US has taken an important step — but only with the combined focus, ingenuity and co-operation of the international community will we be able to fully and safely harness the potential of AI. The writers are US secretary of state and US secretary of commerce https://www.commerce.gov/news/op-eds/2023/07/op-ed-antony-blinken-gina-raimondo-shape-future-ai-we-must-act-quickly ================ <QUESTION> ======= Can you summarize the following text in bullet form. Each bullet must contain a quote from the passage supporting the summary point but still describe the points. Don't use the word AI and make sure to talk about all of the points made. PLease provide some specific examples and names/descriptions of organizations and can you describe the code of conduct stuff? Talk about specific acts and list out specific guidelines they are implementing. Limit it to 400 words. ================ <TASK> ======= You are an expert in question answering. Your task is to reply to a query or question, based only on the information provided by the user. It should only use information in the article provided."

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

Explain the clinical symptoms of rhabdovirus in under 600 words and so a 5th grader can understand. At the end of the explanation, provide a description of the virus in bold print.

Clinical Manifestations Rabies virus causes acute infection of the central nervous system. Five general stages are recognized in humans: incubation, prodrome, acute neurologic period, coma, and death. The incubation period is exceptionally variable, ranging from fewer than 10 days to longer than 2 years, but is usually 1–3 months. Structure Rabies virus is a rod- or bullet-shaped, single-stranded, negative-sense, unsegmented, enveloped RNA virus. The virus genome encodes five proteins. Classification and Antigenic Types Placement within the family is based on the distinctive morphology of the virus particle. Cross- reactive nucleoprotein antigens or comparative genomic sequences determine inclusion in the genus Lyssavirus, which includes rabies virus and at least five other pathogenic rabies-like viruses. Multiplication The viral RNA uncoats in the cytoplasm of infected cells. The genome is transcribed by a virion-associated RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Viral RNA is then translated into individual viral proteins. Replication occurs with synthesis of positive-stranded RNA templates for the production of progeny negative-stranded RNA. Pathogenesis After inoculation, rabies virus may enter the peripheral nervous system directly and migrates to the brain or may replicate in muscle tissue, remaining sequestered at or near the entry site during incubation, prior to central nervous system invasion and replication. It then spreads centrifugally to numerous other organs. The case:fatality ratio approaches unity, but exact pathogenic mechanisms are not fully understood. Host Defenses Susceptibility to lethal infection is related to the animal species, viral variant, inoculum concentration, location and severity of exposure, and host immune status. Both virus-neutralizing antibodies and cell-mediated immunity are important in host defense. Epidemiology Rabies occurs in nearly all countries. Disease in humans is almost always due to a bite by an infected mammal. Nonbite exposures (e.g., mucosal contact) rarely cause rabies in humans. Diagnosis Early diagnosis is difficult. Rabies should be suspected in human cases of unexplained viral encephalitis with a history of animal bite. Unvaccinated persons are often negative for virus-neutralizing antibodies until late in the course of disease. Virus isolation from saliva, positive immunofluorescent skin biopsies or virus neutralizing antibody (from cerebrospinal fluid, or serum of a non-vaccinated patient), establish a diagnosis. Control Vaccination of susceptible animal species, particularly dogs and cats, will control this zoonotic disease. Introduction The family Rhabdoviridae consists of more than 100 single-stranded, negative-sense, nonsegmented viruses that infect a wide variety of hosts, including vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants. Common to all members of the family is a distinctive rod- or bullet-shaped morphology. Human pathogens of medical importance are found in the genera Lyssavirus and Vesiculovirus.Only rabies virus, medically the most significant member of the genus Lyssavirus, is reviewed in this chapter. Clinical Manifestations Five general stages of rabies are recognized in humans: incubation, prodrome, acute neurologic period, coma, and death (or, very rarely, recovery) (Fig. 61-1). No specific antirabies agents are useful once clinical signs or symptoms develop. The incubation period in rabies, usually 30 to 90 days but ranging from as few as 5 days to longer than 2 years after initial exposure, is more variable than in any other acute infection. Incubation periods may be somewhat shorter in children and in individuals bitten close to the central nervous system (e.g., the head). Clinical symptoms are first noted during the prodromal period, which usually lasts from 2 to 10 days. These symptoms are often nonspecific (general malaise, fever, and fatigue) or suggest involvement of the respiratory system (sore throat, cough, and dyspnea), gastrointestinal system (anorexia, dysphagia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea), or central nervous systems (headache, vertigo, anxiety, apprehension, irritability, and nervousness). More remarkable abnormalities (agitation, photophobia, priapism, increased libido, insomnia, nightmares, and depression) may also occur, suggesting encephalitis, psychiatric disturbances, or brain conditions. Pain or paresthesia at the site of virus inoculation, combined with a history of recent animal bite, should suggest a consideration of rabies. The acute neurologic period begins with objective signs of central nervous system dysfunction. The disease may be classified as furious rabies if hyperactivity (i.e., hydrophobia) predominates and as dumb rabies if paralysis dominates the clinical picture. Fever, paresthesia, nuchal rigidity, muscle fasciculations, focal and generalized convulsions, hyperventilation, and hypersalivation may occur in both forms of the disease. At the end of the acute neurologic phase, periods of rapid, irregular breathing may begin; paralysis and coma soon follow. Respiratory arrest may occur thereafter, unless the patient is receiving ventilatory assistance, which may prolong survival for days, weeks, or longer, with death due to other complications. Although life support measures can prolong the clinical course of rabies, rarely will they affect the outcome of disease. The possibility of recovery, however, must be recognized, and when resources permit, every effort should be made to support the patient. At least seven cases of human “recovery” have been documented. Structure The rabies virus is a negative-sense, non-segmented, single-stranded RNA virus measuring approximately 60 nm × 180 nm. It is composed of an internal protein core or nucleocapsid, containing the nucleic acid, and an outer envelope, a lipid-containing bilayer covered with transmembrane glycoprotein spikes. The virus genome encodes five proteins associated with either the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex or the viral envelope (Fig. 61-3). The L (transcriptase), N (nucleoprotein), and NS (transcriptase-associated) proteins comprise the RNP complex, together with the viral RNA. These aggregate in the cytoplasm of virus-infected neurons and compose Negri bodies, the characteristic histopathologic finding of rabies virus infection. The M (matrix) and G (glycoprotein) proteins are associated with the lipid envelope. The G protein forms the protrusions that cover the outer surface of the virion envelope and is the only rabies virus protein known to induce virus-neutralizing antibody. Classification and Antigenic Types The genus Lyssavirus includes rabies virus and the antigenically- and genetically-related rabies- like viruses: Lagos bat, Mokola, and Duvenhage viruses, and two suggested subtypes of European bat lyssaviruses. Cross-protection studies suggest that animals immunized with traditional rabies vaccines may not be fully protected if challenged with other lyssaviruses. Rabies viruses may be categorized as either fixed (adapted by passage in animals or cell culture) or street (wild type). The use of monoclonal antibodies and genetic sequencing to differentiate street rabies viruses has been helpful in identifying viral variants originating in major host reservoirs throughout the world and suggesting the likely sources of human exposure when a history of definitive animal bite was otherwise missing from a patient's case history. Multiplication The replication of rabies virus is believed to be similar to that of other negative-stranded RNA viruses. The virus attaches to the host cell membranes via the G protein, penetrates the cytoplasm by fusion or pinocytosis, and is uncoated to RNP. The core initiates primary transcription of the five complementary monocistronic messenger RNAs by using the virion-associated RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Each RNA is then translated into an individual viral protein. After viral proteins have been synthesized, replication of the genomic RNA continues with the synthesis of full length, positive-stranded RNA, which acts as a template for the production of progeny negative-stranded RNA.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== Explain the clinical symptoms of rhabdovirus in under 600 words and so a 5th grader can understand. At the end of the explanation, provide a description of the virus in bold print. {passage 0} ========== Clinical Manifestations Rabies virus causes acute infection of the central nervous system. Five general stages are recognized in humans: incubation, prodrome, acute neurologic period, coma, and death. The incubation period is exceptionally variable, ranging from fewer than 10 days to longer than 2 years, but is usually 1–3 months. Structure Rabies virus is a rod- or bullet-shaped, single-stranded, negative-sense, unsegmented, enveloped RNA virus. The virus genome encodes five proteins. Classification and Antigenic Types Placement within the family is based on the distinctive morphology of the virus particle. Cross- reactive nucleoprotein antigens or comparative genomic sequences determine inclusion in the genus Lyssavirus, which includes rabies virus and at least five other pathogenic rabies-like viruses. Multiplication The viral RNA uncoats in the cytoplasm of infected cells. The genome is transcribed by a virion-associated RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Viral RNA is then translated into individual viral proteins. Replication occurs with synthesis of positive-stranded RNA templates for the production of progeny negative-stranded RNA. Pathogenesis After inoculation, rabies virus may enter the peripheral nervous system directly and migrates to the brain or may replicate in muscle tissue, remaining sequestered at or near the entry site during incubation, prior to central nervous system invasion and replication. It then spreads centrifugally to numerous other organs. The case:fatality ratio approaches unity, but exact pathogenic mechanisms are not fully understood. Host Defenses Susceptibility to lethal infection is related to the animal species, viral variant, inoculum concentration, location and severity of exposure, and host immune status. Both virus-neutralizing antibodies and cell-mediated immunity are important in host defense. Epidemiology Rabies occurs in nearly all countries. Disease in humans is almost always due to a bite by an infected mammal. Nonbite exposures (e.g., mucosal contact) rarely cause rabies in humans. Diagnosis Early diagnosis is difficult. Rabies should be suspected in human cases of unexplained viral encephalitis with a history of animal bite. Unvaccinated persons are often negative for virus-neutralizing antibodies until late in the course of disease. Virus isolation from saliva, positive immunofluorescent skin biopsies or virus neutralizing antibody (from cerebrospinal fluid, or serum of a non-vaccinated patient), establish a diagnosis. Control Vaccination of susceptible animal species, particularly dogs and cats, will control this zoonotic disease. Introduction The family Rhabdoviridae consists of more than 100 single-stranded, negative-sense, nonsegmented viruses that infect a wide variety of hosts, including vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants. Common to all members of the family is a distinctive rod- or bullet-shaped morphology. Human pathogens of medical importance are found in the genera Lyssavirus and Vesiculovirus.Only rabies virus, medically the most significant member of the genus Lyssavirus, is reviewed in this chapter. Clinical Manifestations Five general stages of rabies are recognized in humans: incubation, prodrome, acute neurologic period, coma, and death (or, very rarely, recovery) (Fig. 61-1). No specific antirabies agents are useful once clinical signs or symptoms develop. The incubation period in rabies, usually 30 to 90 days but ranging from as few as 5 days to longer than 2 years after initial exposure, is more variable than in any other acute infection. Incubation periods may be somewhat shorter in children and in individuals bitten close to the central nervous system (e.g., the head). Clinical symptoms are first noted during the prodromal period, which usually lasts from 2 to 10 days. These symptoms are often nonspecific (general malaise, fever, and fatigue) or suggest involvement of the respiratory system (sore throat, cough, and dyspnea), gastrointestinal system (anorexia, dysphagia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea), or central nervous systems (headache, vertigo, anxiety, apprehension, irritability, and nervousness). More remarkable abnormalities (agitation, photophobia, priapism, increased libido, insomnia, nightmares, and depression) may also occur, suggesting encephalitis, psychiatric disturbances, or brain conditions. Pain or paresthesia at the site of virus inoculation, combined with a history of recent animal bite, should suggest a consideration of rabies. The acute neurologic period begins with objective signs of central nervous system dysfunction. The disease may be classified as furious rabies if hyperactivity (i.e., hydrophobia) predominates and as dumb rabies if paralysis dominates the clinical picture. Fever, paresthesia, nuchal rigidity, muscle fasciculations, focal and generalized convulsions, hyperventilation, and hypersalivation may occur in both forms of the disease. At the end of the acute neurologic phase, periods of rapid, irregular breathing may begin; paralysis and coma soon follow. Respiratory arrest may occur thereafter, unless the patient is receiving ventilatory assistance, which may prolong survival for days, weeks, or longer, with death due to other complications. Although life support measures can prolong the clinical course of rabies, rarely will they affect the outcome of disease. The possibility of recovery, however, must be recognized, and when resources permit, every effort should be made to support the patient. At least seven cases of human “recovery” have been documented. Structure The rabies virus is a negative-sense, non-segmented, single-stranded RNA virus measuring approximately 60 nm × 180 nm. It is composed of an internal protein core or nucleocapsid, containing the nucleic acid, and an outer envelope, a lipid-containing bilayer covered with transmembrane glycoprotein spikes. The virus genome encodes five proteins associated with either the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex or the viral envelope (Fig. 61-3). The L (transcriptase), N (nucleoprotein), and NS (transcriptase-associated) proteins comprise the RNP complex, together with the viral RNA. These aggregate in the cytoplasm of virus-infected neurons and compose Negri bodies, the characteristic histopathologic finding of rabies virus infection. The M (matrix) and G (glycoprotein) proteins are associated with the lipid envelope. The G protein forms the protrusions that cover the outer surface of the virion envelope and is the only rabies virus protein known to induce virus-neutralizing antibody. Classification and Antigenic Types The genus Lyssavirus includes rabies virus and the antigenically- and genetically-related rabies- like viruses: Lagos bat, Mokola, and Duvenhage viruses, and two suggested subtypes of European bat lyssaviruses. Cross-protection studies suggest that animals immunized with traditional rabies vaccines may not be fully protected if challenged with other lyssaviruses. Rabies viruses may be categorized as either fixed (adapted by passage in animals or cell culture) or street (wild type). The use of monoclonal antibodies and genetic sequencing to differentiate street rabies viruses has been helpful in identifying viral variants originating in major host reservoirs throughout the world and suggesting the likely sources of human exposure when a history of definitive animal bite was otherwise missing from a patient's case history. Multiplication The replication of rabies virus is believed to be similar to that of other negative-stranded RNA viruses. The virus attaches to the host cell membranes via the G protein, penetrates the cytoplasm by fusion or pinocytosis, and is uncoated to RNP. The core initiates primary transcription of the five complementary monocistronic messenger RNAs by using the virion-associated RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Each RNA is then translated into an individual viral protein. After viral proteins have been synthesized, replication of the genomic RNA continues with the synthesis of full length, positive-stranded RNA, which acts as a template for the production of progeny negative-stranded RNA. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8618/

Only use the provided text to answer.

When should egfr be considered?

FDA Approved Indication(s) SGLT2 inhibitors are indicated as adjunct to diet and exercise to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Dapagliflozin-, canagliflozin-, and empagliflozin-containing products are also indicated in adult patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and established cardiovascular disease (CV) (or multiple cardiovascular risk factors [dapaglifozin only]) to: • Reduce the risk of hospitalization for heart failure (HF) (dapagliflozin) • Reduce the risk of major adverse CV events: CV death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, and nonfatal stroke (canagliflozin) • Reduce the risk of CV death (empagliflozin) Canagliflozin-containing products are additionally indicated to reduce the risk of end-stage kidney disease, doubling of serum creatinine, CV death, and hospitalization for HF in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus and diabetic nephropathy with albuminuria > 300 mg/day. Farxiga is additionally indicated to: • Reduce the risk of CV death and hospitalization for HF in adults with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) (New York Heart Association [NYHA] class II-IV) • Reduce the risk of sustained estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decline, end stage kidney disease cardiovascular death, and hospitalization for heart failure in adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD) at risk of progression Jardiance is additionally indicated to: • Reduce the risk of CV death plus hospitalization for HF in adults with HFrEF Limitation(s) of use: • SGLT2 inhibitors should not be used in patients with type 1 diabetes or for the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. SGLT2 inhibitors may increase the risk of diabetic ketoacidosis. • Qternmet XR initiation is intended only for patients currently taking metformin. • Farxiga is not recommended for use to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus with an eGFR less than 45 mL/min/1.73 m2. Farxiga is likely to be ineffective in this setting based upon its mechanism of action. • Farxiga is not recommended for the treatment of chronic kidney disease in patients with polycystic kidney disease or patients requiring or with a recent history of immunosuppressive therapy for the treatment of kidney disease. Farxiga is not expected to be effective in these populations. CLINICAL POLICY Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors Page 2 of 9 • Jardiance is not recommended for use to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus with an eGFR less than 30 mL/min/1.73 m2. Jardiance is likely to be ineffective in this setting based upon its mechanism of action. Policy/Criteria Provider must submit documentation (such as office chart notes, lab results or other clinical information) supporting that member has met all approval criteria. Health plan approved formularies should be reviewed for all coverage determinations. Requirements to use preferred alternative agents apply only when such requirements align with the health plan approved formulary. It is the policy of health plans affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions™ that SGLT2 inhibitors are medically necessary when the following criteria are met: I. Initial Approval Criteria A. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (must meet all): 1. Diagnosis of type 2 diabetes mellitus; 2. Age ≥ 18 years; 3. Member meets one of the following (a or b): a. Failure of ≥ 3 consecutive months of metformin, unless contraindicated or clinically significant adverse effects are experienced; b. For medication-naïve members, requested agent is approvable if intended for concurrent use with metformin due to HbA1c ≥ 8.5% (drawn within the past 3 months); 4. Failure of ≥ 3 consecutive months of Jardiance or Invokana, unless both are contraindicated or clinically significant adverse effects are experienced; 5. Dose does not exceed the FDA-approved maximum recommended dose (see Section V). Approval duration: 12 months B. Heart Failure (must meet all): 1. Diagnosis of HFrEF of NYHA Class II, III, or IV; 2. Request is for Farxiga or Jardiance; 3. Prescribed by or in consultation with a cardiologist; 4. Age ≥ 18 years; 5. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) is ≤ 40%; 6. Member does not have a diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus; 7. Member is currently receiving standard HF drug therapy at target doses for ≥ 4 weeks, including both of the following (a and b) unless clinically significant adverse effects are experienced or all are contraindicated: a. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, angiotensin receptor blocker, or Entresto®; b. Beta blocker; 8. Dose does not exceed 10 mg (1 tablet) per day. Approval duration: 12 months C. Chronic Kidney Disease (must meet all): 1. Diagnosis of CKD; 2. Request is for Farxiga; 3. Age ≥ 18 years; 4. Both of the following (a and b): a. eGFR between 25 and 75 mL/min/1.73 m2; b. Urine albumin creatinine ratio (UACR) ≥ 200 mg/g; 5. Member does not have a diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus or polycystic kidney disease; 6. Member has not received immunosuppressive therapy for the treatment of kidney disease in the past 6 months; CLINICAL POLICY Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors Page 3 of 9 7. Member is currently receiving standard CKD drug therapy (angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker) at maximally tolerated doses for ≥ 4 weeks, unless clinically significant adverse effects are experienced or all are contraindicated; 8. Dose does not exceed 10 mg (1 tablet) per day. Approval duration: 12 months D. Other diagnoses/indications 1. Refer to ERX.PA.01 if diagnosis is NOT specifically listed under section III (Diagnoses/Indications for which coverage is NOT authorized). II. Continued Therapy A. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (must meet all): 1. Currently receiving medication via a health plan affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions or member has previously met initial approval criteria; 2. Member is responding positively to therapy; 3. If request is for a dose increase, new dose does not exceed the FDA-approved maximum recommended dose (see Section V). Approval duration: 12 months B. Heart Failure (must meet all): 1. Currently receiving medication via a health plan affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions, or documentation supports that member is currently receiving Farxiga for HFrEF and has received this medication for at least 30 days; 2. Request is for Farxiga or Jardiance; 3. Member is responding positively to therapy; 4. If request is for a dose increase, new dose does not exceed 10 mg (1 tablet) per day. Approval duration: 12 months C. Chronic Kidney Disease (must meet all): 1. Currently receiving medication via a health plan affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions or member has previously met initial approval criteria; 2. Request is for Farxiga; 3. Member is responding positively to therapy; 4. If request is for a dose increase, new dose does not exceed 10 mg (1 tablet) per day. Approval duration: 12 months D. Other diagnoses/indications (must meet 1 or 2): 1. Currently receiving medication via a health plan affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions and documentation supports positive response to therapy. Approval duration: Duration of request or 12 months (whichever is less); or 2. Refer to ERX.PA.01 if diagnosis is NOT specifically listed under section III (Diagnoses/Indications for which coverage is NOT authorized). III. Diagnoses/Indications for which coverage is NOT authorized: A. Non-FDA approved indications, which are not addressed in this policy, unless there is sufficient documentation of efficacy and safety according to the off-label use policy – ERX.PA.01 or evidence of coverage documents.

Context Block: [FDA Approved Indication(s) SGLT2 inhibitors are indicated as adjunct to diet and exercise to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Dapagliflozin-, canagliflozin-, and empagliflozin-containing products are also indicated in adult patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and established cardiovascular disease (CV) (or multiple cardiovascular risk factors [dapaglifozin only]) to: • Reduce the risk of hospitalization for heart failure (HF) (dapagliflozin) • Reduce the risk of major adverse CV events: CV death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, and nonfatal stroke (canagliflozin) • Reduce the risk of CV death (empagliflozin) Canagliflozin-containing products are additionally indicated to reduce the risk of end-stage kidney disease, doubling of serum creatinine, CV death, and hospitalization for HF in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus and diabetic nephropathy with albuminuria > 300 mg/day. Farxiga is additionally indicated to: • Reduce the risk of CV death and hospitalization for HF in adults with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) (New York Heart Association [NYHA] class II-IV) • Reduce the risk of sustained estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decline, end stage kidney disease cardiovascular death, and hospitalization for heart failure in adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD) at risk of progression Jardiance is additionally indicated to: • Reduce the risk of CV death plus hospitalization for HF in adults with HFrEF Limitation(s) of use: • SGLT2 inhibitors should not be used in patients with type 1 diabetes or for the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. SGLT2 inhibitors may increase the risk of diabetic ketoacidosis. • Qternmet XR initiation is intended only for patients currently taking metformin. • Farxiga is not recommended for use to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus with an eGFR less than 45 mL/min/1.73 m2. Farxiga is likely to be ineffective in this setting based upon its mechanism of action. • Farxiga is not recommended for the treatment of chronic kidney disease in patients with polycystic kidney disease or patients requiring or with a recent history of immunosuppressive therapy for the treatment of kidney disease. Farxiga is not expected to be effective in these populations. CLINICAL POLICY Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors Page 2 of 9 • Jardiance is not recommended for use to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus with an eGFR less than 30 mL/min/1.73 m2. Jardiance is likely to be ineffective in this setting based upon its mechanism of action. Policy/Criteria Provider must submit documentation (such as office chart notes, lab results or other clinical information) supporting that member has met all approval criteria. Health plan approved formularies should be reviewed for all coverage determinations. Requirements to use preferred alternative agents apply only when such requirements align with the health plan approved formulary. It is the policy of health plans affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions™ that SGLT2 inhibitors are medically necessary when the following criteria are met: I. Initial Approval Criteria A. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (must meet all): 1. Diagnosis of type 2 diabetes mellitus; 2. Age ≥ 18 years; 3. Member meets one of the following (a or b): a. Failure of ≥ 3 consecutive months of metformin, unless contraindicated or clinically significant adverse effects are experienced; b. For medication-naïve members, requested agent is approvable if intended for concurrent use with metformin due to HbA1c ≥ 8.5% (drawn within the past 3 months); 4. Failure of ≥ 3 consecutive months of Jardiance or Invokana, unless both are contraindicated or clinically significant adverse effects are experienced; 5. Dose does not exceed the FDA-approved maximum recommended dose (see Section V). Approval duration: 12 months B. Heart Failure (must meet all): 1. Diagnosis of HFrEF of NYHA Class II, III, or IV; 2. Request is for Farxiga or Jardiance; 3. Prescribed by or in consultation with a cardiologist; 4. Age ≥ 18 years; 5. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) is ≤ 40%; 6. Member does not have a diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus; 7. Member is currently receiving standard HF drug therapy at target doses for ≥ 4 weeks, including both of the following (a and b) unless clinically significant adverse effects are experienced or all are contraindicated: a. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, angiotensin receptor blocker, or Entresto®; b. Beta blocker; 8. Dose does not exceed 10 mg (1 tablet) per day. Approval duration: 12 months C. Chronic Kidney Disease (must meet all): 1. Diagnosis of CKD; 2. Request is for Farxiga; 3. Age ≥ 18 years; 4. Both of the following (a and b): a. eGFR between 25 and 75 mL/min/1.73 m2; b. Urine albumin creatinine ratio (UACR) ≥ 200 mg/g; 5. Member does not have a diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus or polycystic kidney disease; 6. Member has not received immunosuppressive therapy for the treatment of kidney disease in the past 6 months; CLINICAL POLICY Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors Page 3 of 9 7. Member is currently receiving standard CKD drug therapy (angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker) at maximally tolerated doses for ≥ 4 weeks, unless clinically significant adverse effects are experienced or all are contraindicated; 8. Dose does not exceed 10 mg (1 tablet) per day. Approval duration: 12 months D. Other diagnoses/indications 1. Refer to ERX.PA.01 if diagnosis is NOT specifically listed under section III (Diagnoses/Indications for which coverage is NOT authorized). II. Continued Therapy A. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (must meet all): 1. Currently receiving medication via a health plan affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions or member has previously met initial approval criteria; 2. Member is responding positively to therapy; 3. If request is for a dose increase, new dose does not exceed the FDA-approved maximum recommended dose (see Section V). Approval duration: 12 months B. Heart Failure (must meet all): 1. Currently receiving medication via a health plan affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions, or documentation supports that member is currently receiving Farxiga for HFrEF and has received this medication for at least 30 days; 2. Request is for Farxiga or Jardiance; 3. Member is responding positively to therapy; 4. If request is for a dose increase, new dose does not exceed 10 mg (1 tablet) per day. Approval duration: 12 months C. Chronic Kidney Disease (must meet all): 1. Currently receiving medication via a health plan affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions or member has previously met initial approval criteria; 2. Request is for Farxiga; 3. Member is responding positively to therapy; 4. If request is for a dose increase, new dose does not exceed 10 mg (1 tablet) per day. Approval duration: 12 months D. Other diagnoses/indications (must meet 1 or 2): 1. Currently receiving medication via a health plan affiliated with Envolve Pharmacy Solutions and documentation supports positive response to therapy. Approval duration: Duration of request or 12 months (whichever is less); or 2. Refer to ERX.PA.01 if diagnosis is NOT specifically listed under section III (Diagnoses/Indications for which coverage is NOT authorized). III. Diagnoses/Indications for which coverage is NOT authorized: A. Non-FDA approved indications, which are not addressed in this policy, unless there is sufficient documentation of efficacy and safety according to the off-label use policy – ERX.PA.01 or evidence of coverage documents.] System Instruction: [Only use the provided text to answer.] Question: [When should egfr be considered?]

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

Give me the insights on the problems people faced with Windows Vista from a forgotten trove of internal Microsoft emails in 500 words or less.

A number of notes, emails, and presentations from Microsoft were made public due to a lawsuit filed against the company after the launch of Windows Vista. The Windows Vista era of Microsoft was plagued by bugs, delays, compatibility problems, and a general shrugging of shoulders from computer users. Microsoft reduced the graphics requirements for new Windows XP machines to receive the "Vista capable" designation, which signaled their suitability to run what was then the upcoming version of the operating system. Microsoft lowered the graphics requirement to help Intel "make their quarterly earnings, so they could continue to sell motherboards with 915 graphics embedded". As a result of lowering the graphics requirements, many of the Windows Vista qualified XP machines were unable to run Vista's signature features, with user's instead getting a stripped down version of the operating system, which caused confusion and challenges. The internal emails offer a vivid glimpse into what was happening inside Microsoft during this time. Highlights of these emails include then-CEO Steve Ballmer providing tech support to then-Microsoft board member Jon Shirley, who was struggling to get his scanners to work with Windows Vista due to a lack of drivers. Steven Sinofsky, the executive who was brought in to lead Windows development after repeated delays with Windows Vista, wrote about his own problems with Vista, as well as some insights he picked up from listening to customers at a Best Buy store. There is also a page of notes from an unidentified executive outlining the challenges of Microsoft's two-tiered approach to the Windows Vista versions. There is also documents pertaining to Dell's Windows Vista launch post mortem, which the PC maker prepared for a meeting with Microsoft's team. One of the slides shows how hard it is to say something good about Windows Vista. There is also a bona-fied Harvard Business School case-study about Windows Vista, which was published in 2009 by then-Harvard professor Ben Edelman. As the writer was dusting off old computers searching for audio from past-interviews, they stumbled upon a long-forgotten archive of Internal Microsoft emails, presentations, and notes, circa 2005-2007, which details the troubled Windows Vista-era. All of these documents were made public as a result of a lawsuit that was filed a few years after the launch of Windows Vista. The reason all these documents are being revisited is because Microsoft's 50th anniversary is next year, which they say is the perfect time to reconsider its history, and to take a new look at where the company is going. Many amazing moments from Microsoft's past will be remembered and celebrated to mark this milestone, however, the failure of Windows Vista will not be one of them. The writer of the article managed to find several pieces of audio from interviews they had with Bill Gates and Steve Ballmer, which they offered to Acquired's Ben Gilbert to help with his research for the Microsoft Volume II series. Ben Gillbert and co-host David Rosenthal are known for getting extensive background material for their show, which explorers the history and strategies of well known businesses and brands.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== Give me the insights on the problems people faced with Windows Vista from a forgotten trove of internal Microsoft emails in 500 words or less. {passage 0} ========== A number of notes, emails, and presentations from Microsoft were made public due to a lawsuit filed against the company after the launch of Windows Vista. The Windows Vista era of Microsoft was plagued by bugs, delays, compatibility problems, and a general shrugging of shoulders from computer users. Microsoft reduced the graphics requirements for new Windows XP machines to receive the "Vista capable" designation, which signaled their suitability to run what was then the upcoming version of the operating system. Microsoft lowered the graphics requirement to help Intel "make their quarterly earnings, so they could continue to sell motherboards with 915 graphics embedded". As a result of lowering the graphics requirements, many of the Windows Vista qualified XP machines were unable to run Vista's signature features, with user's instead getting a stripped down version of the operating system, which caused confusion and challenges. The internal emails offer a vivid glimpse into what was happening inside Microsoft during this time. Highlights of these emails include then-CEO Steve Ballmer providing tech support to then-Microsoft board member Jon Shirley, who was struggling to get his scanners to work with Windows Vista due to a lack of drivers. Steven Sinofsky, the executive who was brought in to lead Windows development after repeated delays with Windows Vista, wrote about his own problems with Vista, as well as some insights he picked up from listening to customers at a Best Buy store. There is also a page of notes from an unidentified executive outlining the challenges of Microsoft's two-tiered approach to the Windows Vista versions. There is also documents pertaining to Dell's Windows Vista launch post mortem, which the PC maker prepared for a meeting with Microsoft's team. One of the slides shows how hard it is to say something good about Windows Vista. There is also a bona-fied Harvard Business School case-study about Windows Vista, which was published in 2009 by then-Harvard professor Ben Edelman. As the writer was dusting off old computers searching for audio from past-interviews, they stumbled upon a long-forgotten archive of Internal Microsoft emails, presentations, and notes, circa 2005-2007, which details the troubled Windows Vista-era. All of these documents were made public as a result of a lawsuit that was filed a few years after the launch of Windows Vista. The reason all these documents are being revisited is because Microsoft's 50th anniversary is next year, which they say is the perfect time to reconsider its history, and to take a new look at where the company is going. Many amazing moments from Microsoft's past will be remembered and celebrated to mark this milestone, however, the failure of Windows Vista will not be one of them. The writer of the article managed to find several pieces of audio from interviews they had with Bill Gates and Steve Ballmer, which they offered to Acquired's Ben Gilbert to help with his research for the Microsoft Volume II series. Ben Gillbert and co-host David Rosenthal are known for getting extensive background material for their show, which explorers the history and strategies of well known businesses and brands. https://www.geekwire.com/2024/business-lessons-from-windows-vista-insights-from-a-forgotten-trove-of-internal-microsoft-emails/

"================ <TEXT PASSAGE> ======= [context document] ================ <QUESTION> ======= [user request] ================ <TASK> ======= You are an expert in question answering. Your task is to reply to a query or question, based only on the information provided by the user. It should only use information in the article provided."

Can a President be charged with a crime for his or her actions taken while President? If not, are there any exceptions to a get-out-of-jail-free card?

A grand jury indicted former President Donald J. Trump on four counts for conduct that occurred during his Presidency following the November 2020 election. The indictment alleged that after losing that election, Trump conspired to overturn it by spreading knowingly false claims of election fraud to obstruct the collecting, counting, and certifying of the election results. Trump moved to dismiss the indictment based on Presidential immunity, arguing that a President has absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for actions performed within the outer perimeter of his official responsibilities, and that the indictment’s allegations fell within the core of his official duties. The District Court denied Trump’s motion to dismiss, holding that former Presidents do not possess federal criminal immunity for any acts. The D. C. Circuit affirmed. Both the District Court and the D. C. Circuit declined to decide whether the indicted conduct involved official acts. Held: Under our constitutional structure of separated powers, the nature of Presidential power entitles a former President to absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for actions within his conclusive and preclusive constitutional authority. And he is entitled to at least presumptive immunity from prosecution for all his official acts. There is no immunity for unofficial acts. Pp. 5–43. (a) This case is the first criminal prosecution in our Nation’s history of a former President for actions taken during his Presidency. Determining whether and under what circumstances such a prosecution may proceed requires careful assessment of the scope of Presidential power under the Constitution. The nature of that power requires that a former President have some immunity from criminal prosecution for official acts during his tenure in office. At least with respect to the President’s exercise of his core constitutional powers, this immunity must be absolute. As for his remaining official actions, he is entitled to at least presumptive immunity. Pp. 5–15 (1) Article II of the Constitution vests “executive Power” in “a President of the United States of America.” §1, cl. 1. The President has duties of “unrivaled gravity and breadth.” Trump v. Vance, 591 U. S. 786, 800. His authority to act necessarily “stem[s] either from an act of Congress or from the Constitution itself.” Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U. S. 579, 585. In the latter case, the President’s authority is sometimes “conclusive and preclusive.” Id., at 638 (Jackson, J., concurring). When the President exercises such authority, Congress cannot act on, and courts cannot examine, the President’s actions. It follows that an Act of Congress—either a specific one targeted at the President or a generally applicable one—may not criminalize the President’s actions within his exclusive constitutional power. Neither may the courts adjudicate a criminal prosecution that examines such Presidential actions. The Court thus concludes that the President is absolutely immune from criminal prosecution for conduct within his exclusive sphere of constitutional authority. Pp. 6–9. 2) Not all of the President’s official acts fall within his “conclusive and preclusive” authority. The reasons that justify the President’s absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for acts within the scope of his exclusive constitutional authority do not extend to conduct in areas where his authority is shared with Congress. To determine the President’s immunity in this context, the Court looks primarily to the Framers’ design of the Presidency within the separation of powers, precedent on Presidential immunity in the civil context, and criminal cases where a President resisted prosecutorial demands for documents. P. 9. (i) The Framers designed the Presidency to provide for a “vigorous” and “energetic” Executive. The Federalist No. 70, pp. 471–472 (J. Cooke ed. 1961) (A. Hamilton). They vested the President with “supervisory and policy responsibilities of utmost discretion and sensitivity.” Nixon v. Fitzgerald, 457 U. S. 731, 750. Appreciating the “unique risks” that arise when the President’s energies are diverted by proceedings that might render him “unduly cautious in the discharge of his official duties,” the Court has recognized Presidential immunities and privileges “rooted in the constitutional tradition of the separation of powers and supported by our history.” Id., at 749, 751, 752, n. 32. In Fitzgerald, for instance, the Court concluded that a former President is entitled to absolute immunity from “damages liability for acts within the ‘outer perimeter’ of his official responsibility.” Id., at 756. The Court’s “dominant concern” was to avoid “diversion of the President’s attention during the decision-making process caused by needless worry as to the possibility of damages actions stemming from any particular official decision.” Clinton v. Jones, 520 U. S. 681, 694, n. 19.

"================ <TEXT PASSAGE> ======= A grand jury indicted former President Donald J. Trump on four counts for conduct that occurred during his Presidency following the November 2020 election. The indictment alleged that after losing that election, Trump conspired to overturn it by spreading knowingly false claims of election fraud to obstruct the collecting, counting, and certifying of the election results. Trump moved to dismiss the indictment based on Presidential immunity, arguing that a President has absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for actions performed within the outer perimeter of his official responsibilities, and that the indictment’s allegations fell within the core of his official duties. The District Court denied Trump’s motion to dismiss, holding that former Presidents do not possess federal criminal immunity for any acts. The D. C. Circuit affirmed. Both the District Court and the D. C. Circuit declined to decide whether the indicted conduct involved official acts. Held: Under our constitutional structure of separated powers, the nature of Presidential power entitles a former President to absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for actions within his conclusive and preclusive constitutional authority. And he is entitled to at least presumptive immunity from prosecution for all his official acts. There is no immunity for unofficial acts. Pp. 5–43. (a) This case is the first criminal prosecution in our Nation’s history of a former President for actions taken during his Presidency. Determining whether and under what circumstances such a prosecution may proceed requires careful assessment of the scope of Presidential power under the Constitution. The nature of that power requires that a former President have some immunity from criminal prosecution for official acts during his tenure in office. At least with respect to the President’s exercise of his core constitutional powers, this immunity must be absolute. As for his remaining official actions, he is entitled to at least presumptive immunity. Pp. 5–15 (1) Article II of the Constitution vests “executive Power” in “a President of the United States of America.” §1, cl. 1. The President has duties of “unrivaled gravity and breadth.” Trump v. Vance, 591 U. S. 786, 800. His authority to act necessarily “stem[s] either from an act of Congress or from the Constitution itself.” Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U. S. 579, 585. In the latter case, the President’s authority is sometimes “conclusive and preclusive.” Id., at 638 (Jackson, J., concurring). When the President exercises such authority, Congress cannot act on, and courts cannot examine, the President’s actions. It follows that an Act of Congress—either a specific one targeted at the President or a generally applicable one—may not criminalize the President’s actions within his exclusive constitutional power. Neither may the courts adjudicate a criminal prosecution that examines such Presidential actions. The Court thus concludes that the President is absolutely immune from criminal prosecution for conduct within his exclusive sphere of constitutional authority. Pp. 6–9. 2) Not all of the President’s official acts fall within his “conclusive and preclusive” authority. The reasons that justify the President’s absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for acts within the scope of his exclusive constitutional authority do not extend to conduct in areas where his authority is shared with Congress. To determine the President’s immunity in this context, the Court looks primarily to the Framers’ design of the Presidency within the separation of powers, precedent on Presidential immunity in the civil context, and criminal cases where a President resisted prosecutorial demands for documents. P. 9. (i) The Framers designed the Presidency to provide for a “vigorous” and “energetic” Executive. The Federalist No. 70, pp. 471–472 (J. Cooke ed. 1961) (A. Hamilton). They vested the President with “supervisory and policy responsibilities of utmost discretion and sensitivity.” Nixon v. Fitzgerald, 457 U. S. 731, 750. Appreciating the “unique risks” that arise when the President’s energies are diverted by proceedings that might render him “unduly cautious in the discharge of his official duties,” the Court has recognized Presidential immunities and privileges “rooted in the constitutional tradition of the separation of powers and supported by our history.” Id., at 749, 751, 752, n. 32. In Fitzgerald, for instance, the Court concluded that a former President is entitled to absolute immunity from “damages liability for acts within the ‘outer perimeter’ of his official responsibility.” Id., at 756. The Court’s “dominant concern” was to avoid “diversion of the President’s attention during the decision-making process caused by needless worry as to the possibility of damages actions stemming from any particular official decision.” Clinton v. Jones, 520 U. S. 681, 694, n. 19. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/23pdf/23-939_e2pg.pdf ================ <QUESTION> ======= Can a President be charged with a crime for his or her actions taken while President? If not, are there any exceptions to a get-out-of-jail-free card? ================ <TASK> ======= You are an expert in question answering. Your task is to reply to a query or question, based only on the information provided by the user. It should only use information in the article provided."

System Instruction: This task requires you to answer questions based solely on the information provided in the prompt. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge.

Question: What limitations of the PDA were solved for with the PWFA?

Several different federal laws protect workers from discrimination based on pregnancy. The oldest of these, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA), generally protects job applicants and employees from adverse action—for example, firing, demotion, refusal to hire, or forced leave— because of pregnancy or related conditions. The PDA also addresses harassment based on pregnancy and bans retaliation against workers for making complaints about pregnancy discrimination. Pregnancy-related conditions can include fertility treatments, medical complications, delivery, postpartum conditions, and lactation. The PDA was enacted as an amendment to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which protects against sex discrimination (as well as certain other forms of discrimination) in employment. As construed by the Supreme Court, the PDA does not generally require employers to make changes in working conditions to accommodate pregnant workers unless employers provide accommodations to other similarly situated nonpregnant workers. So while employers cannot fire workers for being pregnant, this statute (depending on the facts) may not require them to make workplace changes (e.g., scheduling flexibility, an extra bathroom break) simply because employees’ demands are pregnancy-related. The Pregnant Workers Fairness Act (PWFA), passed in 2022 and effective June 27, 2023, mandates additional protections for pregnant workers. Modeled on the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), it requires employers to modify workplace conditions where needed to accommodate pregnancy-related conditions as long as an accommodation is reasonable and does not present an undue hardship to the employer. The PWFA requires a reasonable accommodation, after a case-specific assessment, even if a pregnancy-related condition does not amount to a disability, and even if the accommodation includes reassignment of an essential job function. Relief from an essential job function is only required, however, if it is temporary. In addition, under the PWFA, an employer may not require an employee to take leave if a reasonable accommodation would allow her to keep working. Some pregnant people face pregnancy-related impairments serious enough to satisfy the ADA’s definition of a “disability” and may, along with any PDA or PWFA claims, bring ADA claims for accommodations. Separately, many workers can invoke the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) for unpaid leave for pregnancy-related medical needs. After childbirth, provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) entitle most nursing mothers to appropriate breaks and accommodations for expressing breast milk. Preceding the passage of the PWFA, many advocates and legislators proposed expanding legal protections for pregnancy. Proposals included new pregnancy accommodation requirements (modeled on disability law), antidiscrimination measures (expanding current statutes), and leave entitlements (in line with many analogous mandates for reemployment rights or leave entitlements to protect workers engaged in endeavors such as military service). The PWFA focused on this first approach: accommodations. In addition, many states have strengthened rights for pregnant workers in recent years, and the PWFA does not preempt those laws when they offer greater protection.

Several different federal laws protect workers from discrimination based on pregnancy. The oldest of these, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA), generally protects job applicants and employees from adverse action—for example, firing, demotion, refusal to hire, or forced leave— because of pregnancy or related conditions. The PDA also addresses harassment based on pregnancy and bans retaliation against workers for making complaints about pregnancy discrimination. Pregnancy-related conditions can include fertility treatments, medical complications, delivery, postpartum conditions, and lactation. The PDA was enacted as an amendment to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which protects against sex discrimination (as well as certain other forms of discrimination) in employment. As construed by the Supreme Court, the PDA does not generally require employers to make changes in working conditions to accommodate pregnant workers unless employers provide accommodations to other similarly situated nonpregnant workers. So while employers cannot fire workers for being pregnant, this statute (depending on the facts) may not require them to make workplace changes (e.g., scheduling flexibility, an extra bathroom break) simply because employees’ demands are pregnancy-related. The Pregnant Workers Fairness Act (PWFA), passed in 2022 and effective June 27, 2023, mandates additional protections for pregnant workers. Modeled on the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), it requires employers to modify workplace conditions where needed to accommodate pregnancy-related conditions as long as an accommodation is reasonable and does not present an undue hardship to the employer. The PWFA requires a reasonable accommodation, after a case-specific assessment, even if a pregnancy-related condition does not amount to a disability, and even if the accommodation includes reassignment of an essential job function. Relief from an essential job function is only required, however, if it is temporary. In addition, under the PWFA, an employer may not require an employee to take leave if a reasonable accommodation would allow her to keep working. Some pregnant people face pregnancy-related impairments serious enough to satisfy the ADA’s definition of a “disability” and may, along with any PDA or PWFA claims, bring ADA claims for accommodations. Separately, many workers can invoke the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) for unpaid leave for pregnancy-related medical needs. After childbirth, provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) entitle most nursing mothers to appropriate breaks and accommodations for expressing breast milk. Preceding the passage of the PWFA, many advocates and legislators proposed expanding legal protections for pregnancy. Proposals included new pregnancy accommodation requirements (modeled on disability law), antidiscrimination measures (expanding current statutes), and leave entitlements (in line with many analogous mandates for reemployment rights or leave entitlements to protect workers engaged in endeavors such as military service). The PWFA focused on this first approach: accommodations. In addition, many states have strengthened rights for pregnant workers in recent years, and the PWFA does not preempt those laws when they offer greater protection. System Instruction: This task requires you to answer questions based solely on the information provided in the prompt. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge. Question: What limitations of the PDA were solved for with the PWFA?

[question] [user request] ===================== [text] [context document] ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

What are the most common pathways to allow me to obtain permanent residency in Spain without any significant time or financial commitments required from me?

Overview of Spain Permanent Residence Permit There are substantial benefits of living in Spain and having Permanent Residency status. Advantages of getting a Permanent Residency card in Spain include having many of the same rights as Spanish citizens. With Permanent Residency you are entitled to work, study and access healthcare. It does not give you the right to vote in national elections or hold a Spanish passport – these rights are only available to those who hold full Spanish citizenship. However, obtaining Permanent Residency is a major step towards eventually obtaining citizenship of Spain. Qualifying for Permanent Residency in Spain There are conditions that must be met before applying for Permanent Residency in Spain. You should ensure you meet all the criteria before applying otherwise you could risk refusal – which can be costly and impact on future immigration applications. If you are unclear if you do qualify for Permanent Residency then you may want to consider contacting an immigration specialist to seek advice. The following are able to acquire the right of permanent residence once five years of continuous living legally in Spain has been reached: Citizens of a EU state and family members who not EU state nationals Workers or those self-employed who have reached pension age – as long as they have worked in Spain for the previous 12 months. Self-employed workers who opt for early retirement – although they must have been working in Spain for the previous year before applying. Workers or self-employed who worked in Spain but have had to stop working due to permanent incapacity to work. Workers or self-employed workers who have worked and lived in Spain for three years and have then worked in another EU country but have continued to have a place of residence in Spain which they have returned to at least once a week. Non-EU national family members of a Spanish citizen or EU citizen who have been living in Spain for five years as long as the family relationship still exists – or if the relationship has ended due to dealth, annulment or divorce. Documents Required When Applying For Residency in Spain In order to be eligible for the benefits associated with gaining a Permanent Residency in Spain, the candidate must provide documentation attesting to their legal residency during the previous five years. When you have completed the necessary duration of time in Spain, you can apply for a Permanent Residency visa. You must go to the appropriate police station in Spain with the application form and required paperwork, as well as the funds to pay the processing fee. You must submit your application for Permanent Residence at least three months prior to your present visa or permission expiration. You will be asked to provide the following documents: A completed application form. Provide evidence about your current residency statuses, such as student, employment contract, retired individual, or self-employed person. A document that proves that you have resided in Spain for five years – this could be a property deed or a rental agreement. Providing a registration document issued by the city’s police department where the applicant resides. A document that proves your ongoing residency in Spain, such as a rental contract, utility bills, etc. Proof of income, investments, or financial means of support, such as bank statements, tax returns, payroll, etc. Provide a certificate of your health and medical insurance in Spain. In some critical circumstances, you should be asked to submit a criminal record certificate, as well as a divorce or marriage certificate. The consulate general will inform you formally if your application is accepted. Once your application is approved, the police department in Spain will contact you to come and submit your fingerprints and finish the procedure. It may take around one month for your Permanent Resident Card to be issued. Don’t miss out on the chance to call Spain your permanent home. Get in touch with us for help with applying for Permanent Residency today. Contact Us Cost of Applying for Permanent Residency in Spain The cost of applying for Permanent Residency in Spain is relatively low compared to other visa charges. The exact amount required by the Spanish immigration authorities varies depending on a number of factors including the cost of getting documents translated if they are not originally in Spanish. However, you can expect to pay around 80 euros to submit the application. Renewing Permanent Residency in Spain Once your application for Permanent Residency has been approved then you will be issued with a residency card that is valid for five years. You must apply to renew this card before it expires otherwise you could risk your immigration status in Spain. To renew you will need to complete the appropriate form and submit with the following documents: Proof of address in Spain Original residency card Passport You are also required to resubmit your fingerprints and pay the Permanent Residency renewal fee. When you apply to renew your Permanent Resident status you are not required to prove you have lived in the country for the five years preceding the renewal. However, you may have your application to renewl your Permanent Residency card refused it you have spent more than 12 months outside of Spain or another EU member country. What if Your Permanent Residency Application is Rejected? If your application for Permanent Residency in Spain is rejected then you may be able to appeal the decision if you feel that you have met all the requirements and can demonstrate so. You will need to file an appeal with the High Court of Justice in Madrid and you must do this within two months of being notified that your application has been refused. This could be a potentially lengthy process so you should seek advice from Spanish immigration experts to ensure you complete the appeal process correctly and increase your chances of a successful outcome.

[question] What are the most common pathways to allow me to obtain permanent residency in Spain without any significant time or financial commitments required from me? ===================== [text] Overview of Spain Permanent Residence Permit There are substantial benefits of living in Spain and having Permanent Residency status. Advantages of getting a Permanent Residency card in Spain include having many of the same rights as Spanish citizens. With Permanent Residency you are entitled to work, study and access healthcare. It does not give you the right to vote in national elections or hold a Spanish passport – these rights are only available to those who hold full Spanish citizenship. However, obtaining Permanent Residency is a major step towards eventually obtaining citizenship of Spain. Qualifying for Permanent Residency in Spain There are conditions that must be met before applying for Permanent Residency in Spain. You should ensure you meet all the criteria before applying otherwise you could risk refusal – which can be costly and impact on future immigration applications. If you are unclear if you do qualify for Permanent Residency then you may want to consider contacting an immigration specialist to seek advice. The following are able to acquire the right of permanent residence once five years of continuous living legally in Spain has been reached: Citizens of a EU state and family members who not EU state nationals Workers or those self-employed who have reached pension age – as long as they have worked in Spain for the previous 12 months. Self-employed workers who opt for early retirement – although they must have been working in Spain for the previous year before applying. Workers or self-employed who worked in Spain but have had to stop working due to permanent incapacity to work. Workers or self-employed workers who have worked and lived in Spain for three years and have then worked in another EU country but have continued to have a place of residence in Spain which they have returned to at least once a week. Non-EU national family members of a Spanish citizen or EU citizen who have been living in Spain for five years as long as the family relationship still exists – or if the relationship has ended due to dealth, annulment or divorce. Documents Required When Applying For Residency in Spain In order to be eligible for the benefits associated with gaining a Permanent Residency in Spain, the candidate must provide documentation attesting to their legal residency during the previous five years. When you have completed the necessary duration of time in Spain, you can apply for a Permanent Residency visa. You must go to the appropriate police station in Spain with the application form and required paperwork, as well as the funds to pay the processing fee. You must submit your application for Permanent Residence at least three months prior to your present visa or permission expiration. You will be asked to provide the following documents: A completed application form. Provide evidence about your current residency statuses, such as student, employment contract, retired individual, or self-employed person. A document that proves that you have resided in Spain for five years – this could be a property deed or a rental agreement. Providing a registration document issued by the city’s police department where the applicant resides. A document that proves your ongoing residency in Spain, such as a rental contract, utility bills, etc. Proof of income, investments, or financial means of support, such as bank statements, tax returns, payroll, etc. Provide a certificate of your health and medical insurance in Spain. In some critical circumstances, you should be asked to submit a criminal record certificate, as well as a divorce or marriage certificate. The consulate general will inform you formally if your application is accepted. Once your application is approved, the police department in Spain will contact you to come and submit your fingerprints and finish the procedure. It may take around one month for your Permanent Resident Card to be issued. Don’t miss out on the chance to call Spain your permanent home. Get in touch with us for help with applying for Permanent Residency today. Contact Us Cost of Applying for Permanent Residency in Spain The cost of applying for Permanent Residency in Spain is relatively low compared to other visa charges. The exact amount required by the Spanish immigration authorities varies depending on a number of factors including the cost of getting documents translated if they are not originally in Spanish. However, you can expect to pay around 80 euros to submit the application. Renewing Permanent Residency in Spain Once your application for Permanent Residency has been approved then you will be issued with a residency card that is valid for five years. You must apply to renew this card before it expires otherwise you could risk your immigration status in Spain. To renew you will need to complete the appropriate form and submit with the following documents: Proof of address in Spain Original residency card Passport You are also required to resubmit your fingerprints and pay the Permanent Residency renewal fee. When you apply to renew your Permanent Resident status you are not required to prove you have lived in the country for the five years preceding the renewal. However, you may have your application to renewl your Permanent Residency card refused it you have spent more than 12 months outside of Spain or another EU member country. What if Your Permanent Residency Application is Rejected? If your application for Permanent Residency in Spain is rejected then you may be able to appeal the decision if you feel that you have met all the requirements and can demonstrate so. You will need to file an appeal with the High Court of Justice in Madrid and you must do this within two months of being notified that your application has been refused. This could be a potentially lengthy process so you should seek advice from Spanish immigration experts to ensure you complete the appeal process correctly and increase your chances of a successful outcome. https://iasservices.org.uk/es/residency/permanent-residency-in-spain/ ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> [user request] <TEXT> [context document]

I am writing a report about vaccines in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. I am a PhD student and my focus is on the molecular aspects of vaccines. Can you give me a list of the different types of vaccines and their characteristics? Keep it brief, I don't want the response to exceed 300 words. I also want to know how Toll-like receptors are related to vaccines.

In late 2019, a novel beta coronavirus emerged in Wuhan, China, and rapidly spread worldwide. The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has a high potential of a pandemic due to its high contagious rate with high mortality globally (Sharma et al. 2020; Su et al. 2020; Wibawa 2021). Therefore, substantial efforts are needed to develop effective vaccines or therapies against the disease (Su et al. 2020). Symptoms of COVID-19 disease vary, including mild flu-like symptoms, pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and fatal outcome. Patients with cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, older adults, and even genetically predisposed individuals are at highest risk of COVID-19 severity (Sharma et al. 2020; Su et al. 2020; Wibawa 2021; Vakil et al. 2022). As per the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, wearing masks, using antiviral drugs, social distancing, and adherence to vaccination procedures are crucial behaviors to control of COVID-19 pandemic around the world (Sharma et al. 2020). The scientific effort towards development of efficient vaccines against invasive pathogens dates back many years since long (Deb et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2020; Wibawa 2021). These vaccine platforms have also been designed against pathogenic bacteria (Farhani et al. 2019; Jafari and Mahmoodi 2021). In this regard, developing an efficient, protective, and safe vaccine is considered as a pivotal preventive approach to hinder the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread (Moore and Klasse 2020). Therefore, different pharmaceutical companies and research teams worldwide competed to present a safe and efficient vaccine against the COVID-19 for international community use. These efforts have developed other vaccine platforms to enter preclinical and clinical trials and some of them have been approved (Chen et al. 2021), including traditional vaccines such as live or inactivated, subunit, and nucleic acid-based vaccines as next-generation vaccines (Moore and Klasse 2020). Based on the scientific evidence, live-attenuated vaccines stimulate the innate, cellular, and humoral immune responses by inducing Toll-like Receptors (TLRs) with long-term immunity and may develop hypersensitivity. The main drawback of these vaccines is their costly safety and efficacy assessments. Inactivated viral vaccines poorly provoke cellular immune responses which mitigate their efficacy. In April 2020, an inactivated COVID-19 vaccine was manufactured by Sinovac and Wuhan Institute of Biological Products (Sinopharm) (Moore and Klasse 2020; Su et al. 2020). Subunit vaccines are safe, with some defects including low immunogenicity, booster or adjuvant requirement, and high cost (Koirala et al. 2020; Su et al. 2020). Nucleic acid-based vaccines have been developed based on sequence information. They include DNA or mRNA sequences of antigens that strongly stimulate cellular and humoral immune responses in various doses. Due to their advantages, such as fast production, and the earliest COVID-19 vaccines in clinical trials, a noticeable advantage of DNA-based vaccines is their stability in various storage conditions (Silveira et al. 2020; van Riel and de Wit 2020). RNA-based vaccines received more attention from pharmaceutical companies like Pfizer/Biontech and Moderna. In contrast to DNA vaccines, they stimulate effective humoral immune response as TLR ligand without adjuvant, and its sequence is modified to preclude mRNA degradation (Moore and Klasse 2020; van Riel and de Wit 2020; Soiza et al. 2021).

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> I am writing a report about vaccines in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. I am a PhD student and my focus is on the molecular aspects of vaccines. Can you give me a list of the different types of vaccines and their characteristics? Keep it brief, I don't want the response to exceed 300 words. I also want to know how Toll-like receptors are related to vaccines. <TEXT> In late 2019, a novel beta coronavirus emerged in Wuhan, China, and rapidly spread worldwide. The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has a high potential of a pandemic due to its high contagious rate with high mortality globally (Sharma et al. 2020; Su et al. 2020; Wibawa 2021). Therefore, substantial efforts are needed to develop effective vaccines or therapies against the disease (Su et al. 2020). Symptoms of COVID-19 disease vary, including mild flu-like symptoms, pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and fatal outcome. Patients with cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, older adults, and even genetically predisposed individuals are at highest risk of COVID-19 severity (Sharma et al. 2020; Su et al. 2020; Wibawa 2021; Vakil et al. 2022). As per the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, wearing masks, using antiviral drugs, social distancing, and adherence to vaccination procedures are crucial behaviors to control of COVID-19 pandemic around the world (Sharma et al. 2020). The scientific effort towards development of efficient vaccines against invasive pathogens dates back many years since long (Deb et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2020; Wibawa 2021). These vaccine platforms have also been designed against pathogenic bacteria (Farhani et al. 2019; Jafari and Mahmoodi 2021). In this regard, developing an efficient, protective, and safe vaccine is considered as a pivotal preventive approach to hinder the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread (Moore and Klasse 2020). Therefore, different pharmaceutical companies and research teams worldwide competed to present a safe and efficient vaccine against the COVID-19 for international community use. These efforts have developed other vaccine platforms to enter preclinical and clinical trials and some of them have been approved (Chen et al. 2021), including traditional vaccines such as live or inactivated, subunit, and nucleic acid-based vaccines as next-generation vaccines (Moore and Klasse 2020). Based on the scientific evidence, live-attenuated vaccines stimulate the innate, cellular, and humoral immune responses by inducing Toll-like Receptors (TLRs) with long-term immunity and may develop hypersensitivity. The main drawback of these vaccines is their costly safety and efficacy assessments. Inactivated viral vaccines poorly provoke cellular immune responses which mitigate their efficacy. In April 2020, an inactivated COVID-19 vaccine was manufactured by Sinovac and Wuhan Institute of Biological Products (Sinopharm) (Moore and Klasse 2020; Su et al. 2020). Subunit vaccines are safe, with some defects including low immunogenicity, booster or adjuvant requirement, and high cost (Koirala et al. 2020; Su et al. 2020). Nucleic acid-based vaccines have been developed based on sequence information. They include DNA or mRNA sequences of antigens that strongly stimulate cellular and humoral immune responses in various doses. Due to their advantages, such as fast production, and the earliest COVID-19 vaccines in clinical trials, a noticeable advantage of DNA-based vaccines is their stability in various storage conditions (Silveira et al. 2020; van Riel and de Wit 2020). RNA-based vaccines received more attention from pharmaceutical companies like Pfizer/Biontech and Moderna. In contrast to DNA vaccines, they stimulate effective humoral immune response as TLR ligand without adjuvant, and its sequence is modified to preclude mRNA degradation (Moore and Klasse 2020; van Riel and de Wit 2020; Soiza et al. 2021). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00203-023-03480-5

Only use the information contained within the provided text to answer the question. Do not use outside sources. Write a full sentence and use a bullet point. Ensure the entire sentence is in italics.

According only to the article provided, what are the main difference between corporate bonds and preferred stocks?

**Overview of Corporate Bonds** The stock market crash of the late 2000s taught many investors a painful lesson about the importance of diversifying their investments. They remain committed to low- to moderate-risk investment vehicles that provide a compromise between security and return on investment. Corporate bonds are one such vehicle. They can provide predictable interest payments for income-seeking investors at manageable risk levels. They occupy a middle ground between low-interest, low-risk government bonds and stocks, which may offer higher returns but are much riskier overall. But corporate bonds are not perfect. Individual corporate bonds have significant drawbacks you should carefully consider before investing. What Is a Corporate Bond? Both private and public companies sell corporate bonds to raise money for business operations. In exchange, they pay you interest on the amount you purchased. Like other assets that pay interest, companies most often use corporate bonds to fund capital projects. This term encompasses just about any investment a company can make, such as: • Construction of a new warehouse or manufacturing facility • Purchasing or leasing new property • Purchasing or leasing new equipment • Buying inventory They typically come in units that carry a face value of $1,000. Also known as “par value,” it’s the amount the company, known as the bond issuer, must pay the holder on the bond’s maturity date. Some bonds require investors to buy more than one unit, so they may have a minimum purchase amount, such as $3,000 or $5,000. Corporate Bonds Structure A corporate bond makes regular interest payments to its investors. It’s popular among income-seeking investors, from financial institutions looking to offset higher-risk investments to retirement investors trying to earn interest income over a set period. Maturity Period & Call Date Like a U.S. Treasury bond, a corporate bond has a specific maturity date. That’s the day you get the original amount of your investment back. Maturity terms on corporate bonds — the period between their issue date and maturity date — range from as short as one year to as long as 30 years. Corporate bonds with less than one year maturity periods are known as “corporate paper” or “short-term financing.” The most common investors in these bonds are likely to be larger financial entities, including banks, mutual funds, and hedge funds rather than individual investors. Many corporate bonds also have call dates. Call dates are the first date the issuing company can legally buy the bond back from investors if it no longer needs the money. Prospectus Before it issues a new bond to the general public, the company must release a prospectus that outlines the intended use of the money. This requirement applies even to private companies not listed on any stock exchange. The prospectus describes the bond’s term, including its final maturity date and call date. It also outlines the bond’s initial interest rate and describes how and when the bond pays interest quarterly, semiannually, annually, or in a lump sum when the issuer buys the bond back. Finally, the prospectus outlines the bondholder’s right of repayment if the issuing company defaults or declares bankruptcy. It includes the order in which investors receive repayment based on their investor type, which depends on whether the bond is secured or unsecured. Secured vs. Unsecured Corporate Bonds Corporate bonds can be secured or unsecured. Secured bonds are guaranteed by some form of collateral, such as inventory, real property, or monetary assets. When a corporate bond issuer declares bankruptcy, secured bondholders have a legal right to seize the collateral. Unsecured bonds, also known as debentures, are only guaranteed by the company’s promise to repay. Unsecured bondholders have no right to seize property. In the event of bankruptcy, they may be forced to forfeit future interest payments as well as a significant fraction of their principal payments. Some bond types are always unsecured, such as convertible notes (which you can convert into shares of company stock). Others, such as fixed-rate and variable-rate bonds, may be either. You can find the bond’s secured status in the prospectus. Because unsecured bonds are considered riskier for investors, they have higher interest rates than secured bonds. However, convertible bonds tend to come with lower interest rates because you can convert them into equity. Corporate Bonds vs. Preferred Stocks Corporate bonds share some features with preferred stock, such as regular payments to investors. These similarities are enough to create confusion for inexperienced investors. But there are some important differences between the two as well: • Debt vs. Equity. A corporate bond is a debt instrument that provides no ownership stake in its issuer. In contrast, a preferred stock is an equity vehicle that does confer ownership in the underlying company. • Liquidity. You can trade both corporate bonds and preferred stock on secondary markets. But preferred stock often trades on stock exchanges, increasing the potential market size and making it easier for investors to buy and sell them. • Repayment Order. In bankruptcy, preferred stockholders are entitled to repayment before common stockholders but after corporate bondholders. • Exchange for Common Stock. You can exchange convertible corporate bonds for the issuers’ common shares under certain circumstances. Otherwise, it’s difficult or impossible for bondholders to exchange their holdings for stock. In contrast, you can always exchange preferred stocks for common stocks at an agreed-upon ratio. Types of Corporate Bonds Corporate bonds come in several different forms. A given bond can fall into more than one of these categories. Fixed-Rate Bonds This type of bond carries a fixed interest rate for its entire life. The rate is determined by its issuer’s credit rating on the bond’s issue date. Companies with higher credit ratings pay lower interest rates on their bonds, while companies with lower credit ratings pay higher interest rates. Fixed-rate bonds typically make semiannual interest payments. They’re currently the most common type of corporate bond. Variable-Rate Bonds Variable-rate bonds’ interest rates change in response to fluctuations in long-term benchmark rates, with most bonds changing once per year. Their yield is generally determined by the company’s credit rating on the date of each interest payment. Floating-Rate Bonds Floating-rate bonds’ interest rates fluctuate with market benchmarks like Libor or the Federal Reserve’s federal funds rate and the company’s credit rating on the date of each readjustment. Unlike variable-rate bonds’ annual readjustments, changes in floating-rate bond rates usually occur after each quarterly interest payment. Zero-Coupon Bonds Zero-coupon bonds don’t pay interest. Instead, they trade at deep discounts to par value (face value). At maturity, the investor can redeem their zero-coupon bond for par value, realizing a profit over what they originally paid. Callable Bonds Issuers of callable bonds have the right to buy them back after an initial lockup period ends but before maturity. The first date the issuer can buy back the bond is known as the call date. The buyback is always voluntary. For example, a company that issues a callable bond with a final maturity date of Jan. 31, 2030, and a call date of Jan. 31, 2024, can buy it back after the earlier of the two dates, but it doesn’t have to. If a bond is called, its issuer typically pays par value and any unpaid accrued interest. Callable bonds can have fixed, variable, or floating rates. A company may call bonds for various reasons. But most often, it’s because prevailing interest rates have fallen and the issuer’s credit allows it to secure lower rates on new debt issues. Since called bonds are usually replaced with lower-yield bonds, an investor whose bond is called may have to settle for lower yields on future bond purchases that offer comparable levels of risk. They also miss out on future interest payments on the called bond. Both factors reduce their overall yield. Putable Bond Putable bonds, also called put bonds or retractable bonds, are the reverse of callable bonds. After a set date, holders of putable bonds are entitled to ask the issuer for repayment of their principal plus all accumulated interest. It often occurs when a bondholder dies. Heirs of deceased bondholders may have a “survivor’s option” that entitles them to sell inherited bonds back to their issuers. Bondholders may also exercise the put in inflationary environments. As prevailing interest rates rise, bonds with lower interest rates become less attractive, and their market value falls. It makes sense for bondholders to exercise the put sooner rather than later and use the proceeds to invest in bonds paying higher rates. Because they give bondholders the right to early repayment, put bonds are less risky, more attractive investments. They typically have lower interest rates as a result. Convertible You can convert a convertible bond into a set amount of its issuer’s common stock. It allows a company’s creditor to secure an actual equity stake in it. Like callable and putable bonds, convertible bonds come with restrictions on how and when you can convert to stock. They’re also more susceptible to issuers’ stock price fluctuations than other types of bonds. Corporate Bond Ratings Every corporate bond is rated by at least one of the major U.S. rating agencies — Fitch, Standard & Poor’s, or Moody’s. Each agency has its own letter-grade scale, but the most important distinction is between the two broad risk categories: investment grade and noninvestment grade. Noninvestment-grade bonds are popularly known as “junk,” as in “junk bonds.” In more polite circles, they’re known as “high-yield bonds.” On S&P’s scale, which is the most commonly used measurement in the United States, all bonds rated below BBB- are considered noninvestment grade. A bond’s yield is inversely proportional to its issuer’s credit rating. The higher the rating, the lower the yield. Lower-rated bonds come with a higher risk of default. However, they also have high interest rates — far higher than investors could get in a savings account or CD. That’s worth the risk to some people. Corporate bondholders do enjoy greater security than stockholders. Whereas a publicly traded company may suspend dividends on common or preferred stock at any time, any company that issues a corporate bond has a legal obligation to issue regular interest payments. The only ways out of it are to default on its bonds or declare bankruptcy.

{query} ======= According only to the article provided, what are the main difference between corporate bonds and preferred stocks? {task} ======= Only use the information contained within the provided text to answer the question. Do not use outside sources. Write a full sentence and use a bullet point. Ensure the entire sentence is in italics. {text} ======= **Overview of Corporate Bonds** The stock market crash of the late 2000s taught many investors a painful lesson about the importance of diversifying their investments. They remain committed to low- to moderate-risk investment vehicles that provide a compromise between security and return on investment. Corporate bonds are one such vehicle. They can provide predictable interest payments for income-seeking investors at manageable risk levels. They occupy a middle ground between low-interest, low-risk government bonds and stocks, which may offer higher returns but are much riskier overall. But corporate bonds are not perfect. Individual corporate bonds have significant drawbacks you should carefully consider before investing. What Is a Corporate Bond? Both private and public companies sell corporate bonds to raise money for business operations. In exchange, they pay you interest on the amount you purchased. Like other assets that pay interest, companies most often use corporate bonds to fund capital projects. This term encompasses just about any investment a company can make, such as: • Construction of a new warehouse or manufacturing facility • Purchasing or leasing new property • Purchasing or leasing new equipment • Buying inventory They typically come in units that carry a face value of $1,000. Also known as “par value,” it’s the amount the company, known as the bond issuer, must pay the holder on the bond’s maturity date. Some bonds require investors to buy more than one unit, so they may have a minimum purchase amount, such as $3,000 or $5,000. Corporate Bonds Structure A corporate bond makes regular interest payments to its investors. It’s popular among income-seeking investors, from financial institutions looking to offset higher-risk investments to retirement investors trying to earn interest income over a set period. Maturity Period & Call Date Like a U.S. Treasury bond, a corporate bond has a specific maturity date. That’s the day you get the original amount of your investment back. Maturity terms on corporate bonds — the period between their issue date and maturity date — range from as short as one year to as long as 30 years. Corporate bonds with less than one year maturity periods are known as “corporate paper” or “short-term financing.” The most common investors in these bonds are likely to be larger financial entities, including banks, mutual funds, and hedge funds rather than individual investors. Many corporate bonds also have call dates. Call dates are the first date the issuing company can legally buy the bond back from investors if it no longer needs the money. Prospectus Before it issues a new bond to the general public, the company must release a prospectus that outlines the intended use of the money. This requirement applies even to private companies not listed on any stock exchange. The prospectus describes the bond’s term, including its final maturity date and call date. It also outlines the bond’s initial interest rate and describes how and when the bond pays interest quarterly, semiannually, annually, or in a lump sum when the issuer buys the bond back. Finally, the prospectus outlines the bondholder’s right of repayment if the issuing company defaults or declares bankruptcy. It includes the order in which investors receive repayment based on their investor type, which depends on whether the bond is secured or unsecured. Secured vs. Unsecured Corporate Bonds Corporate bonds can be secured or unsecured. Secured bonds are guaranteed by some form of collateral, such as inventory, real property, or monetary assets. When a corporate bond issuer declares bankruptcy, secured bondholders have a legal right to seize the collateral. Unsecured bonds, also known as debentures, are only guaranteed by the company’s promise to repay. Unsecured bondholders have no right to seize property. In the event of bankruptcy, they may be forced to forfeit future interest payments as well as a significant fraction of their principal payments. Some bond types are always unsecured, such as convertible notes (which you can convert into shares of company stock). Others, such as fixed-rate and variable-rate bonds, may be either. You can find the bond’s secured status in the prospectus. Because unsecured bonds are considered riskier for investors, they have higher interest rates than secured bonds. However, convertible bonds tend to come with lower interest rates because you can convert them into equity. Corporate Bonds vs. Preferred Stocks Corporate bonds share some features with preferred stock, such as regular payments to investors. These similarities are enough to create confusion for inexperienced investors. But there are some important differences between the two as well: • Debt vs. Equity. A corporate bond is a debt instrument that provides no ownership stake in its issuer. In contrast, a preferred stock is an equity vehicle that does confer ownership in the underlying company. • Liquidity. You can trade both corporate bonds and preferred stock on secondary markets. But preferred stock often trades on stock exchanges, increasing the potential market size and making it easier for investors to buy and sell them. • Repayment Order. In bankruptcy, preferred stockholders are entitled to repayment before common stockholders but after corporate bondholders. • Exchange for Common Stock. You can exchange convertible corporate bonds for the issuers’ common shares under certain circumstances. Otherwise, it’s difficult or impossible for bondholders to exchange their holdings for stock. In contrast, you can always exchange preferred stocks for common stocks at an agreed-upon ratio. Types of Corporate Bonds Corporate bonds come in several different forms. A given bond can fall into more than one of these categories. Fixed-Rate Bonds This type of bond carries a fixed interest rate for its entire life. The rate is determined by its issuer’s credit rating on the bond’s issue date. Companies with higher credit ratings pay lower interest rates on their bonds, while companies with lower credit ratings pay higher interest rates. Fixed-rate bonds typically make semiannual interest payments. They’re currently the most common type of corporate bond. Variable-Rate Bonds Variable-rate bonds’ interest rates change in response to fluctuations in long-term benchmark rates, with most bonds changing once per year. Their yield is generally determined by the company’s credit rating on the date of each interest payment. Floating-Rate Bonds Floating-rate bonds’ interest rates fluctuate with market benchmarks like Libor or the Federal Reserve’s federal funds rate and the company’s credit rating on the date of each readjustment. Unlike variable-rate bonds’ annual readjustments, changes in floating-rate bond rates usually occur after each quarterly interest payment. Zero-Coupon Bonds Zero-coupon bonds don’t pay interest. Instead, they trade at deep discounts to par value (face value). At maturity, the investor can redeem their zero-coupon bond for par value, realizing a profit over what they originally paid. Callable Bonds Issuers of callable bonds have the right to buy them back after an initial lockup period ends but before maturity. The first date the issuer can buy back the bond is known as the call date. The buyback is always voluntary. For example, a company that issues a callable bond with a final maturity date of Jan. 31, 2030, and a call date of Jan. 31, 2024, can buy it back after the earlier of the two dates, but it doesn’t have to. If a bond is called, its issuer typically pays par value and any unpaid accrued interest. Callable bonds can have fixed, variable, or floating rates. A company may call bonds for various reasons. But most often, it’s because prevailing interest rates have fallen and the issuer’s credit allows it to secure lower rates on new debt issues. Since called bonds are usually replaced with lower-yield bonds, an investor whose bond is called may have to settle for lower yields on future bond purchases that offer comparable levels of risk. They also miss out on future interest payments on the called bond. Both factors reduce their overall yield. Putable Bond Putable bonds, also called put bonds or retractable bonds, are the reverse of callable bonds. After a set date, holders of putable bonds are entitled to ask the issuer for repayment of their principal plus all accumulated interest. It often occurs when a bondholder dies. Heirs of deceased bondholders may have a “survivor’s option” that entitles them to sell inherited bonds back to their issuers. Bondholders may also exercise the put in inflationary environments. As prevailing interest rates rise, bonds with lower interest rates become less attractive, and their market value falls. It makes sense for bondholders to exercise the put sooner rather than later and use the proceeds to invest in bonds paying higher rates. Because they give bondholders the right to early repayment, put bonds are less risky, more attractive investments. They typically have lower interest rates as a result. Convertible You can convert a convertible bond into a set amount of its issuer’s common stock. It allows a company’s creditor to secure an actual equity stake in it. Like callable and putable bonds, convertible bonds come with restrictions on how and when you can convert to stock. They’re also more susceptible to issuers’ stock price fluctuations than other types of bonds. Corporate Bond Ratings Every corporate bond is rated by at least one of the major U.S. rating agencies — Fitch, Standard & Poor’s, or Moody’s. Each agency has its own letter-grade scale, but the most important distinction is between the two broad risk categories: investment grade and noninvestment grade. Noninvestment-grade bonds are popularly known as “junk,” as in “junk bonds.” In more polite circles, they’re known as “high-yield bonds.” On S&P’s scale, which is the most commonly used measurement in the United States, all bonds rated below BBB- are considered noninvestment grade. A bond’s yield is inversely proportional to its issuer’s credit rating. The higher the rating, the lower the yield. Lower-rated bonds come with a higher risk of default. However, they also have high interest rates — far higher than investors could get in a savings account or CD. That’s worth the risk to some people. Corporate bondholders do enjoy greater security than stockholders. Whereas a publicly traded company may suspend dividends on common or preferred stock at any time, any company that issues a corporate bond has a legal obligation to issue regular interest payments. The only ways out of it are to default on its bonds or declare bankruptcy.

Use the information in the context block only; do not rely on your prior knowledge or any external sources.

Summarize the arguments that support and oppose the claim that the ICWA is unconstitutional.

Is the Indian Child Welfare Act Constitutional? In Brackeen v. Zinke, a federal district court declared that the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA)—a 1978 law meant “to protect the best interests of Indian children and to promote the stability and security of Indian tribes and families”—was unconstitutional in several ways. This decision is currently pending before the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit (Fifth Circuit), and its practical implications have been paused until the appeal is decided. If upheld, this decision would eliminate many of the special rules that apply to the adoption and foster care placements of Indian children in the three states involved in this case: Texas, Louisiana, and Indiana. Among other things, these rules allow a tribe to assume jurisdiction over, or otherwise to have input into, the placements of children who are eligible for tribal membership. In 1978, Congress recognized that an “alarmingly high percentage of Indian families” were being broken up by often-unwarranted removal of their children by nontribal entities, placing many of these children in non-Indian foster and adoptive homes. Citing its responsibility for protecting and preserving Indian tribes, Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov LSB10245 Congressional Research Service 2 Congress passed ICWA to protect Indian children as vital to the tribes’ continued existence. ICWA is designed to do two primary things: (1) set standards for placing Indian children with foster or adoptive families, and (2) help tribes set up child and family programs. Though a number of lawsuits have challenged ICWA over the past 40 years, including on the grounds that the statute impermissibly treated Indian children differently on the basis of race, until Brackeen, none of those challenges had been successful. Instead, courts in prior cases had noted Congress’s “plenary” authority over Indian affairs—derived principally from the Indian Commerce Clause and the Treaty Power—and concluded that applying special rules to Indian children was constitutional because, among other things, the distinction between Indians and non-Indians was not an impermissible race-based classification, but was instead a recognition of the unique political status of Indian tribes. This Sidebar gives a brief overview of ICWA, outlines the Brackeen court’s decision with relevant legal context, and explores the possible impacts, including potential for higher court and congressional action. Relevant ICWA provisions and associated regulations Most relevant to the claims at issue in Brackeen, ICWA sets forth a series of duties that must be fulfilled for Indian child placements. For the purposes of ICWA, an “Indian child” is any unmarried person under eighteen who is either a member of an Indian tribe or is both eligible for membership in an Indian tribe and the biological child of a member of an Indian tribe. Three main aspects of ICWA are relevant to the issues raised in Brackeen. First, under ICWA, any party seeking involuntary termination of parental rights to an Indian child under state law must first demonstrate that active efforts have been made to provide remedial services and rehabilitative programs designed to prevent the breakup of the Indian family. Second, involuntary termination requires evidence beyond a reasonable doubt (including expert witness testimony), that the continued custody of the child by the parent or Indian custodian would likely result in serious emotional or physical damage to the child. Third, when an Indian child is placed with a foster or adoptive family under state law, ICWA lists general preferences for that placement: (1) a member of the child’s extended family; (2) other members of the Indian child’s tribe; or (3) other Indian families. However, if a tribe wants to re-order those preferences for Indian children associated with that tribe, it may pass a resolution doing so, and state agencies and courts generally must follow that amended order of preference. In any event, ICWA provides that these preferences may be circumvented in an individual case upon a showing of “good cause.” The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has authority to make regulations governing ICWA’s implementation. Though BIA chose not to do so when the statute was first passed, in 2016 it issued a Final Rule aimed at reconciling different states’ interpretations of ICWA—for example, by clarifying the circumstances in which “good cause” exists for circumventing ICWA’s placement preferences. Brackeen v. Zinke: the plaintiffs’ claims and the district court’s decision A group of plaintiffs comprising three states (Indiana, Louisiana, and Texas) and several private parties— primarily non-Indian couples who had adopted or wanted to adopt an Indian child—challenged several facets of ICWA and related regulations (including the 2016 Final Rule, as well as certain funding provisions conditioned on ICWA compliance), seeking to have them declared unconstitutional or otherwise rendered invalid. They filed these challenges in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, where Judge Reed O’Connor did declare much of ICWA unconstitutional, granting nearly all of the plaintiffs’ claims. (This decision is arguably the second-most consequential decision by Judge O’Connor in recent months, as he ruled in December 2018 that the Affordable Care Act was also unconstitutional). The federal defendants, intervening tribes, and a group of amicus curiae Congressional Research Service 3 including numerous federally recognized tribes, several Indian organizations, and a number of states, disputed plaintiffs’ characterization of ICWA and contended the challenged laws and implementing regulations were lawful. The plaintiffs’ claims about ICWA’s validity, and the court’s responses to them, are discussed below. Equal protection: does ICWA use a race-based classification, and if so, can it survive strict scrutiny? The state and the individual plaintiffs together claimed that ICWA ran afoul of the Fifth Amendment’s equal protection guarantees, by impermissibly using a race-based classification. The plaintiffs’ claim relied primarily on the Supreme Court’s decisions in two cases. First, in Adarand Constructors v. Peña, the Supreme Court established that any time the federal government subjects individuals to unequal treatment based on their race, that action is subject to “strict scrutiny”—a test that asks whether the classification (1) serves a compelling government interest and (2) is narrowly tailored to further that interest. Second, in Rice v. Cayetano, in the course of invalidating a Hawaiian law that permitted only persons of native Hawaiian descent to vote in certain elections, the Supreme Court recognized that “[a]ncestry can be a proxy for race” and may be subject to the same constitutional limitations as directly race-based classifications. The plaintiffs in Brackeen argued that ICWA involved a race-based classification because its definition of Indian children was based on the children’s ancestry, rather than strictly on membership in a federally recognized tribe. Plaintiffs alleged that this classification neither served any compelling interest, nor was narrowly tailored. The federal defendants, intervening tribes, and several amici disputed plaintiffs’ characterization of ICWA as a race-based classification. In particular, they emphasized longstanding Supreme Court jurisprudence holding that the federal government’s relationship with federally recognized Indian tribes is based on a political, rather than racial categorization. For example, in Morton v. Mancari, the Court upheld BIA’s employment preference for members of federally recognized tribes because the preference was a political classification—it singled out members of tribal entities who have a unique relationship with the federal government—rather than a racial one. The Supreme Court further opined that because “[l]iterally every piece of legislation dealing with Indian tribes” is “explicitly designed to help only Indians,” deeming such legislation racial discrimination would jeopardize “the solemn commitment of the Government toward the Indians.” Because the federal defendants relied on the argument that ICWA’s distinctions were political rather than racial in nature, they proffered no arguments on whether ICWA would withstand the strict scrutiny that would be applied if it were a race-based classification. However, they asked that the court permit additional briefing in the event strict scrutiny applied—a request that the court denied. The district court, however, agreed with the plaintiffs that the definition of Indian children was race-based rather than political. In doing so, the court concluded that this case was more like Rice than like Mancari, because Mancari involved only tribe members rather than Indians eligible for tribal membership. The court then decided—in the absence of any counterarguments from the government—that the race-based classification was not narrowly tailored, even assuming that it served a compelling interest. Nondelegation: does ICWA impermissibly delegate legislative power to tribes? The state plaintiffs argued that giving the tribes power to reorder ICWA’s placement preferences violated the nondelegation doctrine, which generally prohibits Congress from delegating its core legislative powers, whether to other government entities or to private parties. Courts generally use the “intelligible principle” test to assess whether a congressional delegation of legislative power to governmental entities is permissible. This is a forgiving standard; the Supreme Court has not invalidated a statute on these Congressional Research Service 4 grounds since 1935. However, some have also read the Court’s jurisprudence as prohibiting Congress from delegating its powers to private entities outside the government. Here, the district court relied upon both these understandings of the nondelegation doctrine to conclude that ICWA was invalid. First, the court held that Congress had not delineated a clear legal framework to guide how the delegated authority under ICWA would be implemented. Instead, the district court agreed with plaintiffs that the Indian tribes’ authority to reorder adoption placement preferences under ICWA was an essentially legislative authority that could not be delegated. Moreover, the court decided that even if that power could be delegated in some circumstances, Indian tribes were akin to private entities that could not exercise delegated powers. The district court was not receptive to arguments that Indian tribes are fundamentally distinct from other private parties (such as corporations), and should thus be treated differently in nondelegation analysis. Anti-commandeering: does ICWA infringe on state sovereignty over child custody matters, forcing the state to perform federal regulatory functions? The state plaintiffs claimed ICWA violated the anti-commandeering doctrine, rooted in the Constitution’s allocation of powers between the federal government and the states, which prohibits Congress from forcing state political branches to perform regulatory functions on the federal government’s behalf. The court granted this claim, agreeing that ICWA requires state courts and executive agencies to apply federal standards and directives to policy areas that are normally reserved for non-federal jurisdiction, such as adoptions, foster care policies, and other child custody issues. The district court tersely rejected the federal government’s argument that ICWA is instead an exercise of Congress’s “plenary and exclusive” authority over Indian tribes. Agency rulemaking: did a 2016 regulation violate the APA? The plaintiffs also used the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) to challenge the BIA’s 2016 Final Rule. The challenged rule tried to establish uniformity in ICWA’s application by, among other things, clarifying the “good cause” requirement for circumventing ICWA’s placement preferences for Indian children. The district court took a two-pronged approach to plaintiffs’ claims that BIA’s regulation was impermissible under the APA. First, the court announced that any regulation implementing the newly invalid portions of ICWA (i.e., the parts of ICWA that the court had already declared unconstitutional) should be struck down. The court then held in the alternative that the regulation exceeded the scope of BIA’s statutory regulatory authority—in the court’s view, the regulation “clarified” a provision that was not ambiguous and needed no clarification. Because the district court viewed the underlying provision as unambiguous, it gave no deference to the agency’s determination that the regulation was necessary. Remaining claims: Indian Commerce Clause and due process The court purported to grant plaintiffs’ claim that ICWA itself exceeded Congress’s legislative powers under the Indian Commerce Clause, but did so as an extension of its ruling that ICWA violated the anticommandeering doctrine, as Congress’s exercise of its power over Indian commerce cannot be employed to commandeer the states. Finally, the court denied the individual plaintiffs’ substantive due process claims, premised on ICWA allegedly infringing upon their fundamental rights of custody and family togetherness as foster or wouldbe adoptive parents of Indian children. The district court observed that the Supreme Court has not applied the fundamental rights of custody and of keeping families together to foster families, and the district court declined to extend recognition of such rights to the individual plaintiffs challenging ICWA. Congressional Research Service 5 Additional Context Similar challenges to ICWA have been brought over the years. At least one advocacy group has made challenging ICWA part of its core mission, claiming that Native American children are being harmed because ICWA hinders the ability of (non-Native) persons to adopt them. By contrast, ICWA’s supporters fear that challengers are jeopardizing longstanding principles underlying tribal sovereignty, while “[c]loaking [their] efforts in the language of civil rights.” Until Brackeen, however, direct challenges to ICWA generally had been unsuccessful—with perhaps one limited, but notable, exception. In a 2013 case, Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl (popularly known as the Baby Veronica case), the U.S. Supreme Court limited the range of circumstances in which ICWA might apply. In a 5-4 decision, the Court ruled that several of ICWA’s provisions were inapplicable if the parent seeking to invoke them never had legal or physical custody of the Indian child. In the Baby Veronica case, that meant that the Indian father—who had never had custody of his daughter—could not invoke his and his tribe’s rights under ICWA to block her adoption. Second, the Court stated that the ICWA’s placement preferences for an Indian child adoption were relevant only if multiple parties actually sought to adopt the Indian child. In the Baby Veronica case, because only one party—a non-Indian couple—was trying to adopt the child, ICWA’s placement preferences could not prevent the adoption from being finalized. The Baby Veronica case was only the second ICWA case heard by the Supreme Court. The first came more than twenty years earlier, in 1989, when the Supreme Court held that, for ICWA purposes, the domicile of an Indian child was the domicile of the parents, regardless of where the child was actually born. The Baby Veronica case thus seemed to signal to some that ICWA was newly ripe for challenges, but the Supreme Court has so far declined to hear other cases challenging ICWA. However, many challenges like Brackeen have been raised in federal or state courts. As one example, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit recently dismissed a challenge to ICWA’s constitutionality, holding that it was mooted by the fact that the would-be adoptive parents had been able to complete their adoptions. In Brackeen v. Zinke, however, Judge O’Connor denied a motion to dismiss on similar grounds. What’s Next? The Brackeen v. Zinke decision has already been appealed to the Fifth Circuit. By stipulation of the parties, briefing in the appeal has been expedited and is scheduled to be completed in February 2019; the case is tentatively calendared for oral argument in March 2019. Although Judge O’Connor declined to stay the effect of his ruling pending appeal, the Fifth Circuit granted just such a stay despite the plaintiffs’ objection, so at least for now, the district court decision will not change the way ICWA is administered in Texas, Louisiana, or Indiana. In the event the Fifth Circuit agrees that ICWA is unconstitutional on one or more grounds, the adversely affected parties would likely seek appeal to the United States Supreme Court. The federal defendants filed their brief in January, arguing that each aspect of the district court’s decision was “unprecedented and in conflict with binding authority.” The brief also renewed challenges to the plaintiffs’ standing and argued that ICWA’s severability clause meant the ruling should have been narrower in any case. With regard to the equal protection claim, the government previewed the argument it would have made in supplemental briefing below: ICWA protects tribe members and their families, which includes the not-yet-enrolled children of tribal members, and is narrowly tailored to protect the best interests of those children. Nonetheless, the government suggested that if the Fifth Circuit agreed that strict scrutiny applied, it should remand to the district court for full briefing on the issue. In addition to ruling on the merits of the constitutional challenge to ICWA, the Fifth Circuit’s decision might also provide an opportunity for an appellate court to elaborate further on many of the Congressional Research Service 6 LSB10245 · VERSION 5 · UPDATED constitutional issues discussed, oftentimes in succinct terms, by the district court in Brackeen. The relationship between the Supreme Court’s jurisprudence on equal protection and tribal issues has prompted extensive legal commentary, and some have questioned what, if any, relevance the Brackeen decision might have for other Indian law statutes. The significance of these issues might make the Brackeen decision, to the extent it is upheld by the Fifth Circuit, particularly ripe for Supreme Court resolution.

Use the information in the context block only; do not rely on your prior knowledge or any external sources. Is the Indian Child Welfare Act Constitutional? In Brackeen v. Zinke, a federal district court declared that the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA)—a 1978 law meant “to protect the best interests of Indian children and to promote the stability and security of Indian tribes and families”—was unconstitutional in several ways. This decision is currently pending before the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit (Fifth Circuit), and its practical implications have been paused until the appeal is decided. If upheld, this decision would eliminate many of the special rules that apply to the adoption and foster care placements of Indian children in the three states involved in this case: Texas, Louisiana, and Indiana. Among other things, these rules allow a tribe to assume jurisdiction over, or otherwise to have input into, the placements of children who are eligible for tribal membership. In 1978, Congress recognized that an “alarmingly high percentage of Indian families” were being broken up by often-unwarranted removal of their children by nontribal entities, placing many of these children in non-Indian foster and adoptive homes. Citing its responsibility for protecting and preserving Indian tribes, Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov LSB10245 Congressional Research Service 2 Congress passed ICWA to protect Indian children as vital to the tribes’ continued existence. ICWA is designed to do two primary things: (1) set standards for placing Indian children with foster or adoptive families, and (2) help tribes set up child and family programs. Though a number of lawsuits have challenged ICWA over the past 40 years, including on the grounds that the statute impermissibly treated Indian children differently on the basis of race, until Brackeen, none of those challenges had been successful. Instead, courts in prior cases had noted Congress’s “plenary” authority over Indian affairs—derived principally from the Indian Commerce Clause and the Treaty Power—and concluded that applying special rules to Indian children was constitutional because, among other things, the distinction between Indians and non-Indians was not an impermissible race-based classification, but was instead a recognition of the unique political status of Indian tribes. This Sidebar gives a brief overview of ICWA, outlines the Brackeen court’s decision with relevant legal context, and explores the possible impacts, including potential for higher court and congressional action. Relevant ICWA provisions and associated regulations Most relevant to the claims at issue in Brackeen, ICWA sets forth a series of duties that must be fulfilled for Indian child placements. For the purposes of ICWA, an “Indian child” is any unmarried person under eighteen who is either a member of an Indian tribe or is both eligible for membership in an Indian tribe and the biological child of a member of an Indian tribe. Three main aspects of ICWA are relevant to the issues raised in Brackeen. First, under ICWA, any party seeking involuntary termination of parental rights to an Indian child under state law must first demonstrate that active efforts have been made to provide remedial services and rehabilitative programs designed to prevent the breakup of the Indian family. Second, involuntary termination requires evidence beyond a reasonable doubt (including expert witness testimony), that the continued custody of the child by the parent or Indian custodian would likely result in serious emotional or physical damage to the child. Third, when an Indian child is placed with a foster or adoptive family under state law, ICWA lists general preferences for that placement: (1) a member of the child’s extended family; (2) other members of the Indian child’s tribe; or (3) other Indian families. However, if a tribe wants to re-order those preferences for Indian children associated with that tribe, it may pass a resolution doing so, and state agencies and courts generally must follow that amended order of preference. In any event, ICWA provides that these preferences may be circumvented in an individual case upon a showing of “good cause.” The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has authority to make regulations governing ICWA’s implementation. Though BIA chose not to do so when the statute was first passed, in 2016 it issued a Final Rule aimed at reconciling different states’ interpretations of ICWA—for example, by clarifying the circumstances in which “good cause” exists for circumventing ICWA’s placement preferences. Brackeen v. Zinke: the plaintiffs’ claims and the district court’s decision A group of plaintiffs comprising three states (Indiana, Louisiana, and Texas) and several private parties— primarily non-Indian couples who had adopted or wanted to adopt an Indian child—challenged several facets of ICWA and related regulations (including the 2016 Final Rule, as well as certain funding provisions conditioned on ICWA compliance), seeking to have them declared unconstitutional or otherwise rendered invalid. They filed these challenges in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, where Judge Reed O’Connor did declare much of ICWA unconstitutional, granting nearly all of the plaintiffs’ claims. (This decision is arguably the second-most consequential decision by Judge O’Connor in recent months, as he ruled in December 2018 that the Affordable Care Act was also unconstitutional). The federal defendants, intervening tribes, and a group of amicus curiae Congressional Research Service 3 including numerous federally recognized tribes, several Indian organizations, and a number of states, disputed plaintiffs’ characterization of ICWA and contended the challenged laws and implementing regulations were lawful. The plaintiffs’ claims about ICWA’s validity, and the court’s responses to them, are discussed below. Equal protection: does ICWA use a race-based classification, and if so, can it survive strict scrutiny? The state and the individual plaintiffs together claimed that ICWA ran afoul of the Fifth Amendment’s equal protection guarantees, by impermissibly using a race-based classification. The plaintiffs’ claim relied primarily on the Supreme Court’s decisions in two cases. First, in Adarand Constructors v. Peña, the Supreme Court established that any time the federal government subjects individuals to unequal treatment based on their race, that action is subject to “strict scrutiny”—a test that asks whether the classification (1) serves a compelling government interest and (2) is narrowly tailored to further that interest. Second, in Rice v. Cayetano, in the course of invalidating a Hawaiian law that permitted only persons of native Hawaiian descent to vote in certain elections, the Supreme Court recognized that “[a]ncestry can be a proxy for race” and may be subject to the same constitutional limitations as directly race-based classifications. The plaintiffs in Brackeen argued that ICWA involved a race-based classification because its definition of Indian children was based on the children’s ancestry, rather than strictly on membership in a federally recognized tribe. Plaintiffs alleged that this classification neither served any compelling interest, nor was narrowly tailored. The federal defendants, intervening tribes, and several amici disputed plaintiffs’ characterization of ICWA as a race-based classification. In particular, they emphasized longstanding Supreme Court jurisprudence holding that the federal government’s relationship with federally recognized Indian tribes is based on a political, rather than racial categorization. For example, in Morton v. Mancari, the Court upheld BIA’s employment preference for members of federally recognized tribes because the preference was a political classification—it singled out members of tribal entities who have a unique relationship with the federal government—rather than a racial one. The Supreme Court further opined that because “[l]iterally every piece of legislation dealing with Indian tribes” is “explicitly designed to help only Indians,” deeming such legislation racial discrimination would jeopardize “the solemn commitment of the Government toward the Indians.” Because the federal defendants relied on the argument that ICWA’s distinctions were political rather than racial in nature, they proffered no arguments on whether ICWA would withstand the strict scrutiny that would be applied if it were a race-based classification. However, they asked that the court permit additional briefing in the event strict scrutiny applied—a request that the court denied. The district court, however, agreed with the plaintiffs that the definition of Indian children was race-based rather than political. In doing so, the court concluded that this case was more like Rice than like Mancari, because Mancari involved only tribe members rather than Indians eligible for tribal membership. The court then decided—in the absence of any counterarguments from the government—that the race-based classification was not narrowly tailored, even assuming that it served a compelling interest. Nondelegation: does ICWA impermissibly delegate legislative power to tribes? The state plaintiffs argued that giving the tribes power to reorder ICWA’s placement preferences violated the nondelegation doctrine, which generally prohibits Congress from delegating its core legislative powers, whether to other government entities or to private parties. Courts generally use the “intelligible principle” test to assess whether a congressional delegation of legislative power to governmental entities is permissible. This is a forgiving standard; the Supreme Court has not invalidated a statute on these Congressional Research Service 4 grounds since 1935. However, some have also read the Court’s jurisprudence as prohibiting Congress from delegating its powers to private entities outside the government. Here, the district court relied upon both these understandings of the nondelegation doctrine to conclude that ICWA was invalid. First, the court held that Congress had not delineated a clear legal framework to guide how the delegated authority under ICWA would be implemented. Instead, the district court agreed with plaintiffs that the Indian tribes’ authority to reorder adoption placement preferences under ICWA was an essentially legislative authority that could not be delegated. Moreover, the court decided that even if that power could be delegated in some circumstances, Indian tribes were akin to private entities that could not exercise delegated powers. The district court was not receptive to arguments that Indian tribes are fundamentally distinct from other private parties (such as corporations), and should thus be treated differently in nondelegation analysis. Anti-commandeering: does ICWA infringe on state sovereignty over child custody matters, forcing the state to perform federal regulatory functions? The state plaintiffs claimed ICWA violated the anti-commandeering doctrine, rooted in the Constitution’s allocation of powers between the federal government and the states, which prohibits Congress from forcing state political branches to perform regulatory functions on the federal government’s behalf. The court granted this claim, agreeing that ICWA requires state courts and executive agencies to apply federal standards and directives to policy areas that are normally reserved for non-federal jurisdiction, such as adoptions, foster care policies, and other child custody issues. The district court tersely rejected the federal government’s argument that ICWA is instead an exercise of Congress’s “plenary and exclusive” authority over Indian tribes. Agency rulemaking: did a 2016 regulation violate the APA? The plaintiffs also used the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) to challenge the BIA’s 2016 Final Rule. The challenged rule tried to establish uniformity in ICWA’s application by, among other things, clarifying the “good cause” requirement for circumventing ICWA’s placement preferences for Indian children. The district court took a two-pronged approach to plaintiffs’ claims that BIA’s regulation was impermissible under the APA. First, the court announced that any regulation implementing the newly invalid portions of ICWA (i.e., the parts of ICWA that the court had already declared unconstitutional) should be struck down. The court then held in the alternative that the regulation exceeded the scope of BIA’s statutory regulatory authority—in the court’s view, the regulation “clarified” a provision that was not ambiguous and needed no clarification. Because the district court viewed the underlying provision as unambiguous, it gave no deference to the agency’s determination that the regulation was necessary. Remaining claims: Indian Commerce Clause and due process The court purported to grant plaintiffs’ claim that ICWA itself exceeded Congress’s legislative powers under the Indian Commerce Clause, but did so as an extension of its ruling that ICWA violated the anticommandeering doctrine, as Congress’s exercise of its power over Indian commerce cannot be employed to commandeer the states. Finally, the court denied the individual plaintiffs’ substantive due process claims, premised on ICWA allegedly infringing upon their fundamental rights of custody and family togetherness as foster or wouldbe adoptive parents of Indian children. The district court observed that the Supreme Court has not applied the fundamental rights of custody and of keeping families together to foster families, and the district court declined to extend recognition of such rights to the individual plaintiffs challenging ICWA. Congressional Research Service 5 Additional Context Similar challenges to ICWA have been brought over the years. At least one advocacy group has made challenging ICWA part of its core mission, claiming that Native American children are being harmed because ICWA hinders the ability of (non-Native) persons to adopt them. By contrast, ICWA’s supporters fear that challengers are jeopardizing longstanding principles underlying tribal sovereignty, while “[c]loaking [their] efforts in the language of civil rights.” Until Brackeen, however, direct challenges to ICWA generally had been unsuccessful—with perhaps one limited, but notable, exception. In a 2013 case, Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl (popularly known as the Baby Veronica case), the U.S. Supreme Court limited the range of circumstances in which ICWA might apply. In a 5-4 decision, the Court ruled that several of ICWA’s provisions were inapplicable if the parent seeking to invoke them never had legal or physical custody of the Indian child. In the Baby Veronica case, that meant that the Indian father—who had never had custody of his daughter—could not invoke his and his tribe’s rights under ICWA to block her adoption. Second, the Court stated that the ICWA’s placement preferences for an Indian child adoption were relevant only if multiple parties actually sought to adopt the Indian child. In the Baby Veronica case, because only one party—a non-Indian couple—was trying to adopt the child, ICWA’s placement preferences could not prevent the adoption from being finalized. The Baby Veronica case was only the second ICWA case heard by the Supreme Court. The first came more than twenty years earlier, in 1989, when the Supreme Court held that, for ICWA purposes, the domicile of an Indian child was the domicile of the parents, regardless of where the child was actually born. The Baby Veronica case thus seemed to signal to some that ICWA was newly ripe for challenges, but the Supreme Court has so far declined to hear other cases challenging ICWA. However, many challenges like Brackeen have been raised in federal or state courts. As one example, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit recently dismissed a challenge to ICWA’s constitutionality, holding that it was mooted by the fact that the would-be adoptive parents had been able to complete their adoptions. In Brackeen v. Zinke, however, Judge O’Connor denied a motion to dismiss on similar grounds. What’s Next? The Brackeen v. Zinke decision has already been appealed to the Fifth Circuit. By stipulation of the parties, briefing in the appeal has been expedited and is scheduled to be completed in February 2019; the case is tentatively calendared for oral argument in March 2019. Although Judge O’Connor declined to stay the effect of his ruling pending appeal, the Fifth Circuit granted just such a stay despite the plaintiffs’ objection, so at least for now, the district court decision will not change the way ICWA is administered in Texas, Louisiana, or Indiana. In the event the Fifth Circuit agrees that ICWA is unconstitutional on one or more grounds, the adversely affected parties would likely seek appeal to the United States Supreme Court. The federal defendants filed their brief in January, arguing that each aspect of the district court’s decision was “unprecedented and in conflict with binding authority.” The brief also renewed challenges to the plaintiffs’ standing and argued that ICWA’s severability clause meant the ruling should have been narrower in any case. With regard to the equal protection claim, the government previewed the argument it would have made in supplemental briefing below: ICWA protects tribe members and their families, which includes the not-yet-enrolled children of tribal members, and is narrowly tailored to protect the best interests of those children. Nonetheless, the government suggested that if the Fifth Circuit agreed that strict scrutiny applied, it should remand to the district court for full briefing on the issue. In addition to ruling on the merits of the constitutional challenge to ICWA, the Fifth Circuit’s decision might also provide an opportunity for an appellate court to elaborate further on many of the Congressional Research Service 6 LSB10245 · VERSION 5 · UPDATED constitutional issues discussed, oftentimes in succinct terms, by the district court in Brackeen. The relationship between the Supreme Court’s jurisprudence on equal protection and tribal issues has prompted extensive legal commentary, and some have questioned what, if any, relevance the Brackeen decision might have for other Indian law statutes. The significance of these issues might make the Brackeen decision, to the extent it is upheld by the Fifth Circuit, particularly ripe for Supreme Court resolution. Summarize the arguments that support and oppose the claim that the ICWA is unconstitutional.

This task requires you to answer questions based solely on the information provided in the prompt. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge. Use language appropriate for a 9th grade civics class. Use real life examples to make things comprehensible for someone with minimal legislative knowledge.

Summarize NetChoice’s two challenges. Explain why they challenged the restrictions. Bold the major actors names and also any legislative references that are included in the text.

NetChoice’s Challenge to Florida’s S.B. 7072 Florida’s S.B. 7072 imposes restrictions on any information service, system, internet search engine, or access software provider that enables access by multiple users to a computer server, is organized as a legal entity, does business in Florida, and satisfies certain specified user- or revenue-based thresholds. Thus, while the litigation about the law emphasized the limitations it imposed on social media platforms, the law applied more broadly. NetChoice challenged restrictions that generally fall into two categories: content moderation restrictions and individualized-explanation requirements. The Supreme Court’s analysis in Moody focused on the content moderation restrictions. Those provisions limit the ability of covered platforms to delete content, make content less visible to other users, or ban users. Under S.B. 7072, platforms may not “deplatform” a political candidate or deprioritize a candidate’s or “journalistic enterprise’s” posts. They must “apply censorship, deplatforming, and shadow banning standards in a consistent manner,” and they cannot change the rules or terms that apply to users more than once every 30 days. Deplatforming occurs when a platform bans a user for at least 14 days. Shadow banning occurs when a platform deletes a user’s content or makes the account’s content less visible to other users. Before S.B. 7072 took effect, NetChoice sued, alleging that the content moderation provisions, on their face, violate the First Amendment. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit affirmed a preliminary injunction barring enforcement of the content moderation provisions while NetChoice’s challenge is litigated. The court held that the provisions likely “trigger[] First Amendment scrutiny because [S.B. 7072] restricts social-media platforms’ exercise of editorial judgment.” It decided that the challenged provisions likely fail constitutional scrutiny because they lack a “substantial or compelling interest that would justify [the provisions’] significant restrictions on platforms’ editorial judgment.” NetChoice’s Challenge to Texas’s H.B. 20 Texas’s H.B. 20 applies to social media platforms with more than 50 million monthly active users in the United States. The law defines social media platforms as public websites or applications that enable users to create accounts and communicate for the primary purpose of posting user-generated information. Internet service providers, email providers, and websites “that consist primarily of news, sports, entertainment, or other” content that is not user generated are excluded from the definition. As with Florida’s law, H.B. 20 limits when covered platforms may delete or restrict access to user-posted content. Subject to enumerated exceptions, covered platforms are prohibited from censoring a user’s content based on viewpoint or the user’s geographic location in Texas. Censor is defined to mean “block[ing], ban[ning], remove[ing], deplatform[ing], demonetiz[ing], de-boost[ing], restrict[ing], deny[ing] equal access or visibility to, or otherwise discriminat[ing] against expression.” Again, NetChoice challenged H.B. 20’s content moderation provisions on their face and asked a court to enjoin their enforcement before the law took effect. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit denied the request. Expressly disagreeing with the Eleventh Circuit’s reasoning about Florida’s law, the Fifth Circuit held that Texas’s content moderation provisions do not likely implicate First Amendment rights. According to the Fifth Circuit, NetChoice was seeking to assert a “right to censor what people say” that is not protected by the First Amendment. In the alternative, the court held that, even if the law restricted protected expression, it is a content- and viewpoint-neutral law—so subject to intermediate scrutiny—and Texas’s interest in protecting the free exchange of ideas is sufficiently important to satisfy that standard.

This task requires you to answer questions based solely on the information provided in the prompt. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge. Use language appropriate for a 9th grade civics class. Use real life examples to make things comprehensible for someone with minimal legislative knowledge. Summarize NetChoice’s two challenges. Explain why they challenged the restrictions. Bold the major actors names and also any legislative references that are included in the text. NetChoice’s Challenge to Florida’s S.B. 7072 Florida’s S.B. 7072 imposes restrictions on any information service, system, internet search engine, or access software provider that enables access by multiple users to a computer server, is organized as a legal entity, does business in Florida, and satisfies certain specified user- or revenue-based thresholds. Thus, while the litigation about the law emphasized the limitations it imposed on social media platforms, the law applied more broadly. NetChoice challenged restrictions that generally fall into two categories: content moderation restrictions and individualized-explanation requirements. The Supreme Court’s analysis in Moody focused on the content moderation restrictions. Those provisions limit the ability of covered platforms to delete content, make content less visible to other users, or ban users. Under S.B. 7072, platforms may not “deplatform” a political candidate or deprioritize a candidate’s or “journalistic enterprise’s” posts. They must “apply censorship, deplatforming, and shadow banning standards in a consistent manner,” and they cannot change the rules or terms that apply to users more than once every 30 days. Deplatforming occurs when a platform bans a user for at least 14 days. Shadow banning occurs when a platform deletes a user’s content or makes the account’s content less visible to other users. Before S.B. 7072 took effect, NetChoice sued, alleging that the content moderation provisions, on their face, violate the First Amendment. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit affirmed a preliminary injunction barring enforcement of the content moderation provisions while NetChoice’s challenge is litigated. The court held that the provisions likely “trigger[] First Amendment scrutiny because [S.B. 7072] restricts social-media platforms’ exercise of editorial judgment.” It decided that the challenged provisions likely fail constitutional scrutiny because they lack a “substantial or compelling interest that would justify [the provisions’] significant restrictions on platforms’ editorial judgment.” NetChoice’s Challenge to Texas’s H.B. 20 Texas’s H.B. 20 applies to social media platforms with more than 50 million monthly active users in the United States. The law defines social media platforms as public websites or applications that enable users to create accounts and communicate for the primary purpose of posting user-generated information. Internet service providers, email providers, and websites “that consist primarily of news, sports, entertainment, or other” content that is not user generated are excluded from the definition. As with Florida’s law, H.B. 20 limits when covered platforms may delete or restrict access to user-posted content. Subject to enumerated exceptions, covered platforms are prohibited from censoring a user’s content based on viewpoint or the user’s geographic location in Texas. Censor is defined to mean “block[ing], ban[ning], remove[ing], deplatform[ing], demonetiz[ing], de-boost[ing], restrict[ing], deny[ing] equal access or visibility to, or otherwise discriminat[ing] against expression.” Again, NetChoice challenged H.B. 20’s content moderation provisions on their face and asked a court to enjoin their enforcement before the law took effect. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit denied the request. Expressly disagreeing with the Eleventh Circuit’s reasoning about Florida’s law, the Fifth Circuit held that Texas’s content moderation provisions do not likely implicate First Amendment rights. According to the Fifth Circuit, NetChoice was seeking to assert a “right to censor what people say” that is not protected by the First Amendment. In the alternative, the court held that, even if the law restricted protected expression, it is a content- and viewpoint-neutral law—so subject to intermediate scrutiny—and Texas’s interest in protecting the free exchange of ideas is sufficiently important to satisfy that standard.

For this task, return an answer which is based solely on the context provided to you. If you find that you can not answer the question using only the context provided, say "There is not enough information in the text provided to sufficiently answer this question."

Explain the differences between demand-pull inflation and cost-push inflation with examples.

Demand-Pull Inflation Inflation that is caused by an increase in aggregate demand (overall spending) absent a proportional increase in aggregate supply (overall production) is known as demand-pull inflation. When aggregate demand increases by more than its trend rate, typically the productive capacity of the economy does not immediately adjust to meet higher demand, particularly if the economy is at or near full employment.16 In response to the increased demand in the economy, producers will attempt to increase the quantity of goods and services they provide. To increase production, producers may attempt to hire more workers by increasing wages. Assuming producers are not willing to eat into profits in order to ramp up production,17 they are likely to increase the prices of their final goods and services to compensate themselves for the increase in wages (which increases production costs), thereby creating inflation.18 Inflation can work to lower demand and increase supply and thus can be the means to bring supply and demand back into equilibrium, particularly in an overheating economy in which demand has risen above what the economy can produce at full employment.19 Any number of factors could contribute to increases in aggregate demand, including the normal ebbs and flows of the business cycle, consumer and investor sentiment, the value of the dollar, and fiscal and monetary policy, among others. Expansionary fiscal policies include an increase in the budget deficit by lowering taxes or increasing government spending or transfers to individuals. Such policies work to increase overall spending in the economy by driving up consumer demand, in the case of lower taxes, or both consumer demand and government purchases in the case of increased spending. This in turn can lead to increased production and decreasing unemployment levels. The downside to achieving these benefits through expansionary fiscal policy is that it can result in demand-pull inflation in the short term, particularly if the economy is at full employment. Expansionary fiscal policy is unlikely to cause sustained inflation, as it typically involves temporary increases in spending. Such one-time increases may produce similar one-time increases in inflation but would be likely to cause persistent increases in inflation only if such policy were persistently applied. Additionally, monetary policy can potentially be used to offset the inflationary effects of such policy. Cost-Push Inflation Inflation that is caused by a decrease in aggregate supply as a result of increases in the cost of production absent a proportional decrease in aggregate demand is known as cost-push inflation. An increase in the cost of raw materials or any of the factors of production—land, labor, capital, entrepreneurship—will result in increased production costs.23 Assuming producers’ productivity is at or near its maximum, producers will not be able to maintain existing profit margins in response. Much the same as the demand-side issue, if producers cannot or will not accept lowered profits, they will raise prices.24 The classic example of cost-push inflation is the result of a commodity price shock, which sharply decreases the supply of a given commodity and increases its price. Certain commodities are inputs in the production process, and as the price of an important input good increases, so does the price of the final goods and services, resulting in inflation. Cost-push inflation, especially when caused by a supply shock, tends to result in only a temporary increase in inflation unless accommodated by monetary policy. Supply disruptions are often alleviated naturally, and for inflation to be persistently high, supply shock after supply shock would need to occur.25 One of the reasons a commodity shock in particular is a widely cited example of something that causes cost-push inflation is that demand for many commodities is considered to be inelastic. The elasticity of demand refers to how consumers’ appetite for a good changes given the price it is offered at.26 A completely inelastic good is one that consumers would purchase at the same rate regardless of the price. For example, demand for oil and its derivative petroleum products—such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and petrochemicals—is generally fairly inelastic, because they are necessary purchases for consumers and businesses, with few substitutes readily available. Another commonly cited example of cost-push inflation is caused by increases in the cost of labor, often referred to as wage-push inflation. An increase in the federal minimum wage, for example, could theoretically cause inflation. When producers need to pay their workers more, they may opt to pass that cost along to the consumer, reduce profits to pay the increased cost, or decrease the amount of workers they employ to keep costs down. The extent to which an increase in wages affects the price level depends largely on how many workers are affected by the wage increase and the size of the increase. In the case of the minimum wage, very few workers or very many workers could be affected, depending on the level of increase.

For this task, return an answer which is based solely on the context provided to you. If you find that you can not answer the question using only the context provided, say "There is not enough information in the text provided to sufficiently answer this question." Context: Demand-Pull Inflation Inflation that is caused by an increase in aggregate demand (overall spending) absent a proportional increase in aggregate supply (overall production) is known as demand-pull inflation. When aggregate demand increases by more than its trend rate, typically the productive capacity of the economy does not immediately adjust to meet higher demand, particularly if the economy is at or near full employment.16 In response to the increased demand in the economy, producers will attempt to increase the quantity of goods and services they provide. To increase production, producers may attempt to hire more workers by increasing wages. Assuming producers are not willing to eat into profits in order to ramp up production,17 they are likely to increase the prices of their final goods and services to compensate themselves for the increase in wages (which increases production costs), thereby creating inflation.18 Inflation can work to lower demand and increase supply and thus can be the means to bring supply and demand back into equilibrium, particularly in an overheating economy in which demand has risen above what the economy can produce at full employment.19 Any number of factors could contribute to increases in aggregate demand, including the normal ebbs and flows of the business cycle, consumer and investor sentiment, the value of the dollar, and fiscal and monetary policy, among others. Expansionary fiscal policies include an increase in the budget deficit by lowering taxes or increasing government spending or transfers to individuals. Such policies work to increase overall spending in the economy by driving up consumer demand, in the case of lower taxes, or both consumer demand and government purchases in the case of increased spending. This in turn can lead to increased production and decreasing unemployment levels. The downside to achieving these benefits through expansionary fiscal policy is that it can result in demand-pull inflation in the short term, particularly if the economy is at full employment. Expansionary fiscal policy is unlikely to cause sustained inflation, as it typically involves temporary increases in spending. Such one-time increases may produce similar one-time increases in inflation but would be likely to cause persistent increases in inflation only if such policy were persistently applied. Additionally, monetary policy can potentially be used to offset the inflationary effects of such policy. Cost-Push Inflation Inflation that is caused by a decrease in aggregate supply as a result of increases in the cost of production absent a proportional decrease in aggregate demand is known as cost-push inflation. An increase in the cost of raw materials or any of the factors of production—land, labor, capital, entrepreneurship—will result in increased production costs.23 Assuming producers’ productivity is at or near its maximum, producers will not be able to maintain existing profit margins in response. Much the same as the demand-side issue, if producers cannot or will not accept lowered profits, they will raise prices.24 The classic example of cost-push inflation is the result of a commodity price shock, which sharply decreases the supply of a given commodity and increases its price. Certain commodities are inputs in the production process, and as the price of an important input good increases, so does the price of the final goods and services, resulting in inflation. Cost-push inflation, especially when caused by a supply shock, tends to result in only a temporary increase in inflation unless accommodated by monetary policy. Supply disruptions are often alleviated naturally, and for inflation to be persistently high, supply shock after supply shock would need to occur.25 One of the reasons a commodity shock in particular is a widely cited example of something that causes cost-push inflation is that demand for many commodities is considered to be inelastic. The elasticity of demand refers to how consumers’ appetite for a good changes given the price it is offered at.26 A completely inelastic good is one that consumers would purchase at the same rate regardless of the price. For example, demand for oil and its derivative petroleum products—such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and petrochemicals—is generally fairly inelastic, because they are necessary purchases for consumers and businesses, with few substitutes readily available. Another commonly cited example of cost-push inflation is caused by increases in the cost of labor, often referred to as wage-push inflation. An increase in the federal minimum wage, for example, could theoretically cause inflation. When producers need to pay their workers more, they may opt to pass that cost along to the consumer, reduce profits to pay the increased cost, or decrease the amount of workers they employ to keep costs down. The extent to which an increase in wages affects the price level depends largely on how many workers are affected by the wage increase and the size of the increase. In the case of the minimum wage, very few workers or very many workers could be affected, depending on the level of increase. Question: Explain the differences between demand-pull inflation and cost-push inflation with examples.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> [user request] <TEXT> [context document]

What is the technical difference between a VPN and an Extranet, and how do both get utilized safely in an enterprise environment without breaking connections between computers?

2.3 VPNs and Extranets The term 'extranet' is commonly used to refer to a scenario whereby two or more companies have networked access to a limited amount of each other's corporate data. For example a manufacturing company might use an extranet for its suppliers to allow it to query databases for the pricing and availability of components, and then to order and track the status of outstanding orders. Another example is joint software development, for instance, company A allows one development group within company B to access its operating system source code, and company B allows one development group in company A to access its security software. Note that the access policies can get arbitrarily complex. For example company B may internally restrict access to its security software to groups in certain geographic locations to comply with export control laws, for example. A key feature of an extranet is thus the control of who can access what data, and this is essentially a policy decision. Policy decisions are typically enforced today at the interconnection points between different domains, for example between a private network and the Internet, or between a software test lab and the rest of the company network. The enforcement may be done via a firewall, router with access list functionality, application gateway, or any similar device capable of applying policy to transit traffic. Policy controls may be implemented within a corporate network, in addition to between corporate networks. Also the interconnections between networks could be a set of bilateral links, or could be a separate network, perhaps maintained by an industry consortium. This separate network could itself be a VPN or a physical network. Introducing VPNs into a network does not require any change to this model. Policy can be enforced between two VPNs, or between a VPN and the Internet, in exactly the same manner as is done today without VPNs. For example two VPNs could be interconnected, which each administration locally imposing its own policy controls, via a firewall, on all traffic that enters its VPN from the outside, whether from another VPN or from the Internet. This model of a VPN provides for a separation of policy from the underlying mode of packet transport used. For example, a router may direct voice traffic to ATM Virtual Channel Connections (VCCs) for guaranteed QoS, non-local internal company traffic to secure tunnels, and other traffic to a link to the Internet. In the past the secure tunnels may have been frame relay circuits, now they may also be secure IP tunnels or MPLS Label Switched Paths (LSPs) Gleeson, et al. Informational [Page 9] RFC 2764 IP Based Virtual Private Networks February 2000 Other models of a VPN are also possible. For example there is a model whereby a set of application flows is mapped into a VPN. As the policy rules imposed by a network administrator can get quite complex, the number of distinct sets of application flows that are used in the policy rulebase, and hence the number of VPNs, can thus grow quite large, and there can be multiple overlapping VPNs. However there is little to be gained by introducing such new complexity into a network. Instead a VPN should be viewed as a direct analogue to a physical network, as this allows the leveraging of existing protocols and procedures, and the current expertise and skill sets of network administrators and customers.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> What is the technical difference between a VPN and an Extranet, and how do both get utilized safely in an enterprise environment without breaking connections between computers? <TEXT> 2.3 VPNs and Extranets The term 'extranet' is commonly used to refer to a scenario whereby two or more companies have networked access to a limited amount of each other's corporate data. For example a manufacturing company might use an extranet for its suppliers to allow it to query databases for the pricing and availability of components, and then to order and track the status of outstanding orders. Another example is joint software development, for instance, company A allows one development group within company B to access its operating system source code, and company B allows one development group in company A to access its security software. Note that the access policies can get arbitrarily complex. For example company B may internally restrict access to its security software to groups in certain geographic locations to comply with export control laws, for example. A key feature of an extranet is thus the control of who can access what data, and this is essentially a policy decision. Policy decisions are typically enforced today at the interconnection points between different domains, for example between a private network and the Internet, or between a software test lab and the rest of the company network. The enforcement may be done via a firewall, router with access list functionality, application gateway, or any similar device capable of applying policy to transit traffic. Policy controls may be implemented within a corporate network, in addition to between corporate networks. Also the interconnections between networks could be a set of bilateral links, or could be a separate network, perhaps maintained by an industry consortium. This separate network could itself be a VPN or a physical network. Introducing VPNs into a network does not require any change to this model. Policy can be enforced between two VPNs, or between a VPN and the Internet, in exactly the same manner as is done today without VPNs. For example two VPNs could be interconnected, which each administration locally imposing its own policy controls, via a firewall, on all traffic that enters its VPN from the outside, whether from another VPN or from the Internet. This model of a VPN provides for a separation of policy from the underlying mode of packet transport used. For example, a router may direct voice traffic to ATM Virtual Channel Connections (VCCs) for guaranteed QoS, non-local internal company traffic to secure tunnels, and other traffic to a link to the Internet. In the past the secure tunnels may have been frame relay circuits, now they may also be secure IP tunnels or MPLS Label Switched Paths (LSPs) Gleeson, et al. Informational [Page 9] RFC 2764 IP Based Virtual Private Networks February 2000 Other models of a VPN are also possible. For example there is a model whereby a set of application flows is mapped into a VPN. As the policy rules imposed by a network administrator can get quite complex, the number of distinct sets of application flows that are used in the policy rulebase, and hence the number of VPNs, can thus grow quite large, and there can be multiple overlapping VPNs. However there is little to be gained by introducing such new complexity into a network. Instead a VPN should be viewed as a direct analogue to a physical network, as this allows the leveraging of existing protocols and procedures, and the current expertise and skill sets of network administrators and customers. https://rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2764

Base your entire response on the document I gave you. I need to know the absolute basic information about what is being said here.

What percentage of Canadians have at least one credit card, and how many pay them off monthly?

The Bottom Line Credit cards offer valuable benefits for both consumers and retailers. And the majority of Canadians use their credit card as a method of payment rather than a means of borrowing. Credit card benefits For Consumers A credit card is a convenient and flexible payment tool accepted in more than 200 countries and at millions of locations worldwide. Benefits include: • Access to unsecured credit (no collateral required against amounts charged). • Interest-free payment from time of purchase to the end of the billing period. • Instant payment of purchases, allowing for instant receipt of goods and services. Focus: Credit Cards: Statistics and Facts Focus Sheet • Credit cards provide interest-free credit from the time of purchase to the end of the billing period • More than 70% of Canadians pay their credit card balance in full each month1 , so for them the interest rate is zero • For those who choose to carry a balance: o Credit cards offer access to unsecured credit (no collateral required) o There are many low interest rate cards on the market and over 30 of those cards have an interest rate of under 13% FAST FACTS • Coverage for purchases if the item is damaged, stolen or not delivered within 90 days. • 24/7 access. • Fraud protection with zero liability to the consumer in cases of fraud. • Other rewards and benefits, such as air travel points, car insurance, damage and loss insurance and extended warranty programs. For retailers Retailers are not required to accept credit cards, but do so to provide payments options for their customers. Retailers that do accept credit cards receive many benefits, including: • Reaching a large customer base – Credit cards are the preferred method of payment for many customers, and customers will select retailers that allow them to choose their preferred method of payment. • Fast, guaranteed payment, which can reduce line-ups at checkout. If every credit card transaction took an extra 30 seconds, it would use up an additional 27 million hours of staff time each year. • The ability of accepting credit without worrying about the creditworthiness of customers, insufficient funds or outstanding receivables. • Reduced cash on hand and cash handling time and costs, including counting cash at the end of the day, armoured transport, higher likelihood of theft and pilfering and potential mistakes by cashiers. • Expanded markets; ability to sell to customers throughout Canada and around the world in the currency used by the retailer. • Access to innovative new payments – innovations in payment options introduced by banks and credit card companies, such as contactless cards and online and mobile payments, benefit retailers and make it easier for customer to make purchases. Moreover, a very large majority (94 per cent) of merchants say their business benefits from accepting credit cards.2 • Sixty-nine per cent of merchants say they benefit from letting customers earn rewards on their purchases. 3 Competition and choice When making a purchase, consumers can choose to use cash, cheques, debit cards, credit cards as well as electronic payments services like PayPal and Interac Online. Nearly nine out of ten adult Canadians have at least one credit card4 and this method of payment is the choice for the overwhelming majority of retail e-commerce transactions. When it comes to choosing a credit card, banks offer consumers a wide variety of products. Customers may choose among standard cards without an annual fee, premium cards that offer rewards and features, and low-rate cards if the interest rate is a key consideration influencing the card choice. • Hundreds of institutions in Canada, including banks, credit unions, retailers, caisses populaires, trust companies and finance companies offer credit card products. • 76.2 million Visa and MasterCard cards are in circulation in Canada. 5 • There are many low-rate cards on the market and over 30 of those cards have an interest rate of under 13%. • Eight in 10 (84 per cent) consumers are satisfied with their credit cards and roughly the same proportion (86 per cent) say they offer great value. 6 • Canadians appreciate their rewards points programs and the majority use them to help make a family vacation more attainable with travel points, save money on their grocery bills with cash-back rewards or use their rewards points to donate to a favourite charity. • Research has found that eighty-three per cent of consumers use a credit card that provides them with rewards. 7 • 58 per cent of Canadians who are frequent credit card users listed “receiving discounts/loyalty points/rewards’’ as their main reason for frequently using credit cards for purchases. 8 • Roughly two-thirds of consumers (65 per cent) say credit card purchases are advantageous to merchants and directly help them grow their businesses. 9 Consumers should visit the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC) website www.fcac.gc.ca, for an extensive list of cards and features, and use the credit card comparison tool to help select the card that best suits their needs. Strong regulations 10 Consumers with credit cards from banks are protected by Bank Act regulations that require: • Statements to include itemized transactions, the amount you must pay on or before the due date in order to have the benefit of a grace period. • Disclosure of the previous month’s payments and the current month’s purchases, credit advances, as well as interest and non-interest charges. • Disclosure of the interest rate at the time of solicitation or application, and on every monthly statement. • Plain language information for customers. • Rules on advertising. • Limits on consumer liability in the event of fraud. Credit card pricing There are a number of factors that influence card fees and interest rates. • An interest-free period from purchase to payment, depending on the card, as long as the balance is paid in full when owing. • Access to unsecured credit where no collateral is needed, which makes it a higher risk for the credit card issuer. • Significant costs to operating the credit card system including processing a large volume of transactions, technology that is constantly updated to support transactions, preparing and mailing statements, collecting payments and the costs for providing value- added rewards programs. Most Canadians pay cards off every month • A Payments Canada survey found that 71% of Canadians pay their balance off in full every month. 11 • Banks work with clients who are concerned about their debt, helping them get control of their finances or choose more suitable credit products. Banks also support non-profit credit counseling services. The Canadian Bankers Association is the voice of more than 60 domestic and foreign banks that help drive Canada’s economic growth and prosperity. The CBA advocates for public policies that contribute to a sound, thriving banking system to ensure Canadians can succeed in their financial goals. Last updated: March 2023 1 Canadian Payment Methods and Trends Report 2022: 71% of Canadians pay their balance off in full every month. https://payments.ca/sites/default/files/PaymentsCa nada_Canadian_Payment_Methods_and_Trends_ Report_2022_En_0.pdf 2 Abacus Data survey commissioned by the Canadian Bankers Association, October 2022 3 Ibid 4 Canadian Payment Methods and Trends Report 2019: https://leger360.com/wp- content/uploads/2019/12/canadianpaymentmethod sandtrendsreport_2019.pdf p. 17 5 CBA credit card statistics as of January 2021 6 Abacus Data survey commissioned by the Canadian Bankers Association, October 2022 7 ibid 8 Canadian Payment Methods and Trends Report 2022, pg 27: https://payments.ca/sites/default/files/PaymentsCa nada_Canadian_Payment_Methods_and_Trends_ Report_2022_En_0.pdf 9 Abacus Data survey commissioned by the Canadian Bankers Association, October 2022 10 Note – these protections only extend to federally-regulated financial institutions (not other card issuers) 11 Canadian Payment Methods and Trends Report 2022: 71% of Canadians pay their balance off in full every month. https://payments.ca/sites/default/files/PaymentsCa nada_Canadian_Payment_Methods_and_Trends_ Report_2022_En_0.pdf

Base your entire response on the document I gave you. I need to know the absolute basic information about what is being said here. What percentage of Canadians have at least one credit card, and how many pay them off monthly? The Bottom Line Credit cards offer valuable benefits for both consumers and retailers. And the majority of Canadians use their credit card as a method of payment rather than a means of borrowing. Credit card benefits For Consumers A credit card is a convenient and flexible payment tool accepted in more than 200 countries and at millions of locations worldwide. Benefits include: • Access to unsecured credit (no collateral required against amounts charged). • Interest-free payment from time of purchase to the end of the billing period. • Instant payment of purchases, allowing for instant receipt of goods and services. Focus: Credit Cards: Statistics and Facts Focus Sheet • Credit cards provide interest-free credit from the time of purchase to the end of the billing period • More than 70% of Canadians pay their credit card balance in full each month1 , so for them the interest rate is zero • For those who choose to carry a balance: o Credit cards offer access to unsecured credit (no collateral required) o There are many low interest rate cards on the market and over 30 of those cards have an interest rate of under 13% FAST FACTS • Coverage for purchases if the item is damaged, stolen or not delivered within 90 days. • 24/7 access. • Fraud protection with zero liability to the consumer in cases of fraud. • Other rewards and benefits, such as air travel points, car insurance, damage and loss insurance and extended warranty programs. For retailers Retailers are not required to accept credit cards, but do so to provide payments options for their customers. Retailers that do accept credit cards receive many benefits, including: • Reaching a large customer base – Credit cards are the preferred method of payment for many customers, and customers will select retailers that allow them to choose their preferred method of payment. • Fast, guaranteed payment, which can reduce line-ups at checkout. If every credit card transaction took an extra 30 seconds, it would use up an additional 27 million hours of staff time each year. • The ability of accepting credit without worrying about the creditworthiness of customers, insufficient funds or outstanding receivables. • Reduced cash on hand and cash handling time and costs, including counting cash at the end of the day, armoured transport, higher likelihood of theft and pilfering and potential mistakes by cashiers. • Expanded markets; ability to sell to customers throughout Canada and around the world in the currency used by the retailer. • Access to innovative new payments – innovations in payment options introduced by banks and credit card companies, such as contactless cards and online and mobile payments, benefit retailers and make it easier for customer to make purchases. Moreover, a very large majority (94 per cent) of merchants say their business benefits from accepting credit cards.2 • Sixty-nine per cent of merchants say they benefit from letting customers earn rewards on their purchases. 3 Competition and choice When making a purchase, consumers can choose to use cash, cheques, debit cards, credit cards as well as electronic payments services like PayPal and Interac Online. Nearly nine out of ten adult Canadians have at least one credit card4 and this method of payment is the choice for the overwhelming majority of retail e-commerce transactions. When it comes to choosing a credit card, banks offer consumers a wide variety of products. Customers may choose among standard cards without an annual fee, premium cards that offer rewards and features, and low-rate cards if the interest rate is a key consideration influencing the card choice. • Hundreds of institutions in Canada, including banks, credit unions, retailers, caisses populaires, trust companies and finance companies offer credit card products. • 76.2 million Visa and MasterCard cards are in circulation in Canada. 5 • There are many low-rate cards on the market and over 30 of those cards have an interest rate of under 13%. • Eight in 10 (84 per cent) consumers are satisfied with their credit cards and roughly the same proportion (86 per cent) say they offer great value. 6 • Canadians appreciate their rewards points programs and the majority use them to help make a family vacation more attainable with travel points, save money on their grocery bills with cash-back rewards or use their rewards points to donate to a favourite charity. • Research has found that eighty-three per cent of consumers use a credit card that provides them with rewards. 7 • 58 per cent of Canadians who are frequent credit card users listed “receiving discounts/loyalty points/rewards’’ as their main reason for frequently using credit cards for purchases. 8 • Roughly two-thirds of consumers (65 per cent) say credit card purchases are advantageous to merchants and directly help them grow their businesses. 9 Consumers should visit the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC) website www.fcac.gc.ca, for an extensive list of cards and features, and use the credit card comparison tool to help select the card that best suits their needs. Strong regulations 10 Consumers with credit cards from banks are protected by Bank Act regulations that require: • Statements to include itemized transactions, the amount you must pay on or before the due date in order to have the benefit of a grace period. • Disclosure of the previous month’s payments and the current month’s purchases, credit advances, as well as interest and non-interest charges. • Disclosure of the interest rate at the time of solicitation or application, and on every monthly statement. • Plain language information for customers. • Rules on advertising. • Limits on consumer liability in the event of fraud. Credit card pricing There are a number of factors that influence card fees and interest rates. • An interest-free period from purchase to payment, depending on the card, as long as the balance is paid in full when owing. • Access to unsecured credit where no collateral is needed, which makes it a higher risk for the credit card issuer. • Significant costs to operating the credit card system including processing a large volume of transactions, technology that is constantly updated to support transactions, preparing and mailing statements, collecting payments and the costs for providing value- added rewards programs. Most Canadians pay cards off every month • A Payments Canada survey found that 71% of Canadians pay their balance off in full every month. 11 • Banks work with clients who are concerned about their debt, helping them get control of their finances or choose more suitable credit products. Banks also support non-profit credit counseling services. The Canadian Bankers Association is the voice of more than 60 domestic and foreign banks that help drive Canada’s economic growth and prosperity. The CBA advocates for public policies that contribute to a sound, thriving banking system to ensure Canadians can succeed in their financial goals. Last updated: March 2023 1 Canadian Payment Methods and Trends Report 2022: 71% of Canadians pay their balance off in full every month. https://payments.ca/sites/default/files/PaymentsCa nada_Canadian_Payment_Methods_and_Trends_ Report_2022_En_0.pdf 2 Abacus Data survey commissioned by the Canadian Bankers Association, October 2022 3 Ibid 4 Canadian Payment Methods and Trends Report 2019: https://leger360.com/wp- content/uploads/2019/12/canadianpaymentmethod sandtrendsreport_2019.pdf p. 17 5 CBA credit card statistics as of January 2021 6 Abacus Data survey commissioned by the Canadian Bankers Association, October 2022 7 ibid 8 Canadian Payment Methods and Trends Report 2022, pg 27: https://payments.ca/sites/default/files/PaymentsCa nada_Canadian_Payment_Methods_and_Trends_ Report_2022_En_0.pdf 9 Abacus Data survey commissioned by the Canadian Bankers Association, October 2022 10 Note – these protections only extend to federally-regulated financial institutions (not other card issuers) 11 Canadian Payment Methods and Trends Report 2022: 71% of Canadians pay their balance off in full every month. https://payments.ca/sites/default/files/PaymentsCa nada_Canadian_Payment_Methods_and_Trends_ Report_2022_En_0.pdf

Only utilize the information in the article provided to answer the question, do not refer to any outside information. Answer the question in full sentences.

What are 5 goals of Customer Relationship Management Systems implementation within an enterprise?

**Customer Relationship Management Systems** What is a CRM system? A CRM system gathers, links, and analyses all collected customer data, including contact information, interactions with company representatives, purchases, service requests, assets, and quotes/proposals. The system then lets users access that data and understand what happened at each touchpoint. Through this understanding, a complete customer profile is developed, and a solid customer relationship is built. Customer data can also be aggregated to populate incentive compensation modelling, sales forecasting, territory segmentation, campaign design, product innovation, and other sales, marketing, and customer service activities. CRM tools and software help you streamline the customer engagement process, close more sales deals, establish strong customer relationships, build customer loyalty, and ultimately increase sales and profits. Learn more about Oracle's comprehensive CRM sales solution Who should use a CRM? CRM tools have almost always been seen as sales tools. However, over time, these solutions have extended their reach and become integral to marketing, ecommerce, and customer service functions. The power of customer relationship management is derived by constantly gathering customer data, analysing that data, and then using those insights to deepen relationships and improve business results. It allows any customer-facing employee to convey, "We know you, and we value you." A set of data-driven CRM tools supports you beyond the sales process, which is crucial to business performance. With the in-depth knowledge of your customers, you can: Offer and sell new, add-on products—at the right time in the right way at the right price Help customer service teams resolve issues faster Help development teams create better products and services CRM: What is the goal? CRM software supports strong, productive, loyal customer relationships through informed and superior customer experiences. The goal? To improve customer acquisition and retention by providing experiences that keep your customers coming back. Customer relationship management is both a strategy and a tool that supports those experiences in five key ways. 1 Answer the most basic customer questions Customer relationship management helps you find new customers, sell to them, and develop a loyal customer relationship with them. These systems collect many different types of customer data and organize it so you understand your customers/prospects better and can answer (or even anticipate) their questions. 2 Manage customer data Bad decisions come from a lack of access to and inability to interpret customer data. Being able to store, track, and validate customer data within an automated system will allow sales and marketing teams to optimize customer engagement strategies and build better relationships. 3 Automate the sales process Sales force automation makes selling more efficient, helping you sell more quickly. The best CRM systems use artificial intelligence (AI) and unified customer data to automate the sales process by prompting sellers with recommended next-best actions. 4 Personalize marketing campaigns Customers and potential customers arrive through various channels, including websites, social media, email, online/offline events, etc. Unfortunately, many businesses struggle to connect marketing efforts across all these channels. Marketing teams can improve conversions, strengthen customer relationships, and align messaging across their digital customer channels by leveraging CRM systems. 5 Align sales and marketing With customer relationship management, marketing and sales work better together to drive sales and increase revenue. When sales and marketing are in sync, sales productivity goes up along with marketing ROI. CRM features and benefits Customer relationship management solutions are one of the largest and fastest-growing enterprise application software categories. The CRM market size was valued at $41.93 billion in 2019 and is projected to reach $96.39 billion by 2027, growing at a CAGR of 11.1% from 2020 to 2027. More and more companies are using CRM solutions to acquire more sales leads, improve the sales pipeline, boost productivity, and improve customer satisfaction. However, many have encountered problems ranging from cost overruns and CRM integration challenges to system limitations. These are avoidable problems, and you can help ensure success by focusing on a customer-first strategy. It's critical for businesses to have integrated, customizable, and comprehensive views into their customers’ and potential customers’ solution/product interests, customer service needs, and purchase history. A good CRM system should provide that view. All data is in a single location, viewable through optimized dashboards. Additionally, your marketing team can leverage CRM solutions to orchestrate personalized marketing and lead generation campaigns. These systems can help track all cross-channel interactions—from engagement to purchase. Mature cloud CRM solutions do more. They are fully integrated with back-office solutions to successfully support the entire customer journey. Because it manages prospect and customer engagement points across all channels, your CRM system can inform all your communications and marketing activities, delivering the 360-degree customer view needed for a truly connected omnichannel experience. Many different vendors have many different types of solutions. However, a few capabilities are must-haves. Be easy to use, or people won't use it Fit within your budget and provide an acceptable ROI Integrate well with your other software systems Provide accurate, consistent data for that much-needed, complete customer 360-degree view Types of CRM CRM software solutions, at their core, are used to manage customer relationships and sales interactions. Still, many businesses leverage these systems simply as a sales force automation tool. But these solutions, such as Oracle's, offer many more valuable capabilities that span a wide range of marketing and sales functions, including marketing, customer service, sales, and partner channel management. Today’s CRM software can support the entire customer journey. But what one company may need from a CRM system can be vastly different from what another company might require. To help you select the right CRM for your organization, it’s helpful to know that there are three main types of CRM solutions: collaborative, operational, and analytical. CRM and data Data is the most critical part of any CRM software solution. In fact, customer data is the starting point for all marketing and sales activities. Successful customer engagement and relationship strategies hinge on accurate, complete, and accessible customer profiles. Bad data comes from several places, including: Fraudulently entered data Keystroke errors Duplicate customer information Natural changes (company bankruptcy, job changes) Incomplete and inaccurate data can increase quickly to degrade the value of your CRM tools, resulting in unnecessary expenses. Conversely, when customer data is complete and accurate, businesses stand a better chance of reaching their target customers and prospects. In short, your data is a valuable asset. So it’s important to focus on collecting and optimizing these four CRM data types: Identity data Identity data includes descriptive details to identify customers, leads, and contacts. This data should be used for marketing segmentation. Descriptive data Descriptive data includes lifestyle details relevant to your contacts. It is what completes that all-important 360-degree view of leads and contacts. Quantitative data Quantitative data includes measurable data points that can help you interpret how your leads and contacts have interacted with you. Qualitative data Qualitative data can help you better understand your contacts’ intent, including search behaviours related to buying decisions. CRM vs. marketing automation Both CRM and marketing automation systems are data-driven. They focus on gathering, storing, and using data. For example, marketing automation systems gather leads by communicating with potential and current customers. Specifically, marketing automation looks to gather enough customer data points to show intent and then hands that person off to the sales team as a marketing-qualified lead (MQL). A CRM solution picks up where the marketing automation solution left off and works to convert those marketing-qualified leads into contacts. AI in CRM Discover the next generation of CRM (0:38) The best CRM systems offer robust analytics coupled with AI and machine learning. AI is the future of customer relationship management, going beyond contact management and sales force automation to truly helping you sell. AI in CRM can guide you toward the next-best actions and provide smart talking points—specific to each customer opportunity. AI also delivers timely customer intelligence that helps you optimize customer experience (CX) across marketing, sales, and customer service. CRM vs. CX When customer relationship management first arrived on the scene, businesses would capture data but not know what to do with it. Today, CRM systems are integrated with AI, which helps interpret and predict what that data means. CRM AI capabilities are the foundation to using a 360-degree view of the customer that will start them on their way to becoming your customer. As these AI enhancements continue to evolve, CX will continue to improve—and in turn, customer expectations will continue to increase. Your business needs to fully understand your customers (and how they buy) to not only meet their expectations but to provide them with compelling experiences. This is the future of CX and should serve as your guide to selecting the best CRM solution. How CRM improves customer experience A complete customer view is necessary for business success and growth. Without a CRM system, you'll struggle to develop that much-needed 360-degree view of the customer that you need to: Personalize customer interactions Automate business processes (with appropriate CX integrations) Track all customer interactions

{Context} ========== **Customer Relationship Management Systems** What is a CRM system? A CRM system gathers, links, and analyses all collected customer data, including contact information, interactions with company representatives, purchases, service requests, assets, and quotes/proposals. The system then lets users access that data and understand what happened at each touchpoint. Through this understanding, a complete customer profile is developed, and a solid customer relationship is built. Customer data can also be aggregated to populate incentive compensation modelling, sales forecasting, territory segmentation, campaign design, product innovation, and other sales, marketing, and customer service activities. CRM tools and software help you streamline the customer engagement process, close more sales deals, establish strong customer relationships, build customer loyalty, and ultimately increase sales and profits. Learn more about Oracle's comprehensive CRM sales solution Who should use a CRM? CRM tools have almost always been seen as sales tools. However, over time, these solutions have extended their reach and become integral to marketing, ecommerce, and customer service functions. The power of customer relationship management is derived by constantly gathering customer data, analysing that data, and then using those insights to deepen relationships and improve business results. It allows any customer-facing employee to convey, "We know you, and we value you." A set of data-driven CRM tools supports you beyond the sales process, which is crucial to business performance. With the in-depth knowledge of your customers, you can: Offer and sell new, add-on products—at the right time in the right way at the right price Help customer service teams resolve issues faster Help development teams create better products and services CRM: What is the goal? CRM software supports strong, productive, loyal customer relationships through informed and superior customer experiences. The goal? To improve customer acquisition and retention by providing experiences that keep your customers coming back. Customer relationship management is both a strategy and a tool that supports those experiences in five key ways. 1 Answer the most basic customer questions Customer relationship management helps you find new customers, sell to them, and develop a loyal customer relationship with them. These systems collect many different types of customer data and organize it so you understand your customers/prospects better and can answer (or even anticipate) their questions. 2 Manage customer data Bad decisions come from a lack of access to and inability to interpret customer data. Being able to store, track, and validate customer data within an automated system will allow sales and marketing teams to optimize customer engagement strategies and build better relationships. 3 Automate the sales process Sales force automation makes selling more efficient, helping you sell more quickly. The best CRM systems use artificial intelligence (AI) and unified customer data to automate the sales process by prompting sellers with recommended next-best actions. 4 Personalize marketing campaigns Customers and potential customers arrive through various channels, including websites, social media, email, online/offline events, etc. Unfortunately, many businesses struggle to connect marketing efforts across all these channels. Marketing teams can improve conversions, strengthen customer relationships, and align messaging across their digital customer channels by leveraging CRM systems. 5 Align sales and marketing With customer relationship management, marketing and sales work better together to drive sales and increase revenue. When sales and marketing are in sync, sales productivity goes up along with marketing ROI. CRM features and benefits Customer relationship management solutions are one of the largest and fastest-growing enterprise application software categories. The CRM market size was valued at $41.93 billion in 2019 and is projected to reach $96.39 billion by 2027, growing at a CAGR of 11.1% from 2020 to 2027. More and more companies are using CRM solutions to acquire more sales leads, improve the sales pipeline, boost productivity, and improve customer satisfaction. However, many have encountered problems ranging from cost overruns and CRM integration challenges to system limitations. These are avoidable problems, and you can help ensure success by focusing on a customer-first strategy. It's critical for businesses to have integrated, customizable, and comprehensive views into their customers’ and potential customers’ solution/product interests, customer service needs, and purchase history. A good CRM system should provide that view. All data is in a single location, viewable through optimized dashboards. Additionally, your marketing team can leverage CRM solutions to orchestrate personalized marketing and lead generation campaigns. These systems can help track all cross-channel interactions—from engagement to purchase. Mature cloud CRM solutions do more. They are fully integrated with back-office solutions to successfully support the entire customer journey. Because it manages prospect and customer engagement points across all channels, your CRM system can inform all your communications and marketing activities, delivering the 360-degree customer view needed for a truly connected omnichannel experience. Many different vendors have many different types of solutions. However, a few capabilities are must-haves. Be easy to use, or people won't use it Fit within your budget and provide an acceptable ROI Integrate well with your other software systems Provide accurate, consistent data for that much-needed, complete customer 360-degree view Types of CRM CRM software solutions, at their core, are used to manage customer relationships and sales interactions. Still, many businesses leverage these systems simply as a sales force automation tool. But these solutions, such as Oracle's, offer many more valuable capabilities that span a wide range of marketing and sales functions, including marketing, customer service, sales, and partner channel management. Today’s CRM software can support the entire customer journey. But what one company may need from a CRM system can be vastly different from what another company might require. To help you select the right CRM for your organization, it’s helpful to know that there are three main types of CRM solutions: collaborative, operational, and analytical. CRM and data Data is the most critical part of any CRM software solution. In fact, customer data is the starting point for all marketing and sales activities. Successful customer engagement and relationship strategies hinge on accurate, complete, and accessible customer profiles. Bad data comes from several places, including: Fraudulently entered data Keystroke errors Duplicate customer information Natural changes (company bankruptcy, job changes) Incomplete and inaccurate data can increase quickly to degrade the value of your CRM tools, resulting in unnecessary expenses. Conversely, when customer data is complete and accurate, businesses stand a better chance of reaching their target customers and prospects. In short, your data is a valuable asset. So it’s important to focus on collecting and optimizing these four CRM data types: Identity data Identity data includes descriptive details to identify customers, leads, and contacts. This data should be used for marketing segmentation. Descriptive data Descriptive data includes lifestyle details relevant to your contacts. It is what completes that all-important 360-degree view of leads and contacts. Quantitative data Quantitative data includes measurable data points that can help you interpret how your leads and contacts have interacted with you. Qualitative data Qualitative data can help you better understand your contacts’ intent, including search behaviours related to buying decisions. CRM vs. marketing automation Both CRM and marketing automation systems are data-driven. They focus on gathering, storing, and using data. For example, marketing automation systems gather leads by communicating with potential and current customers. Specifically, marketing automation looks to gather enough customer data points to show intent and then hands that person off to the sales team as a marketing-qualified lead (MQL). A CRM solution picks up where the marketing automation solution left off and works to convert those marketing-qualified leads into contacts. AI in CRM Discover the next generation of CRM (0:38) The best CRM systems offer robust analytics coupled with AI and machine learning. AI is the future of customer relationship management, going beyond contact management and sales force automation to truly helping you sell. AI in CRM can guide you toward the next-best actions and provide smart talking points—specific to each customer opportunity. AI also delivers timely customer intelligence that helps you optimize customer experience (CX) across marketing, sales, and customer service. CRM vs. CX When customer relationship management first arrived on the scene, businesses would capture data but not know what to do with it. Today, CRM systems are integrated with AI, which helps interpret and predict what that data means. CRM AI capabilities are the foundation to using a 360-degree view of the customer that will start them on their way to becoming your customer. As these AI enhancements continue to evolve, CX will continue to improve—and in turn, customer expectations will continue to increase. Your business needs to fully understand your customers (and how they buy) to not only meet their expectations but to provide them with compelling experiences. This is the future of CX and should serve as your guide to selecting the best CRM solution. How CRM improves customer experience A complete customer view is necessary for business success and growth. Without a CRM system, you'll struggle to develop that much-needed 360-degree view of the customer that you need to: Personalize customer interactions Automate business processes (with appropriate CX integrations) Track all customer interactions {Query} ========== What are 5 goals of Customer Relationship Management Systems implementation within an enterprise? {Task Instruction} ========== Only utilize the information in the article provided to answer the question, do not refer to any outside information. Answer the question in full sentences.

In constructing your response, you are to exclusively rely on the information presented in the provided context source, avoiding all information from other external sources. Additionally, your response is to be presented in a paragraph format - Do not make use of markdown formatting.

What sort of differences exist in the various exceptions to the knock-and-announce rule?

Law Enforcement Identification When Executing a Warrant Overview As noted above, amid recent calls for legislative changes to police practices, another area that has received attention concerns the authority for law enforcement officers to execute a warrant by entering a home without first seeking consensual entry by announcing themselves and their purpose. As a default, law enforcement officers must comply with the knock and announce rule— an “ancient” common-law doctrine, which generally requires officers to knock and announce their presence before entering a home to execute a search warrant. The Supreme Court has interpreted the Fourth Amendment’s reasonableness requirement as generally mandating compliance with the knock and announce rule. The knock and announce rule is also codified in a federal statute, but the Supreme Court has interpreted that statute as “prohibiting nothing” and “merely [authorizing] officers to damage property [upon entry] in certain instances.” When officers violate the knock and announce rule, they may be subject to civil lawsuits and “internal police discipline.” However, in Hudson v. Michigan the Supreme Court curtailed the remedies available for knock and announce violations by concluding that evidence obtained following such a violation is not subject to the exclusionary rule, which “prevents the government from using most evidence gathered in violation of the United States Constitution.” There are two closely related exceptions to the knock and announce rule, the first of which is for exigent circumstances. Exigent circumstances are those where the “police have a ‘reasonable suspicion’ that knocking and announcing would be dangerous, futile, or destructive to the purposes of the investigation.” Typical examples include instances where police believe that the suspect is armed or likely to destroy evidence. Exigent circumstances must be based on the “particular circumstances” of each case, and may not amount to a “blanket exception to the [knock and announce] requirement” for “entire categor[ies] of criminal activity.” For example, the Supreme Court rejected an assertion that “police officers are never required to knock and announce their presence when executing a search warrant in a felony drug investigation.” Instead, “in each case, it is the duty of a court confronted with the question to determine whether the facts and circumstances of the particular entry justified dispensing with the knock-and-announce requirement.” The second exception is for no-knock warrants, which provide explicit authority for judges to grant so-called “no-knock” entry in the warrant itself, upon a finding of certain factual predicates. The justifications for no-knock warrants are similar to, and sometimes described interchangeably with, the concept of exigent circumstances. No-knock warrants, and exigent circumstances, both typically involve instances where there is a risk that knocking and announcing would endanger officers or result in the destruction of evidence. A key distinction between no-knock warrants and no-knock entry pursuant to the exigent circumstances exception is temporal. With no-knock warrants, officers “have anticipated exigent circumstances before searching, and have asked for pre-search judicial approval to enter without knocking.” In contrast, when officers lack a no-knock warrant and enter without knocking due to exigent circumstances the justification for bypassing knock and announce requirements may arise as late as when the officers are at the door. A number of states have statutes that authorize magistrate judges to grant no-knock warrants in certain circumstances. Although a federal statute previously authorized no-knock warrants for certain drug searches, Congress repealed it. As a result, the legal status of federal no-knock search warrants is unsettled, although federal officers do sometimes employ no-knock warrants or act pursuant to no-knock warrants issued by state courts when serving on joint state-federal task forces. From a Fourth Amendment standpoint, the Supreme Court has indicated some approval of “[t]he practice of allowing magistrates to issue no-knock warrants . . . when sufficient cause to do so can be demonstrated ahead of time,” assuming that the practice does not amount to a blanket exception to knock and announce. However, one unresolved question is whether federal courts have authority to issue no- Congressional Research Service 4 knock warrants in the absence of a statute expressly providing that power, as federal courts “possess only that power authorized by Constitution and statute . . . .” The DOJ has concluded that federal courts are authorized to do so, in large part because the federal rule governing search warrants has been broadly interpreted by courts in other contexts to include specific searches that it does not expressly authorize. In one sense, the legal vitality of federal no-knock warrants may be of limited practical significance; as noted, federal law enforcement officers may still be permitted to enter a home without knocking and announcing if exigent circumstances are present. However, some courts have concluded that no-knock warrants shield officers from responsibility for independently assessing the existence of exigent circumstances at the time of entry. To the extent that is true, no-knock warrants could permit no-knock entry where the exigent circumstances exception would not—for example, in an instance where the factors that justified the no-knock warrant are no longer present at the time of entry. Relatedly, if a valid no-knock warrant provides such a shield against the responsibility of reassessing exigent circumstances at the time of entry, it could limit the availability of civil lawsuits as a remedy where officers disregard knock and announce requirements pursuant to a no-knock warrant, but exigent circumstances no longer exist at the time of entry.

In constructing your response, you are to exclusively rely on the information presented in the provided context source, avoiding all information from other external sources. Additionally, your response is to be presented in a paragraph format - Do not make use of markdown formatting. Law Enforcement Identification When Executing a Warrant Overview As noted above, amid recent calls for legislative changes to police practices, another area that has received attention concerns the authority for law enforcement officers to execute a warrant by entering a home without first seeking consensual entry by announcing themselves and their purpose. As a default, law enforcement officers must comply with the knock and announce rule— an “ancient” common-law doctrine, which generally requires officers to knock and announce their presence before entering a home to execute a search warrant. The Supreme Court has interpreted the Fourth Amendment’s reasonableness requirement as generally mandating compliance with the knock and announce rule. The knock and announce rule is also codified in a federal statute, but the Supreme Court has interpreted that statute as “prohibiting nothing” and “merely [authorizing] officers to damage property [upon entry] in certain instances.” When officers violate the knock and announce rule, they may be subject to civil lawsuits and “internal police discipline.” However, in Hudson v. Michigan the Supreme Court curtailed the remedies available for knock and announce violations by concluding that evidence obtained following such a violation is not subject to the exclusionary rule, which “prevents the government from using most evidence gathered in violation of the United States Constitution.” There are two closely related exceptions to the knock and announce rule, the first of which is for exigent circumstances. Exigent circumstances are those where the “police have a ‘reasonable suspicion’ that knocking and announcing would be dangerous, futile, or destructive to the purposes of the investigation.” Typical examples include instances where police believe that the suspect is armed or likely to destroy evidence. Exigent circumstances must be based on the “particular circumstances” of each case, and may not amount to a “blanket exception to the [knock and announce] requirement” for “entire categor[ies] of criminal activity.” For example, the Supreme Court rejected an assertion that “police officers are never required to knock and announce their presence when executing a search warrant in a felony drug investigation.” Instead, “in each case, it is the duty of a court confronted with the question to determine whether the facts and circumstances of the particular entry justified dispensing with the knock-and-announce requirement.” The second exception is for no-knock warrants, which provide explicit authority for judges to grant so-called “no-knock” entry in the warrant itself, upon a finding of certain factual predicates. The justifications for no-knock warrants are similar to, and sometimes described interchangeably with, the concept of exigent circumstances. No-knock warrants, and exigent circumstances, both typically involve instances where there is a risk that knocking and announcing would endanger officers or result in the destruction of evidence. A key distinction between no-knock warrants and no-knock entry pursuant to the exigent circumstances exception is temporal. With no-knock warrants, officers “have anticipated exigent circumstances before searching, and have asked for pre-search judicial approval to enter without knocking.” In contrast, when officers lack a no-knock warrant and enter without knocking due to exigent circumstances the justification for bypassing knock and announce requirements may arise as late as when the officers are at the door. A number of states have statutes that authorize magistrate judges to grant no-knock warrants in certain circumstances. Although a federal statute previously authorized no-knock warrants for certain drug searches, Congress repealed it. As a result, the legal status of federal no-knock search warrants is unsettled, although federal officers do sometimes employ no-knock warrants or act pursuant to no-knock warrants issued by state courts when serving on joint state-federal task forces. From a Fourth Amendment standpoint, the Supreme Court has indicated some approval of “[t]he practice of allowing magistrates to issue no-knock warrants . . . when sufficient cause to do so can be demonstrated ahead of time,” assuming that the practice does not amount to a blanket exception to knock and announce. However, one unresolved question is whether federal courts have authority to issue no- Congressional Research Service 4 knock warrants in the absence of a statute expressly providing that power, as federal courts “possess only that power authorized by Constitution and statute . . . .” The DOJ has concluded that federal courts are authorized to do so, in large part because the federal rule governing search warrants has been broadly interpreted by courts in other contexts to include specific searches that it does not expressly authorize. In one sense, the legal vitality of federal no-knock warrants may be of limited practical significance; as noted, federal law enforcement officers may still be permitted to enter a home without knocking and announcing if exigent circumstances are present. However, some courts have concluded that no-knock warrants shield officers from responsibility for independently assessing the existence of exigent circumstances at the time of entry. To the extent that is true, no-knock warrants could permit no-knock entry where the exigent circumstances exception would not—for example, in an instance where the factors that justified the no-knock warrant are no longer present at the time of entry. Relatedly, if a valid no-knock warrant provides such a shield against the responsibility of reassessing exigent circumstances at the time of entry, it could limit the availability of civil lawsuits as a remedy where officers disregard knock and announce requirements pursuant to a no-knock warrant, but exigent circumstances no longer exist at the time of entry. Legislation in the 116th Congress At least two bills introduced in the 116th Congress would change the legal landscape regarding unannounced home entry by law enforcement during execution of search warrants. (A third bill, the JUSTICE Act, while not directly altering existing practices, would require reporting on the use of noknock warrants.) In the House, one section of the Justice in Policing Act of 2020 (H.R. 7120) would establish that search warrants issued in federal drug cases must “require that a law enforcement officer execute the search warrant only after providing notice of his or her authority and purpose.” The bill would also require states and localities that receive certain federal funds to “have in effect a law that prohibits the issuance of a no-knock warrant in a drug case.” At least with respect to the requirement for states and localities in H.R. 7120, it appears that unannounced entry would still be permitted in exigent circumstances. The bill only requires states and localities to prohibit the issuance of no-knock warrantsin drug cases to receive the specified federal funding, and as noted above, it is well-established that law enforcement officers may dispense with the knock-andannounce requirement when they have reasonable suspicion of exigent circumstances regardless of whether the warrant authorizes no-knock entry. The more difficult question may be what effect the requirement for federal drug warrants in H.R. 7120 would have. Under the bill’s terms, all warrants authorized in federal drug cases would have to expressly require that they be executed “only after” a law enforcement officer has provided notice of his or her authority and purpose. As such, were the bill to become law, it could possibly create tension between the “exigent circumstances” exception to the knock and announce rule and the required terms of warrants under the new statute. For example, officers might encounter a situation where knocking and announcing would be “dangerous” or “destructive of the purposes of the investigation” and thus excused under Supreme Court doctrine, yet the terms of the warrant would still expressly require knocking and announcing without exception. In this scenario, the bill’s blanket requirement might produce uncertainty as to the officers’ authority. That said, though warrants would require notice under the proposal, and officers who did not comply with that requirement would violate the terms of the warrant, it is not clear that no-knock entry in such a circumstance would lead to consequences like evidence exclusion. In other contexts where warrants have been executed in ways that exceed the warrants’ terms, some courts have declined to suppress evidence in the absence of “extreme” violations or “flagrant disregard for the terms” at issue. A court might also interpret H.R. 7120 as implicitly incorporating the exigent circumstances exception. The Supreme Court has taken this view of the federal statute that codifies the common-law knock-and-announce rule and has observed more generally that when a magistrate declines to authorize no-knock entry in advance, that decision “should Congressional Research Service 5 LSB10499· VERSION 1 · NEW not be interpreted to remove the officers’ authority to exercise independent judgment concerning the wisdom of a no-knock entry at the time the warrant is being executed.” What sort of differences exist in the various exceptions to the knock-and-announce rule?

Only use this document as a source, do not use any outside knowledge.

What impact did Bratz doll have on Mattel?

**Mattel: Overcoming Marketing and Manufacturing Challenges** It all started in a California garage workshop when Ruth and Elliot Handler and Matt Matson founded Mattel in 1945. The company started out making picture frames, but the founders soon recognized the profitability of the toy industry and switched their emphasis. Mattel became a publicly owned company in 1960, with sales exceeding $100 million by 1965. Over the next 40 years, Mattel went on to become the world’s largest toy company in terms of revenue. Today, Mattel, Inc. is a world leader in the design, manufacture, and marketing of family products. Well-known for toy brands such as Barbie, Fisher-Price, Disney, Hot Wheels, Matchbox, Tyco, Cabbage Patch Kids, and board games such as Scrabble, the company boasts nearly $6 billion in annual revenue. Headquartered in El Segundo, California, with offices in 36 countries, Mattel markets its products in more than 150 nations. In spite of its overall success, Mattel has had its share of losses over its history. During the mid to late 1990s, Mattel lost millions due to declining sales and bad business acquisitions. In January 1997, Jill Barad took over as Mattel’s CEO. Barad’s management style was characterized as strict, and her tenure at the helm proved challenging for many employees. Although Barad had been successful in building the Barbie brand to $2 billion near the end of the twentieth century, growth slowed rapidly after that time. Declining sales at outlets such as Toys ‘‘R’’ Us and the mismanaged acquisition of The Learning Company marked the start of some difficulties for the toy maker, including a dramatic 60 percent drop in stock price under Barad’s three-year stint as CEO. Barad accepted responsibility for these problems and resigned in 2000. The company soon installed Robert Eckert, a 23-year Kraft veteran, as chairman and CEO. During Eckert’s first three years on the job, the company’s stock price increased to over $20 per share, and Mattel was ranked fortieth on Business Week’s list of top-performing companies. Implementing techniques used by consumer-product companies, Eckert adopted a mission to bring stability and predictability to Mattel. He sold unprofitable units, streamlined work processes, and improved relations with retailers. Under Eckert, Mattel was granted the highly sought-after licensing agreement for products related to the Harry Potter series of books and movies. The company continued to flourish and build its reputation, even earning the Corporate Responsibility Award from UNICEF in 2003. By 2008, Mattel had fully realized a turnaround and was recognized as one of Fortune magazine’s ‘‘100 Best Companies to Work For’’ and Forbes magazine’s ‘‘100 Most Trustworthy U.S. Companies.’’ Mattel’s Core Products Barbie Among its many lines of popular toy products, Mattel is famous for owning top girls’ brands. In 1959, Mattel made the move that would establish them at the forefront of the toy industry. After seeing her daughter’s fascination with cutout paper dolls, Ruth suggested that a three-dimensional doll should be produced so that young girls could live out their dreams and fantasies. This doll was named ‘‘Barbie,’’ the nickname of Ruth and Elliot Handler’s daughter. The first Barbie doll sported open-toed shoes, a ponytail, sunglasses, earrings, and a zebra-striped bathing suit. Fashions and accessories were also available for the doll. Although buyers at the annual Toy Fair in New York took no interest in the Barbie doll, little girls of the time certainly did. The intense demand seen at the retail stores was insufficiently met for several years. Mattel just could not produce the Barbie dolls fast enough. Today, Barbie is Mattel’s flagship brand and its number one seller—routinely accounting for approximately half of Mattel’s sales revenue. This makes Barbie the best-selling fashion doll in most global markets. The Barbie line today includes dolls, accessories, Barbie software, and a broad assortment of licensed products such as books, apparel, food, home furnishings, home electronics, and movies. Although Barbie was introduced as a teenage fashion model, she has taken on almost every possible profession. She has also acquired numerous male and female friends and family over the years. Ken, Midge, Skipper, Christie, and others were introduced from the mid-1960s on. The Barbie line has even seen a disabled friend in a wheelchair: Share a Smile Becky. Barbie’s popularity has even broken stereotypes. Retrofitted versions of Barbie dolls, on sale in select San Francisco stores, feature ‘‘Hooker’’ Barbie, ‘‘Trailer Trash’’ Barbie, and ‘‘Drag Queen’’ Barbie. There are also numerous ‘‘alternative’’ Barbies, such as ‘‘Big Dyke’’ Barbie, but Mattel does not want the Barbie name to be used in these sales. Redressed and accessorized Barbies are okay with Mattel as long as no one practices trademark infringement. Barbie’s Popularity Slips Although Barbie remains a blockbuster by any standard, Barbie’s popularity has slipped over the past decade. There are two major reasons for Barbie’s slump. First, the changing lifestyles of today’s young girls are a concern for Mattel. Many young girls prefer to spend time with music, movies, or the Internet than play with traditional toys like dolls. Second, Barbie has suffered at the hands of new and innovative competition, including the Bratz doll line that gained significant market share during the early 2000s. The dolls, which featured contemporary, ethnic designs and skimpy clothes, were a stark contrast to Barbie and an immediate hit with young girls. In an attempt to recover, Mattel introduced the new line of My Scene dolls aimed at ‘‘tweens.’’ These dolls are trendier, look younger, and are considered to be more hip for this age group who is on the cusp of outgrowing playing with dolls. A website (http://www.myscene.com) engages girls in a variety of fun, engaging, and promotional activities. Barbie’s Legal Battle with MGA Entertainment Since 2004, Mattel has been embroiled in a bitter intellectual property battle with former employee Carter Bryant and MGA Entertainment, Inc., over rights to MGA’s popular Bratz dolls. Carter Bryant, an onagain/off-again Mattel employee, designed the Bratz dolls and pitched them to MGA. A few months after the pitch, Bryant left Mattel to work at MGA, which began producing Bratz in 2001. In 2002, Mattel launched an investigation into whether Bryant had designed the Bratz dolls while employed with Mattel. After two years of investigation, Mattel sued Bryant. A year later MGA fired off a suit of its own, claiming that Mattel’s My Scene dolls were an attempt to copy the Bratz line. Mattel answered by expanding its own lawsuit to include MGA and its CEO, Isaac Larian. For decades, Barbie had reigned supreme in the doll market. However, Bratz dolls gave Barbie a run for her money. In 2005, four years after the brand’s debut, Bratz sales were at $2 billion. By 2009, Barbie’s worldwide sales had fallen by 15 percent, although Bratz was not immune to sluggish sales either once consumers began to cut back on spending during the 2008–2009 recession. Much evidence points toward Bryant having conceived of Bratz dolls while at Mattel. Four years after the initial suit was filed, Bryant settled with Mattel under an undisclosed set of terms. However, although some decisions were made, the battle between Mattel and MGA has continued. In July 2008, a jury deemed MGA and its CEO liable for what it termed ‘‘intentional interference’’ regarding Bryant’s contract with Mattel. In August 2008, Mattel received damages of $100 million. Although Mattel first requested damages of $1.8 billion, the company was pleased with the principle behind the victory. MGA is appealing the decision. In December 2008, Mattel appeared to win another victory when a California judge banned MGA from making or selling Bratz dolls. The decision was devastating to the Bratz line, as retailers have avoided the brand in anticipation of Mattel’s takeover. Many industry analysts, however, expect Mattel to work out a deal with MGA in which MGA can continue to sell Bratz dolls as long as Mattel shares in the profits. MGA plans to appeal the court ruling. Whatever the outcome, Mattel has managed to gain some control over Barbie’s toughest competition. American Girl In 1998, Mattel acquired Pleasant Company, maker of the American Girl collection—a well-known line of historical dolls, books, and accessories. Originally, American Girl products were sold exclusively through catalogs. Mattel extended that base by selling American Girl accessories (not the dolls) in major chain stores like Walmart and Target. More recent efforts to increase brand awareness include the opening of American Girl Place shops in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Dallas, Boston, and Minneapolis. The New York store features three floors of dolls, accessories, and books in the heart of the 5th Avenue shopping district. The store also offers a cafe where girls can dine with their dolls and a stage production where young actresses bring American Girl stories to life. The American Girl collection is wildly popular with girls in the 7- to 12-year-old demographic. The dolls have a wholesome and educational image—the antithesis to Barbie. This move by Mattel represented a long-term strategy to reduce reliance on traditional products and to take away the stigma surrounding the ‘‘perfect image’’ of Barbie. Each American Girl doll lives during a specific time in American history, and all have stories that describe the hardships they face while maturing into young adults. For example, Felicity’s stories describe life in 1774 just prior to the Revolutionary War. Likewise, Josephina lives in New Mexico in 1824 during the rapid growth of the American West. Other dolls include Kaya (a Native American girl growing up in 1764), Elizabeth (Colonial Virginia), Kirsten (pioneer life in 1854), Addy (1864 during the Civil War), Samantha and Nellie (1904 New York), Kit (1934 during the Great Depression), Molly (1944 during World War II), and Emily (a British girl who comes to America during World War II). The American Girl brand includes several book series, accessories, clothing for dolls and girls, and a magazine that ranks in the top 10 American children’s magazines. Hot Wheels Hot Wheels roared into the toy world in 1968. More than 40 years later, the brand is hotter than ever and includes high-end collectibles, NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) and Formula One models for adults, high-performance cars, track sets, and play sets for children of all ages. The brand is connected with racing circuits worldwide. More than 15 million boys ages 5 to 15 are avid collectors, each owning an average of 41 cars.

{Query} ================== What impact did Bratz doll have on Mattel? {Instructions} ================== Only use this document as a source, do not use any outside knowledge. {Text Passage} ================== **Mattel: Overcoming Marketing and Manufacturing Challenges** It all started in a California garage workshop when Ruth and Elliot Handler and Matt Matson founded Mattel in 1945. The company started out making picture frames, but the founders soon recognized the profitability of the toy industry and switched their emphasis. Mattel became a publicly owned company in 1960, with sales exceeding $100 million by 1965. Over the next 40 years, Mattel went on to become the world’s largest toy company in terms of revenue. Today, Mattel, Inc. is a world leader in the design, manufacture, and marketing of family products. Well-known for toy brands such as Barbie, Fisher-Price, Disney, Hot Wheels, Matchbox, Tyco, Cabbage Patch Kids, and board games such as Scrabble, the company boasts nearly $6 billion in annual revenue. Headquartered in El Segundo, California, with offices in 36 countries, Mattel markets its products in more than 150 nations. In spite of its overall success, Mattel has had its share of losses over its history. During the mid to late 1990s, Mattel lost millions due to declining sales and bad business acquisitions. In January 1997, Jill Barad took over as Mattel’s CEO. Barad’s management style was characterized as strict, and her tenure at the helm proved challenging for many employees. Although Barad had been successful in building the Barbie brand to $2 billion near the end of the twentieth century, growth slowed rapidly after that time. Declining sales at outlets such as Toys ‘‘R’’ Us and the mismanaged acquisition of The Learning Company marked the start of some difficulties for the toy maker, including a dramatic 60 percent drop in stock price under Barad’s three-year stint as CEO. Barad accepted responsibility for these problems and resigned in 2000. The company soon installed Robert Eckert, a 23-year Kraft veteran, as chairman and CEO. During Eckert’s first three years on the job, the company’s stock price increased to over $20 per share, and Mattel was ranked fortieth on Business Week’s list of top-performing companies. Implementing techniques used by consumer-product companies, Eckert adopted a mission to bring stability and predictability to Mattel. He sold unprofitable units, streamlined work processes, and improved relations with retailers. Under Eckert, Mattel was granted the highly sought-after licensing agreement for products related to the Harry Potter series of books and movies. The company continued to flourish and build its reputation, even earning the Corporate Responsibility Award from UNICEF in 2003. By 2008, Mattel had fully realized a turnaround and was recognized as one of Fortune magazine’s ‘‘100 Best Companies to Work For’’ and Forbes magazine’s ‘‘100 Most Trustworthy U.S. Companies.’’ Mattel’s Core Products Barbie Among its many lines of popular toy products, Mattel is famous for owning top girls’ brands. In 1959, Mattel made the move that would establish them at the forefront of the toy industry. After seeing her daughter’s fascination with cutout paper dolls, Ruth suggested that a three-dimensional doll should be produced so that young girls could live out their dreams and fantasies. This doll was named ‘‘Barbie,’’ the nickname of Ruth and Elliot Handler’s daughter. The first Barbie doll sported open-toed shoes, a ponytail, sunglasses, earrings, and a zebra-striped bathing suit. Fashions and accessories were also available for the doll. Although buyers at the annual Toy Fair in New York took no interest in the Barbie doll, little girls of the time certainly did. The intense demand seen at the retail stores was insufficiently met for several years. Mattel just could not produce the Barbie dolls fast enough. Today, Barbie is Mattel’s flagship brand and its number one seller—routinely accounting for approximately half of Mattel’s sales revenue. This makes Barbie the best-selling fashion doll in most global markets. The Barbie line today includes dolls, accessories, Barbie software, and a broad assortment of licensed products such as books, apparel, food, home furnishings, home electronics, and movies. Although Barbie was introduced as a teenage fashion model, she has taken on almost every possible profession. She has also acquired numerous male and female friends and family over the years. Ken, Midge, Skipper, Christie, and others were introduced from the mid-1960s on. The Barbie line has even seen a disabled friend in a wheelchair: Share a Smile Becky. Barbie’s popularity has even broken stereotypes. Retrofitted versions of Barbie dolls, on sale in select San Francisco stores, feature ‘‘Hooker’’ Barbie, ‘‘Trailer Trash’’ Barbie, and ‘‘Drag Queen’’ Barbie. There are also numerous ‘‘alternative’’ Barbies, such as ‘‘Big Dyke’’ Barbie, but Mattel does not want the Barbie name to be used in these sales. Redressed and accessorized Barbies are okay with Mattel as long as no one practices trademark infringement. Barbie’s Popularity Slips Although Barbie remains a blockbuster by any standard, Barbie’s popularity has slipped over the past decade. There are two major reasons for Barbie’s slump. First, the changing lifestyles of today’s young girls are a concern for Mattel. Many young girls prefer to spend time with music, movies, or the Internet than play with traditional toys like dolls. Second, Barbie has suffered at the hands of new and innovative competition, including the Bratz doll line that gained significant market share during the early 2000s. The dolls, which featured contemporary, ethnic designs and skimpy clothes, were a stark contrast to Barbie and an immediate hit with young girls. In an attempt to recover, Mattel introduced the new line of My Scene dolls aimed at ‘‘tweens.’’ These dolls are trendier, look younger, and are considered to be more hip for this age group who is on the cusp of outgrowing playing with dolls. A website (http://www.myscene.com) engages girls in a variety of fun, engaging, and promotional activities. Barbie’s Legal Battle with MGA Entertainment Since 2004, Mattel has been embroiled in a bitter intellectual property battle with former employee Carter Bryant and MGA Entertainment, Inc., over rights to MGA’s popular Bratz dolls. Carter Bryant, an onagain/off-again Mattel employee, designed the Bratz dolls and pitched them to MGA. A few months after the pitch, Bryant left Mattel to work at MGA, which began producing Bratz in 2001. In 2002, Mattel launched an investigation into whether Bryant had designed the Bratz dolls while employed with Mattel. After two years of investigation, Mattel sued Bryant. A year later MGA fired off a suit of its own, claiming that Mattel’s My Scene dolls were an attempt to copy the Bratz line. Mattel answered by expanding its own lawsuit to include MGA and its CEO, Isaac Larian. For decades, Barbie had reigned supreme in the doll market. However, Bratz dolls gave Barbie a run for her money. In 2005, four years after the brand’s debut, Bratz sales were at $2 billion. By 2009, Barbie’s worldwide sales had fallen by 15 percent, although Bratz was not immune to sluggish sales either once consumers began to cut back on spending during the 2008–2009 recession. Much evidence points toward Bryant having conceived of Bratz dolls while at Mattel. Four years after the initial suit was filed, Bryant settled with Mattel under an undisclosed set of terms. However, although some decisions were made, the battle between Mattel and MGA has continued. In July 2008, a jury deemed MGA and its CEO liable for what it termed ‘‘intentional interference’’ regarding Bryant’s contract with Mattel. In August 2008, Mattel received damages of $100 million. Although Mattel first requested damages of $1.8 billion, the company was pleased with the principle behind the victory. MGA is appealing the decision. In December 2008, Mattel appeared to win another victory when a California judge banned MGA from making or selling Bratz dolls. The decision was devastating to the Bratz line, as retailers have avoided the brand in anticipation of Mattel’s takeover. Many industry analysts, however, expect Mattel to work out a deal with MGA in which MGA can continue to sell Bratz dolls as long as Mattel shares in the profits. MGA plans to appeal the court ruling. Whatever the outcome, Mattel has managed to gain some control over Barbie’s toughest competition. American Girl In 1998, Mattel acquired Pleasant Company, maker of the American Girl collection—a well-known line of historical dolls, books, and accessories. Originally, American Girl products were sold exclusively through catalogs. Mattel extended that base by selling American Girl accessories (not the dolls) in major chain stores like Walmart and Target. More recent efforts to increase brand awareness include the opening of American Girl Place shops in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Dallas, Boston, and Minneapolis. The New York store features three floors of dolls, accessories, and books in the heart of the 5th Avenue shopping district. The store also offers a cafe where girls can dine with their dolls and a stage production where young actresses bring American Girl stories to life. The American Girl collection is wildly popular with girls in the 7- to 12-year-old demographic. The dolls have a wholesome and educational image—the antithesis to Barbie. This move by Mattel represented a long-term strategy to reduce reliance on traditional products and to take away the stigma surrounding the ‘‘perfect image’’ of Barbie. Each American Girl doll lives during a specific time in American history, and all have stories that describe the hardships they face while maturing into young adults. For example, Felicity’s stories describe life in 1774 just prior to the Revolutionary War. Likewise, Josephina lives in New Mexico in 1824 during the rapid growth of the American West. Other dolls include Kaya (a Native American girl growing up in 1764), Elizabeth (Colonial Virginia), Kirsten (pioneer life in 1854), Addy (1864 during the Civil War), Samantha and Nellie (1904 New York), Kit (1934 during the Great Depression), Molly (1944 during World War II), and Emily (a British girl who comes to America during World War II). The American Girl brand includes several book series, accessories, clothing for dolls and girls, and a magazine that ranks in the top 10 American children’s magazines. Hot Wheels Hot Wheels roared into the toy world in 1968. More than 40 years later, the brand is hotter than ever and includes high-end collectibles, NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) and Formula One models for adults, high-performance cars, track sets, and play sets for children of all ages. The brand is connected with racing circuits worldwide. More than 15 million boys ages 5 to 15 are avid collectors, each owning an average of 41 cars.

Draw your answer only from the text below.

Please describe modifications to insulin that have resulted in improvements in safety, effectiveness, and convenience to patients. Please describe just one modification that pertains to the three areas listed above.

Insulin is a small protein composed of 51 amino acids. Because insulin is derived from a living organism, it is considered a biologic, or biological product (the text box below defines biologics and describes their regulatory framework). Since the discovery of insulin, incremental modifications over time have resulted in improvements in safety, effectiveness, and convenience to patients.5 Insulin was discovered in 1921 by two University of Toronto researchers who sold their U.S. patents to the university for $1 each, so the drug could be produced at a reasonable cost.6 Facing challenges manufacturing sufficient quantities of insulin for the North American market, in 1923, the University of Toronto team partnered with—and licensed manufacturing rights to—several pharmaceutical companies.7 Commercially available insulins today differ from the insulin discovered by the Toronto team. The original insulin was a short-acting product with a duration of action of 6-8 hours, making it less suitable for providing 24-hour coverage. In the late 1930s through the 1950s, researchers altered regular insulin by adding substances (e.g., protamine and zinc) to gain longer action, resulting in what are now called intermediate-acting insulins. One such advance, Neutral Protamine Hagedorn (NPH), was patented in 1946. It allowed for the combination of two types of insulin (long-acting and short-acting insulin) in premixed vials, making a single daily injection possible for some patients.8 At that time, insulin was obtained by extraction from animals. As animal-derived products, insulins were subject to problems inherent to animal-tissue extracts, such as impurities, which could cause immunologic reactions impacting their safety and effectiveness.9 Insulin production has changed over the years, as researchers altered insulin to improve the patient experience. In the late 1970s, advancements in biotechnology allowed for the replacement of animal insulin extracted from cattle and pig pancreases with human insulin produced using recombinant DNA technology. In 1982, Eli Lilly brought the first recombinant human insulins to the U.S. market: Humulin R (regular) and N (NPH). In the late 1980s, advancements in recombinant technology allowed scientists to modify insulin’s structure to improve its physiological effects. This advancement resulted in the development of insulin analogs, which more closely replicate normal insulin patterns in the body. In 1996, Humalog (insulin lispro) became the first rapid-acting insulin analog to be approved, followed by Novolog (insulin aspart) in 2000, and others thereafter.10 This same technology allowed for the development of long-acting insulin analogs. In 2000, Lantus (insulin glargine) became the first long-acting insulin analog, and others followed.11 Some studies have questioned whether the more expensive analogs provide an advantage over regular insulin in controlling glucose levels or preventing diabetes-related complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.12 In addition to modifications to insulin itself, associated delivery devices, such as insulin pens, have provided a more convenient route of administration for patients compared with syringes. Subsequent patenting of these modifications upon approval has shielded insulin products from competition for extended periods. As new insulin products entered the market, insulin manufacturers discontinued many older versions of these products. The regulatory framework created challenges for bringing generic insulins to the market.13

Draw your answer only from the text below. Please describe modifications to insulin that have resulted in improvements in safety, effectiveness, and convenience to patients. Please describe just one modification that pertains to the three areas listed above. Insulin is a small protein composed of 51 amino acids. Because insulin is derived from a living organism, it is considered a biologic, or biological product (the text box below defines biologics and describes their regulatory framework). Since the discovery of insulin, incremental modifications over time have resulted in improvements in safety, effectiveness, and convenience to patients.5 Insulin was discovered in 1921 by two University of Toronto researchers who sold their U.S. patents to the university for $1 each, so the drug could be produced at a reasonable cost.6 Facing challenges manufacturing sufficient quantities of insulin for the North American market, in 1923, the University of Toronto team partnered with—and licensed manufacturing rights to—several pharmaceutical companies.7 Commercially available insulins today differ from the insulin discovered by the Toronto team. The original insulin was a short-acting product with a duration of action of 6-8 hours, making it less suitable for providing 24-hour coverage. In the late 1930s through the 1950s, researchers altered regular insulin by adding substances (e.g., protamine and zinc) to gain longer action, resulting in what are now called intermediate-acting insulins. One such advance, Neutral Protamine Hagedorn (NPH), was patented in 1946. It allowed for the combination of two types of insulin (long-acting and short-acting insulin) in premixed vials, making a single daily injection possible for some patients.8 At that time, insulin was obtained by extraction from animals. As animal-derived products, insulins were subject to problems inherent to animal-tissue extracts, such as impurities, which could cause immunologic reactions impacting their safety and effectiveness.9 Insulin production has changed over the years, as researchers altered insulin to improve the patient experience. In the late 1970s, advancements in biotechnology allowed for the replacement of animal insulin extracted from cattle and pig pancreases with human insulin produced using recombinant DNA technology. In 1982, Eli Lilly brought the first recombinant human insulins to the U.S. market: Humulin R (regular) and N (NPH). In the late 1980s, advancements in recombinant technology allowed scientists to modify insulin’s structure to improve its physiological effects. This advancement resulted in the development of insulin analogs, which more closely replicate normal insulin patterns in the body. In 1996, Humalog (insulin lispro) became the first rapid-acting insulin analog to be approved, followed by Novolog (insulin aspart) in 2000, and others thereafter.10 This same technology allowed for the development of long-acting insulin analogs. In 2000, Lantus (insulin glargine) became the first long-acting insulin analog, and others followed.11 Some studies have questioned whether the more expensive analogs provide an advantage over regular insulin in controlling glucose levels or preventing diabetes-related complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.12 In addition to modifications to insulin itself, associated delivery devices, such as insulin pens, have provided a more convenient route of administration for patients compared with syringes. Subsequent patenting of these modifications upon approval has shielded insulin products from competition for extended periods. As new insulin products entered the market, insulin manufacturers discontinued many older versions of these products. The regulatory framework created challenges for bringing generic insulins to the market.13

Respond using only information in the context block provided. Do not use any acronyms in your response.

List every influence of the pandemic in a bullet list, using only three sentences for each point.

One of the main ways in which the economy impacts CRE is via interest rates. Higher interest rates in both the short term and the long term are likely to affect industries that rely on credit, such as CRE.6 Tighter credit conditions can affect the ability of builders to obtain financing for new construction. Higher borrowing costs can in turn reduce CRE growth or increase rents for CRE occupants. If CRE owners ultimately cannot make payments on higher cost loans, this could result in losses for those individuals and institutions that finance CRE. In recent years, interest rates rose significantly, one of several fundamental shifts in the economic environment. Prior to the pandemic, inflation was low and stable despite over a decade of historically low interest rates and accommodative monetary policy.7 This led to low borrowing costs. However, inflation began rising in 2021, reaching highs not seen since the 1980s, and interest rates have also risen significantly. In response to inflation, the Federal Reserve (Fed) raised the federal funds rate (FFR) over five percentage points between March 2022 and July 2023.8 Other interest rates in the economy responded to the Fed’s actions, resulting in a higher interest rate environment and higher borrowing costs. The Fed has yet to begin lowering rates but is expected to begin lowering rates in late 2024. The Fed projects that the appropriate monetary policy path will result in an FFR of 2.8% in the longer run—relatively low in historical terms but higher than most of the period since the 2007-2009 financial crisis and recession.9 CRE is also likely to be affected by other economic conditions, including demand and investment behavior. Despite the Fed’s efforts to reduce demand through interest rate hikes, the economy has remained unexpectedly robust in the face of monetary tightening particularly with respect to metrics that could affect CRE, such as consumer spending and labor market conditions. While monetary tightening has weighed somewhat on investment, including residential investment (which includes multifamily CRE properties), consumer spending has been strong, which could help retail CRE properties. Overall, the labor market closed out 2023 relatively strong with unemployment at 3.7%, and economic growth largely beat expectations in 2023 at 2.5% for the year. 10 While the first quarter of 2024 did show an increase in the unemployment rate, higher than-anticipated inflation, and slower growth, the economy remains in relatively good condition, with growth at a strong 3.0% in the second quarter. A continued strong economic performance could help buoy CRE markets despite higher borrowing costs. Economic Outlook for CRE Since the Fed began raising rates in response to high inflation in March 2022, it has been trying to achieve a soft landing—a return to low inflation while maintaining moderate economic growth and full employment.11 Achieving a soft landing after sustained monetary policy tightening is notoriously difficult. Historically, most periods of sustained tightening have been followed by hard landings, meaning recessions. Nonetheless, the recent period of monetary policy tightening has so far resulted in falling inflation without a significant decline in employment or economic activity. A soft landing would be advantageous to CRE, as it would be to all sectors of the economy. All else equal, low and stable inflation, moderate growth, and a strong labor market would lead to robust and sustainable demand, including consumer spending and business investment. A hard landing would lead to lower demand and likely lower CRE growth. In terms of CRE, the path of interest rates may be of particular policy interest given the role they play in CRE. In the projected scenario of a soft landing, interest rates are likely to decrease beginning this year. As of June 2024, the Fed’s Federal Open Market Committee projected that one rate decrease in the second half of 2024 would be appropriate, with the median projected appropriate policy path resulting in an FFR of 5.1% at the end of 2024, 4.1% at the end of 2025, and 3.1% at the end of 2026.12 In August 2024, Fed Chair Jerome Powell stated that “the time has come for policy to adjust,” indicating likely rate cuts beginning in September 2024.13 However, changes in the FFR are unlikely to affect longer-term interest rates by the same magnitude. For example, an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development model for long-term interest rates forecasts that the rate on a 10-year government security will be 3.9% in the third quarter of 2025.14 The yield on a 10-year Treasury as of July 2, 2024, was 4.43%.15 Easing credit conditions could boost construction and CRE growth generally, although there is a high degree of uncertainty about how much interest rates will ultimately fall. While most economists are not predicting an imminent recession, it is possible that one could occur nonetheless. For example, the recent increases in the unemployment rate have some concerned that the economy is weakening.16 In this scenario, the Fed may opt to lower the FFR either more quickly or by a larger magnitude than it may otherwise have done. Such an economic contraction would likely hurt CRE growth, but the monetary response would help it to recover, all else equal. Structural Changes Affecting CRE Properties While certain broad economic conditions may be expected to affect CRE broadly, the impacts can look quite different based on type. For example, COVID-19 was a shock to all CRE segments as well as the broader economy. However, based on the nature of the pandemic, demand for office or retail space took relatively big hits, as restrictions on in-person contact made spending in brick and-mortar stores difficult and resulted in increased telework. 17 While the performance of CRE sectors has largely been mixed, the office sector in particular is continuing to show signs of stress and has the highest potential to cause stress in the banking sector. For example, while vacancy rates are up since pre-pandemic for multifamily and retail, they are elevated to a lesser degree than in the office sector, which shows record-level vacancy rates. In the industrial sector, vacancy rates have fallen since the beginning of the pandemic. Other metrics, such as rents, tell a less consistent story across sectors over this period. Nonetheless, as of the second quarter of 2024, quarterly effective rent growth was positive in all sectors apart from office.18 The Office Sector The pandemic resulted in a structural shift away from in-office work, resulting in high vacancy rates for this segment of CRE that persist today. With the rise in telework, many companies renting space from the office subsector of CRE owners are not renewing their leases. This is evidenced by higher office vacancy rates (see Figure 1), which continue to rise, hitting a record 20.1% in the second quarter of 2024, according to Moody’s Analytics, a credit rating agency. 19 Consequently, the number of office property rental leases has declined, generating lower revenues and potentially imperiling the ability of the property owners to pay back financing costs. According to Moody’s, effective rents have been negative or largely unchanged for the four quarters ending in Q2 2024 (see Figure 1).20 To minimize losses, some CRE owners have been willing to break leases and renegotiate terms with tenants. 21 Further, while norms surrounding remote and hybrid work have shifted in the past few years owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the extent to which remote work will shift the CRE landscape is uncertain. While rates of office utilization are lower than prior to the pandemic (i.e., February 2020), according to some estimates, they have, on average, trended upward in selected major cities after the initial onset (i.e., March 2020) of the pandemic (see Figure 2).

System instruction: [Respond using only information in the context block provided. Do not use any acronyms in your response.] User question: [List every influence of the pandemic in a bullet list, using only three sentences for each point.] Context block: [One of the main ways in which the economy impacts CRE is via interest rates. Higher interest rates in both the short term and the long term are likely to affect industries that rely on credit, such as CRE.6 Tighter credit conditions can affect the ability of builders to obtain financing for new construction. Higher borrowing costs can in turn reduce CRE growth or increase rents for CRE occupants. If CRE owners ultimately cannot make payments on higher cost loans, this could result in losses for those individuals and institutions that finance CRE. In recent years, interest rates rose significantly, one of several fundamental shifts in the economic environment. Prior to the pandemic, inflation was low and stable despite over a decade of historically low interest rates and accommodative monetary policy.7 This led to low borrowing costs. However, inflation began rising in 2021, reaching highs not seen since the 1980s, and interest rates have also risen significantly. In response to inflation, the Federal Reserve (Fed) raised the federal funds rate (FFR) over five percentage points between March 2022 and July 2023.8 Other interest rates in the economy responded to the Fed’s actions, resulting in a higher interest rate environment and higher borrowing costs. The Fed has yet to begin lowering rates but is expected to begin lowering rates in late 2024. The Fed projects that the appropriate monetary policy path will result in an FFR of 2.8% in the longer run—relatively low in historical terms but higher than most of the period since the 2007-2009 financial crisis and recession.9 CRE is also likely to be affected by other economic conditions, including demand and investment behavior. Despite the Fed’s efforts to reduce demand through interest rate hikes, the economy has remained unexpectedly robust in the face of monetary tightening particularly with respect to metrics that could affect CRE, such as consumer spending and labor market conditions. While monetary tightening has weighed somewhat on investment, including residential investment (which includes multifamily CRE properties), consumer spending has been strong, which could help retail CRE properties. Overall, the labor market closed out 2023 relatively strong with unemployment at 3.7%, and economic growth largely beat expectations in 2023 at 2.5% for the year. 10 While the first quarter of 2024 did show an increase in the unemployment rate, higher than-anticipated inflation, and slower growth, the economy remains in relatively good condition, with growth at a strong 3.0% in the second quarter. A continued strong economic performance could help buoy CRE markets despite higher borrowing costs. Economic Outlook for CRE Since the Fed began raising rates in response to high inflation in March 2022, it has been trying to achieve a soft landing—a return to low inflation while maintaining moderate economic growth and full employment.11 Achieving a soft landing after sustained monetary policy tightening is notoriously difficult. Historically, most periods of sustained tightening have been followed by hard landings, meaning recessions. Nonetheless, the recent period of monetary policy tightening has so far resulted in falling inflation without a significant decline in employment or economic activity. A soft landing would be advantageous to CRE, as it would be to all sectors of the economy. All else equal, low and stable inflation, moderate growth, and a strong labor market would lead to robust and sustainable demand, including consumer spending and business investment. A hard landing would lead to lower demand and likely lower CRE growth. In terms of CRE, the path of interest rates may be of particular policy interest given the role they play in CRE. In the projected scenario of a soft landing, interest rates are likely to decrease beginning this year. As of June 2024, the Fed’s Federal Open Market Committee projected that one rate decrease in the second half of 2024 would be appropriate, with the median projected appropriate policy path resulting in an FFR of 5.1% at the end of 2024, 4.1% at the end of 2025, and 3.1% at the end of 2026.12 In August 2024, Fed Chair Jerome Powell stated that “the time has come for policy to adjust,” indicating likely rate cuts beginning in September 2024.13 However, changes in the FFR are unlikely to affect longer-term interest rates by the same magnitude. For example, an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development model for long-term interest rates forecasts that the rate on a 10-year government security will be 3.9% in the third quarter of 2025.14 The yield on a 10-year Treasury as of July 2, 2024, was 4.43%.15 Easing credit conditions could boost construction and CRE growth generally, although there is a high degree of uncertainty about how much interest rates will ultimately fall. While most economists are not predicting an imminent recession, it is possible that one could occur nonetheless. For example, the recent increases in the unemployment rate have some concerned that the economy is weakening.16 In this scenario, the Fed may opt to lower the FFR either more quickly or by a larger magnitude than it may otherwise have done. Such an economic contraction would likely hurt CRE growth, but the monetary response would help it to recover, all else equal. Structural Changes Affecting CRE Properties While certain broad economic conditions may be expected to affect CRE broadly, the impacts can look quite different based on type. For example, COVID-19 was a shock to all CRE segments as well as the broader economy. However, based on the nature of the pandemic, demand for office or retail space took relatively big hits, as restrictions on in-person contact made spending in brick and-mortar stores difficult and resulted in increased telework. 17 While the performance of CRE sectors has largely been mixed, the office sector in particular is continuing to show signs of stress and has the highest potential to cause stress in the banking sector. For example, while vacancy rates are up since pre-pandemic for multifamily and retail, they are elevated to a lesser degree than in the office sector, which shows record-level vacancy rates. In the industrial sector, vacancy rates have fallen since the beginning of the pandemic. Other metrics, such as rents, tell a less consistent story across sectors over this period. Nonetheless, as of the second quarter of 2024, quarterly effective rent growth was positive in all sectors apart from office.18 The Office Sector The pandemic resulted in a structural shift away from in-office work, resulting in high vacancy rates for this segment of CRE that persist today. With the rise in telework, many companies renting space from the office subsector of CRE owners are not renewing their leases. This is evidenced by higher office vacancy rates (see Figure 1), which continue to rise, hitting a record 20.1% in the second quarter of 2024, according to Moody’s Analytics, a credit rating agency. 19 Consequently, the number of office property rental leases has declined, generating lower revenues and potentially imperiling the ability of the property owners to pay back financing costs. According to Moody’s, effective rents have been negative or largely unchanged for the four quarters ending in Q2 2024 (see Figure 1).20 To minimize losses, some CRE owners have been willing to break leases and renegotiate terms with tenants. 21 Further, while norms surrounding remote and hybrid work have shifted in the past few years owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the extent to which remote work will shift the CRE landscape is uncertain. While rates of office utilization are lower than prior to the pandemic (i.e., February 2020), according to some estimates, they have, on average, trended upward in selected major cities after the initial onset (i.e., March 2020) of the pandemic (see Figure 2).]

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

I bought my kids some new toothpaste and it contains the ingredient xylitol. I want to know more about what that is so I found this article. Please explain what xylitol is and what benefits it has. Use at least 400 words in your response.

Should I Switch to Xylitol Toothpaste? Dental benefits Xylitol toothpaste Vs. fluoride In children Gum and candy Daily intake Side effects FAQ Takeaway Some research suggests that xylitol toothpaste may benefit your teeth, such as preventing cavities. However, research is mixed. More studies are needed to fully support its dental health benefits. Xylitol is a sugar alcohol. Although it occursTrusted Source naturally in some fruits, it’s considered an artificial sweetener. Some research suggests that xylitol may have several dental benefits. However, the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) doesn’t support using xylitol toothpaste because there isn’t enough research on its effectiveness for dental health, and the current research is mixed. Keep reading to learn more about the possible dental health benefits and side effects of xylitol toothpaste, as well as how to use it. Xylitol and dental health benefits Xylitol may be an effective defenseTrusted Source against the bacteria Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans). This type of cariogenic, or cavity-causing, bacteria is a key contributor to tooth decay and enamel breakdown. Sugar serves as food for the cariogenic bacteria that live in your mouth. When those bacteria feed on fermentable sugars, they produce lactic acid that damages tooth enamel. This damage can eventually lead to cavities. Xylitol is an unfermentable sugar alcohol that the bacteria can’t process. That means no lactic acid is produced to damage the enamel. Xylitol may also help prevent dental plaque, which may lead to cavities. Benefits of xylitol toothpaste Several studies have found that xylitol toothpaste may be an effective delivery system for xylitol. However, the research is mixed on how much xylitol is needed to experience notable benefits. For instance, a 2023 study found that using 25% xylitol toothpaste twice daily for 24 months significantly reduced levels of S. mutans in the mouth. The researchers concluded that xylitol toothpaste may be an effective home remedy for preventing cavities. A 2024 studyTrusted Source found similar results when using 25% xylitol toothpaste twice daily for 3 months, while a 2022 reviewTrusted Source found that products containing xylitol, such as chewing gum and toothpaste, helped prevent cavities. On the other hand, the AAPD found that taking xylitol less than three times daily had no protective effects, which differs from the positive results above. However, the AAPD did note that consuming 5 to 10 grams (g) of xylitol three times daily may help reduce cavities by up to 80%. ADVERTISEMENT Compare Medicare Advantage Plans See a list of Medicare Advantage plans in your area that may be suited to your unique needs with HelloMedicare™. We offer Medicare Advantage plans in All 50 States Multiple Insurance Carriers Available Compare Plans Medicare Costs Defined Xylitol toothpaste vs. fluoride toothpaste Research comparing xylitol toothpaste and fluoride toothpaste is limited. A small 2018 studyTrusted Source found that fluoride toothpaste was more effective at reducing S. mutans than xylitol toothpaste. Some xylitol proponents suggest that it’s more effective when combined with fluoride in toothpaste. Xylitol helps protect the teeth from damage, and fluoride helps repair any damage that the teeth might sustain. A 2015 reviewTrusted Source of 10 studies compared fluoride toothpaste to fluoride toothpaste with 10% xylitol added. When children used xylitol-fluoride toothpaste for 2.5 to 3 years, their cavities were reduced by an additional 13%. That said, the evidence was deemed to be of low quality. However, a 2014 studyTrusted Source found no significant difference in tooth decay reduction between children using xylitol-fluoride toothpaste and those using fluoride-only toothpaste. More research is needed to compare the effects of fluoride and xylitol toothpaste. Xylitol toothpaste for children Some studies have found that xylitol toothpaste may be an effective strategy for reducing cavities in kids. The AAPD has endorsed xylitol as part of a complete strategy to prevent tooth decay or cavities. However, due to mixed and limited research, the AAPD doesn’t recommend using xylitol toothpaste for children. Xylitol chewing gum and candy According to the AAPD, some research has found that chewing may enhance xylitol’s anti-cariogenic, or anti-tooth decay, effect. This means that chewing gum, lozenges, and candies may be more effective at preventing cavities than toothpaste. A 2014 study also found that erythritol candy was significantly more effective at reducing cavities than xylitol candy. However, more research is needed. How much xylitol you need The research on how much xylitol you need per day is mixed. For instance, a 2014 review suggests that a daily dose of 6 to 10 gTrusted Source could help prevent carries. However, the AAPD notes that three daily doses of 5 to 10 g, for a daily total of 15 to 30 g, are needed to experience dental benefits. Side effects of xylitol Xylitol is digested slowly in the large intestine. This may result in its primary side effects, which may include: flatulence diarrhea more frequent bowel movements It’s also important to note that xylitol is especially toxic to dogs. If your dog eats xylitol toothpaste — or xylitol in any form — take them to the veterinarian immediately. Make sure to bring along the packaging from the xylitol product for the vet’s reference. Frequently asked questions Is xylitol toothpaste good for your teeth? Some research suggests xylitol toothpaste could help reduce plaque buildup and bacteria that may lead to cavities. However, more research is needed. Is there xylitol in Crest toothpaste? Some types of Crest toothpaste may have xylitol, such as Crest 3D white. However, if you want xylitol in your toothpaste, it’s best to read the labels because not all toothpaste contains xylitol. The bottom line Xylitol is a sugar replacement that could help prevent cavities and tooth decay. Some research suggests that xylitol toothpaste may have a significant impact on cavity prevention. However, toothpaste may not be the most effective delivery system for xylitol. If you’re considering switching to a toothpaste with xylitol, speak with a dentist first. They could help you decide whether it’s right for you and provide suggestions to help you prevent cavities. This may include modifying your oral hygiene routine and recommending regular visits to the dentist.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== I bought my kids some new toothpaste and it contains the ingredient xylitol. I want to know more about what that is so I found this article. Please explain what xylitol is and what benefits it has. Use at least 400 words in your response. {passage 0} ========== Should I Switch to Xylitol Toothpaste? Dental benefits Xylitol toothpaste Vs. fluoride In children Gum and candy Daily intake Side effects FAQ Takeaway Some research suggests that xylitol toothpaste may benefit your teeth, such as preventing cavities. However, research is mixed. More studies are needed to fully support its dental health benefits. Xylitol is a sugar alcohol. Although it occursTrusted Source naturally in some fruits, it’s considered an artificial sweetener. Some research suggests that xylitol may have several dental benefits. However, the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) doesn’t support using xylitol toothpaste because there isn’t enough research on its effectiveness for dental health, and the current research is mixed. Keep reading to learn more about the possible dental health benefits and side effects of xylitol toothpaste, as well as how to use it. Xylitol and dental health benefits Xylitol may be an effective defenseTrusted Source against the bacteria Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans). This type of cariogenic, or cavity-causing, bacteria is a key contributor to tooth decay and enamel breakdown. Sugar serves as food for the cariogenic bacteria that live in your mouth. When those bacteria feed on fermentable sugars, they produce lactic acid that damages tooth enamel. This damage can eventually lead to cavities. Xylitol is an unfermentable sugar alcohol that the bacteria can’t process. That means no lactic acid is produced to damage the enamel. Xylitol may also help prevent dental plaque, which may lead to cavities. Benefits of xylitol toothpaste Several studies have found that xylitol toothpaste may be an effective delivery system for xylitol. However, the research is mixed on how much xylitol is needed to experience notable benefits. For instance, a 2023 study found that using 25% xylitol toothpaste twice daily for 24 months significantly reduced levels of S. mutans in the mouth. The researchers concluded that xylitol toothpaste may be an effective home remedy for preventing cavities. A 2024 studyTrusted Source found similar results when using 25% xylitol toothpaste twice daily for 3 months, while a 2022 reviewTrusted Source found that products containing xylitol, such as chewing gum and toothpaste, helped prevent cavities. On the other hand, the AAPD found that taking xylitol less than three times daily had no protective effects, which differs from the positive results above. However, the AAPD did note that consuming 5 to 10 grams (g) of xylitol three times daily may help reduce cavities by up to 80%. ADVERTISEMENT Compare Medicare Advantage Plans See a list of Medicare Advantage plans in your area that may be suited to your unique needs with HelloMedicare™. We offer Medicare Advantage plans in All 50 States Multiple Insurance Carriers Available Compare Plans Medicare Costs Defined Xylitol toothpaste vs. fluoride toothpaste Research comparing xylitol toothpaste and fluoride toothpaste is limited. A small 2018 studyTrusted Source found that fluoride toothpaste was more effective at reducing S. mutans than xylitol toothpaste. Some xylitol proponents suggest that it’s more effective when combined with fluoride in toothpaste. Xylitol helps protect the teeth from damage, and fluoride helps repair any damage that the teeth might sustain. A 2015 reviewTrusted Source of 10 studies compared fluoride toothpaste to fluoride toothpaste with 10% xylitol added. When children used xylitol-fluoride toothpaste for 2.5 to 3 years, their cavities were reduced by an additional 13%. That said, the evidence was deemed to be of low quality. However, a 2014 studyTrusted Source found no significant difference in tooth decay reduction between children using xylitol-fluoride toothpaste and those using fluoride-only toothpaste. More research is needed to compare the effects of fluoride and xylitol toothpaste. Xylitol toothpaste for children Some studies have found that xylitol toothpaste may be an effective strategy for reducing cavities in kids. The AAPD has endorsed xylitol as part of a complete strategy to prevent tooth decay or cavities. However, due to mixed and limited research, the AAPD doesn’t recommend using xylitol toothpaste for children. Xylitol chewing gum and candy According to the AAPD, some research has found that chewing may enhance xylitol’s anti-cariogenic, or anti-tooth decay, effect. This means that chewing gum, lozenges, and candies may be more effective at preventing cavities than toothpaste. A 2014 study also found that erythritol candy was significantly more effective at reducing cavities than xylitol candy. However, more research is needed. How much xylitol you need The research on how much xylitol you need per day is mixed. For instance, a 2014 review suggests that a daily dose of 6 to 10 gTrusted Source could help prevent carries. However, the AAPD notes that three daily doses of 5 to 10 g, for a daily total of 15 to 30 g, are needed to experience dental benefits. Side effects of xylitol Xylitol is digested slowly in the large intestine. This may result in its primary side effects, which may include: flatulence diarrhea more frequent bowel movements It’s also important to note that xylitol is especially toxic to dogs. If your dog eats xylitol toothpaste — or xylitol in any form — take them to the veterinarian immediately. Make sure to bring along the packaging from the xylitol product for the vet’s reference. Frequently asked questions Is xylitol toothpaste good for your teeth? Some research suggests xylitol toothpaste could help reduce plaque buildup and bacteria that may lead to cavities. However, more research is needed. Is there xylitol in Crest toothpaste? Some types of Crest toothpaste may have xylitol, such as Crest 3D white. However, if you want xylitol in your toothpaste, it’s best to read the labels because not all toothpaste contains xylitol. The bottom line Xylitol is a sugar replacement that could help prevent cavities and tooth decay. Some research suggests that xylitol toothpaste may have a significant impact on cavity prevention. However, toothpaste may not be the most effective delivery system for xylitol. If you’re considering switching to a toothpaste with xylitol, speak with a dentist first. They could help you decide whether it’s right for you and provide suggestions to help you prevent cavities. This may include modifying your oral hygiene routine and recommending regular visits to the dentist. https://www.healthline.com/health/xylitol-toothpaste#takeaway

[question] [user request] ===================== [text] [context document] ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

Compare how technology has affected children's attention space to how reading affects it. What are the technological advances that negatively shifted the way children's attention span works? Also what are some that positively affects attention span? Give me no more than 750 words.

How Technology Is Changing the Way Children Think and Focus Are your children prepared to think and focus for success in 21st-century life? Posted December 4, 2012 | Reviewed by Lybi Ma Key points Attention is a highly malleable quality and most directly influenced by the environment in which it is used. The internet creates a learning environment in which consistent attention is impossible, imagination is unnecessary, and memory is inhibited. Video games improve visual-spatial capabilities, increase attentional ability, reaction times, and the ability to identify details among clutter. Thinking. The capacity to reflect, reason, and draw conclusions based on our experiences, knowledge, and insights. It’s what makes us human and has enabled us to communicate, create, build, advance, and become civilized. Thinking encompasses so many aspects of who our children are and what they do, from observing, learning, remembering, questioning, and judging to innovating, arguing, deciding, and acting. There is also little doubt that all of the new technologies, led by the internet, are shaping the way we think in ways obvious and subtle, deliberate and unintentional, and advantageous and detrimental The uncertain reality is that, with this new technological frontier in its infancy and developments emerging at a rapid pace, we have neither the benefit of historical hindsight nor the time to ponder or examine the value and cost of these advancements in terms of how it influences our children’s ability to think. There is, however, a growing body of research that technology can be both beneficial and harmful to different ways in which children think. Moreover, this influence isn’t just affecting children on the surface of their thinking. Rather, because their brains are still developing and malleable, frequent exposure by so-called digital natives to technology is actually wiring the brain in ways very different than in previous generations. What is clear is that, as with advances throughout history, the technology that is available determines how our brains develop. For example, as the technology writer Nicholas Carr has observed, the emergence of reading encouraged our brains to be focused and imaginative. In contrast, the rise of the internet is strengthening our ability to scan information rapidly and efficiently. The effects of technology on children are complicated, with both benefits and costs. Whether technology helps or hurts in the development of your children’s thinking depends on what specific technology is used and how and what frequency it is used. At least early in their lives, the power to dictate your children’s relationship with technology and, as a result, its influence on them, from synaptic activity to conscious thought. Over the next several weeks, I’m going to focus on the areas in which the latest thinking and research has shown technology to have the greatest influence on how children think: attention, information overload, decision making, and memory/learning. Importantly, all of these areas are ones in which you can have a counteracting influence on how technology affects your children. Attention You can think of attention as the gateway to thinking. Without it, other aspects of thinking, namely, perception, memory, language, learning, creativity, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision making are greatly diminished or can’t occur at all. The ability of your children to learn to focus effectively and consistently lays the foundation for almost all aspects of their growth and is fundamental to their development into successful and happy people. Attention has been found to be a highly malleable quality and most directly influenced by the environment in which it is used. This selective attention can be found in the animal kingdom in which different species develop attentional skills that help them function and survive. For example, wolves, lions, tigers, and other predators have highly tuned visual attention that enables them to spot and track their prey. In contrast, their prey, including deer and antelope, have well-developed auditory attention that allows them to hear approaching predators. In both cases, animals’ attentional abilities have developed based on the environment in which they live. The same holds true for human development. Whether infant recognition of their parents’ faces or students paying attention in class, children’s immediate environment determines the kind of attention that they develop. In generations past, for example, children directed considerable amounts of their time to reading, an activity that offered few distractions and required intense and sustained attention, imagination, and memory. The advent of television altered that attention by offering children visual stimuli, fragmented attention, and little need for imagination. Then the internet was invented and children were thrust into a vastly different environment in which, because distraction is the norm, consistent attention is impossible, imagination is unnecessary, and memory is inhibited. Technology conditions the brain to pay attention to information very differently than reading. The metaphor that Nicholas Carr uses is the difference between scuba diving and jet skiing. Book reading is like scuba diving in which the diver is submerged in a quiet, visually restricted, slow-paced setting with few distractions and, as a result, is required to focus narrowly and think deeply on the limited information that is available to them. In contrast, using the internet is like jet skiing, in which the jet skier is skimming along the surface of the water at high speed, exposed to a broad vista, surrounded by many distractions, and only able to focus fleetingly on any one thing. In fact, studies have shown that reading uninterrupted text results in faster completion and better understanding, recall, and learning than those who read text filled with hyperlinks and ads. Those who read a text-only version of a presentation, as compared to one that included video, found the presentation to be more engaging, informative, and entertaining, a finding contrary to conventional wisdom, to be sure. Additionally, contrary to conventional educational wisdom, students who were allowed internet access during class didn’t recall the lecture nor did they perform as well on a test of the material as those who weren’t “wired” during class. Finally, reading develops reflection, critical thinking, problem-solving, and vocabulary better than visual media. Exposure to technology isn’t all bad. Research shows that, for example, video games and other screen media improve visual-spatial capabilities, increase attentional ability, reaction times, and the capacity to identify details among clutter. Also, rather than making children stupid, it may just be making them different. For example, the ubiquitous use of internet search engines is causing children to become less adept at remembering things and more skilled at remembering where to find things. Given the ease with which information can be found these days, it only stands to reason that knowing where to look is becoming more important for children than actually knowing something. Not having to retain information in our brain may allow it to engage in more “higher-order” processing such as contemplation, critical thinking, and problem-solving. What does all this mean for raising your children? The bottom line is that too much screen time and not enough other activities, such as reading, playing games, and good old unstructured and imaginative play, will result in your children having their brains wired in ways that may make them less, not more, prepared to thrive in this crazy new world of technology.

[question] Compare how technology has affected children's attention space to how reading affects it. What are the technological advances that negatively shifted the way children's attention span works? Also what are some that positively affects attention span? Give me no more than 750 words. ===================== [text] How Technology Is Changing the Way Children Think and Focus Are your children prepared to think and focus for success in 21st-century life? Posted December 4, 2012 | Reviewed by Lybi Ma Key points Attention is a highly malleable quality and most directly influenced by the environment in which it is used. The internet creates a learning environment in which consistent attention is impossible, imagination is unnecessary, and memory is inhibited. Video games improve visual-spatial capabilities, increase attentional ability, reaction times, and the ability to identify details among clutter. Thinking. The capacity to reflect, reason, and draw conclusions based on our experiences, knowledge, and insights. It’s what makes us human and has enabled us to communicate, create, build, advance, and become civilized. Thinking encompasses so many aspects of who our children are and what they do, from observing, learning, remembering, questioning, and judging to innovating, arguing, deciding, and acting. There is also little doubt that all of the new technologies, led by the internet, are shaping the way we think in ways obvious and subtle, deliberate and unintentional, and advantageous and detrimental The uncertain reality is that, with this new technological frontier in its infancy and developments emerging at a rapid pace, we have neither the benefit of historical hindsight nor the time to ponder or examine the value and cost of these advancements in terms of how it influences our children’s ability to think. There is, however, a growing body of research that technology can be both beneficial and harmful to different ways in which children think. Moreover, this influence isn’t just affecting children on the surface of their thinking. Rather, because their brains are still developing and malleable, frequent exposure by so-called digital natives to technology is actually wiring the brain in ways very different than in previous generations. What is clear is that, as with advances throughout history, the technology that is available determines how our brains develop. For example, as the technology writer Nicholas Carr has observed, the emergence of reading encouraged our brains to be focused and imaginative. In contrast, the rise of the internet is strengthening our ability to scan information rapidly and efficiently. The effects of technology on children are complicated, with both benefits and costs. Whether technology helps or hurts in the development of your children’s thinking depends on what specific technology is used and how and what frequency it is used. At least early in their lives, the power to dictate your children’s relationship with technology and, as a result, its influence on them, from synaptic activity to conscious thought. Over the next several weeks, I’m going to focus on the areas in which the latest thinking and research has shown technology to have the greatest influence on how children think: attention, information overload, decision making, and memory/learning. Importantly, all of these areas are ones in which you can have a counteracting influence on how technology affects your children. Attention You can think of attention as the gateway to thinking. Without it, other aspects of thinking, namely, perception, memory, language, learning, creativity, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision making are greatly diminished or can’t occur at all. The ability of your children to learn to focus effectively and consistently lays the foundation for almost all aspects of their growth and is fundamental to their development into successful and happy people. Attention has been found to be a highly malleable quality and most directly influenced by the environment in which it is used. This selective attention can be found in the animal kingdom in which different species develop attentional skills that help them function and survive. For example, wolves, lions, tigers, and other predators have highly tuned visual attention that enables them to spot and track their prey. In contrast, their prey, including deer and antelope, have well-developed auditory attention that allows them to hear approaching predators. In both cases, animals’ attentional abilities have developed based on the environment in which they live. The same holds true for human development. Whether infant recognition of their parents’ faces or students paying attention in class, children’s immediate environment determines the kind of attention that they develop. In generations past, for example, children directed considerable amounts of their time to reading, an activity that offered few distractions and required intense and sustained attention, imagination, and memory. The advent of television altered that attention by offering children visual stimuli, fragmented attention, and little need for imagination. Then the internet was invented and children were thrust into a vastly different environment in which, because distraction is the norm, consistent attention is impossible, imagination is unnecessary, and memory is inhibited. Technology conditions the brain to pay attention to information very differently than reading. The metaphor that Nicholas Carr uses is the difference between scuba diving and jet skiing. Book reading is like scuba diving in which the diver is submerged in a quiet, visually restricted, slow-paced setting with few distractions and, as a result, is required to focus narrowly and think deeply on the limited information that is available to them. In contrast, using the internet is like jet skiing, in which the jet skier is skimming along the surface of the water at high speed, exposed to a broad vista, surrounded by many distractions, and only able to focus fleetingly on any one thing. In fact, studies have shown that reading uninterrupted text results in faster completion and better understanding, recall, and learning than those who read text filled with hyperlinks and ads. Those who read a text-only version of a presentation, as compared to one that included video, found the presentation to be more engaging, informative, and entertaining, a finding contrary to conventional wisdom, to be sure. Additionally, contrary to conventional educational wisdom, students who were allowed internet access during class didn’t recall the lecture nor did they perform as well on a test of the material as those who weren’t “wired” during class. Finally, reading develops reflection, critical thinking, problem-solving, and vocabulary better than visual media. Exposure to technology isn’t all bad. Research shows that, for example, video games and other screen media improve visual-spatial capabilities, increase attentional ability, reaction times, and the capacity to identify details among clutter. Also, rather than making children stupid, it may just be making them different. For example, the ubiquitous use of internet search engines is causing children to become less adept at remembering things and more skilled at remembering where to find things. Given the ease with which information can be found these days, it only stands to reason that knowing where to look is becoming more important for children than actually knowing something. Not having to retain information in our brain may allow it to engage in more “higher-order” processing such as contemplation, critical thinking, and problem-solving. What does all this mean for raising your children? The bottom line is that too much screen time and not enough other activities, such as reading, playing games, and good old unstructured and imaginative play, will result in your children having their brains wired in ways that may make them less, not more, prepared to thrive in this crazy new world of technology. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-power-of-prime/201212/how-technology-is-changing-the-way-children-think-and-focus?msockid=314010dc793467982e9a043678f6665c ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. [user request] [context document]

What are medications used in the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? In a bulleted format, please also review these medications in further detail such as mechanism of action and risks.

Treatment Before starting treatment, it is important to identify the target outcomes to guide the therapy decision. Drug treatment should be based on a thorough assessment and should always be part of a comprehensive treatment plan that includes psychosocial, behavioural, and educational advice and interventions. Psychotherapy combined with medication may play a role in treating behavioural problems, organisational issues and psychiatric comorbidities [57]. In Italy, an ADHD diagnosis can only be made at a regional referral centre approved by the Italian Ministry of Health. Treatment guidelines put forward by the Ministry of Health and based on European guidelines, specify that pharmacological treatment can only be initiated after failure of cognitive behavioural therapy over a period of 6 months or longer has been demonstrated. Patients must first be enrolled in the ADHD medication registry before treatment with MPH or atomoxetine (ATX) can be prescribed. Behavioural therapy and pharmacological treatment have both been shown to benefit ADHD patients. A longitudinal study of the efficacy of different treatments (an intensively monitored medication program, behavioural therapy, combination of medication and behavioural therapy or treatment as usual by community care) showed after 8-year follow-up that all four of the original treatment groups had a similar outcome: all showed improvement in comparison with pretreatment baseline scores, but none demonstrated superiority [58]. The fronto-subcortical circuits (lateral prefrontal cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, caudate, and putamen) associated with ADHD are rich in catecholamines, which are involved in the mechanism of action of medications used to treat this disorder. Neuropharmacological studies have provided evidence that ADHD involves dysregulation of both noradrenaline (NE) and DA neurotransmitter systems [59]. MPH treatment causes an increase in DA signalling through multiple actions, including blockade of the DA reuptake transporter, amplification of DA response duration, disinhibition of the dopamine D2 receptor and amplification of DA tone [60]. MPH is also an inhibitor of NE re-uptake. ATX is a selective inhibitor of synaptic re-uptake, and in vivo, it specifically increases extracellular levels of DA in the prefrontal cortex but not in the striatum; probably by modulating cortical synaptic DA uptake via the NE transporter [61]. Dextroamphetamine increases the synaptic activity of DA and NE by increasing the release of the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, decreasing reuptake back into the presynaptic neuron, and inhibiting their catabolism [62]. Strong evidence exists indicating that stimulant medications, such as MPH and dextroamphetamine, and the non-stimulant ATX, are effective in improving ADHD symptoms [63]. Guanfacine is a selective alpha2A adrenergic receptor agonist, which improves working memory by stimulating postsynaptic alpha2A adrenoceptors, strengthening the functional connectivity of prefrontal cortex networks [64]. Guanfacine has also been shown to be effective in reducing ADHD symptoms [65, 66]. Table 1 summarises the most important characteristics of these pharmacological treatments for ADHD. Only ATX and immediate release MPH are currently approved for the treatment of ADHD in Italy. Table 1 Clinical characteristics of ADHD pharmacotherapies Full size table ADHD pharmacological therapies are generally well-tolerated (Table 1). However, concerns surrounding the cardiovascular safety of some of these drugs has prompted a recent examination of the effects of ATX and MPH on blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), and ECG parameters. MPH appears to cause minor increases in BP and HR, with no strong data to suggest that itincreases the QT interval. Limited data suggest that ATX may increase BP and HR in the short term; in the long term it appears to only increase BP. The effects of ATX on QT interval remain uncertain. Because the current evidence is based on research that has not been specifically designed to investigate the cardiovascular effects of these drugs, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions [67]. Both MPH and ATX significantly increase activation in key cortical and subcortical regions subserving attention and executive functions. Therefore, alterations in dopaminergic and noradrenergic function are apparently necessary for the clinical efficacy of pharmacological treatment of ADHD [68]. However MPH and ATX have both common and distinct neural effects, consistent with the observation that while many children respond well to both treatments, some respond preferentially to one or the other. Although pharmacotherapy for ADHD appears to prepare and facilitate the brain for learning, experiential programs need to elicit compensatory development in the brain. The clinical amelioration of some children after environmental experiential inputs and early cognitive/behavioural treatment could indicate outcome-associated plastic brain response [69]. One year of treatment with MPH may be beneficial to show enduring normalisation of neural correlates of attention. However, little is known about the long-term effects of stimulants on the functional organisation of the developing brain [70]. Recent findings have shown that chronic MPH use in drug-naive boys with ADHD enhanced neuropsychological functioning on "recognition memory" component tasks with modest executive demands [71]. Patients receiving pharmacological treatment for ADHD should always be closely monitored for both common and unusual potentially severe adverse effects.

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. What are medications used in the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? In a bulleted format, please also review these medications in further detail such as mechanism of action and risks. Treatment Before starting treatment, it is important to identify the target outcomes to guide the therapy decision. Drug treatment should be based on a thorough assessment and should always be part of a comprehensive treatment plan that includes psychosocial, behavioural, and educational advice and interventions. Psychotherapy combined with medication may play a role in treating behavioural problems, organisational issues and psychiatric comorbidities [57]. In Italy, an ADHD diagnosis can only be made at a regional referral centre approved by the Italian Ministry of Health. Treatment guidelines put forward by the Ministry of Health and based on European guidelines, specify that pharmacological treatment can only be initiated after failure of cognitive behavioural therapy over a period of 6 months or longer has been demonstrated. Patients must first be enrolled in the ADHD medication registry before treatment with MPH or atomoxetine (ATX) can be prescribed. Behavioural therapy and pharmacological treatment have both been shown to benefit ADHD patients. A longitudinal study of the efficacy of different treatments (an intensively monitored medication program, behavioural therapy, combination of medication and behavioural therapy or treatment as usual by community care) showed after 8-year follow-up that all four of the original treatment groups had a similar outcome: all showed improvement in comparison with pretreatment baseline scores, but none demonstrated superiority [58]. The fronto-subcortical circuits (lateral prefrontal cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, caudate, and putamen) associated with ADHD are rich in catecholamines, which are involved in the mechanism of action of medications used to treat this disorder. Neuropharmacological studies have provided evidence that ADHD involves dysregulation of both noradrenaline (NE) and DA neurotransmitter systems [59]. MPH treatment causes an increase in DA signalling through multiple actions, including blockade of the DA reuptake transporter, amplification of DA response duration, disinhibition of the dopamine D2 receptor and amplification of DA tone [60]. MPH is also an inhibitor of NE re-uptake. ATX is a selective inhibitor of synaptic re-uptake, and in vivo, it specifically increases extracellular levels of DA in the prefrontal cortex but not in the striatum; probably by modulating cortical synaptic DA uptake via the NE transporter [61]. Dextroamphetamine increases the synaptic activity of DA and NE by increasing the release of the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, decreasing reuptake back into the presynaptic neuron, and inhibiting their catabolism [62]. Strong evidence exists indicating that stimulant medications, such as MPH and dextroamphetamine, and the non-stimulant ATX, are effective in improving ADHD symptoms [63]. Guanfacine is a selective alpha2A adrenergic receptor agonist, which improves working memory by stimulating postsynaptic alpha2A adrenoceptors, strengthening the functional connectivity of prefrontal cortex networks [64]. Guanfacine has also been shown to be effective in reducing ADHD symptoms [65, 66]. Table 1 summarises the most important characteristics of these pharmacological treatments for ADHD. Only ATX and immediate release MPH are currently approved for the treatment of ADHD in Italy. Table 1 Clinical characteristics of ADHD pharmacotherapies Full size table ADHD pharmacological therapies are generally well-tolerated (Table 1). However, concerns surrounding the cardiovascular safety of some of these drugs has prompted a recent examination of the effects of ATX and MPH on blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), and ECG parameters. MPH appears to cause minor increases in BP and HR, with no strong data to suggest that itincreases the QT interval. Limited data suggest that ATX may increase BP and HR in the short term; in the long term it appears to only increase BP. The effects of ATX on QT interval remain uncertain. Because the current evidence is based on research that has not been specifically designed to investigate the cardiovascular effects of these drugs, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions [67]. Both MPH and ATX significantly increase activation in key cortical and subcortical regions subserving attention and executive functions. Therefore, alterations in dopaminergic and noradrenergic function are apparently necessary for the clinical efficacy of pharmacological treatment of ADHD [68]. However MPH and ATX have both common and distinct neural effects, consistent with the observation that while many children respond well to both treatments, some respond preferentially to one or the other. Although pharmacotherapy for ADHD appears to prepare and facilitate the brain for learning, experiential programs need to elicit compensatory development in the brain. The clinical amelioration of some children after environmental experiential inputs and early cognitive/behavioural treatment could indicate outcome-associated plastic brain response [69]. One year of treatment with MPH may be beneficial to show enduring normalisation of neural correlates of attention. However, little is known about the long-term effects of stimulants on the functional organisation of the developing brain [70]. Recent findings have shown that chronic MPH use in drug-naive boys with ADHD enhanced neuropsychological functioning on "recognition memory" component tasks with modest executive demands [71]. Patients receiving pharmacological treatment for ADHD should always be closely monitored for both common and unusual potentially severe adverse effects. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1824-7288-36-79

All information in your response must come from the provided text. Do not use any outside information.

What are the leading arguments around private equity firms trying to increase revenue and reduce costs in healthcare?

A 2021 report from the Medicare Payment Advisory Commission (MedPAC) found that private equity investments in health care substantially expanded in the preceding 20 years, particularly with respect to acquisitions of health care providers, including hospitals, physician groups, and nursing homes. While the overall significance of these investments to the health care sector is disputed, they have attracted regulatory, legislative, and academic interest, particularly in the midst of ongoing conversations about health care quality and costs. Scrutiny often focuses on the structure and incentives of private equity investment in health care. Private equity funds typically aim to acquire portfolio companies, increase their value, and exit from these investments, generally in a defined time frame. The structure of private equity can involve an array of corporate entities, which may generally shield fund managers and investors from liability. Regulators have expressed concern that these institutional features may give private equity firms an “undue focus on short-term profits and aggressive cost-cutting” that creates unique risks relative to other market participants, with impacts on patient care and competition. For example, MedPAC’s report details ongoing debates regarding the effects of private equity efforts to increase profitability in health care investments by increasing revenue while reducing costs. On the other hand, private equity representatives and other stakeholders argue that such efforts can improve both efficiency and patient care, and that private equity has been scapegoated for broader issues in the health care system. In December 2023, the Biden Administration announced that federal agencies, including the Department of Justice (DOJ), the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), would take increased actions to lower health care costs, increase quality, and protect consumers. As part of this effort, the agencies released a Request for Information (RFI) soliciting public comments on the effects of private equity investments on patients and health care workers. The agencies argued that “[a]cademic research and agency experience in enforcement actions” have demonstrated that “patients, health care workers, and others may suffer negative consequences” as a result of these investments in the health care sector. Although there is limited federal law that directly addresses private equity ownership in health care, private equity firms and funds have recently faced claims alongside their portfolio companies in the health care sector under federal laws concerning both fraudulent and anticompetitive behavior. Legal commentators have noted the increased legal risk such trends create for private equity investors, whose involvement in managing portfolio businesses may support alleged knowledge of wrongdoing. This Legal Sidebar explores recent regulatory and enforcement activities involving private equity investments in health care under federal antitrust law and the False Claims Act, including efforts to hold private equity firms and funds directly liable alongside portfolio companies. The term private equity is often used to refer to a variety of investments that typically pool private funds from specific, qualified investors for a set period of time and use them to purchase controlling interests in operating businesses, known as portfolio companies. Private equity funds are generally structured as limited partnerships; the general partners manage the fund’s investments, and limited partners are those that invest in the fund but are not directly involved in its operation. A private equity firm may serve as the general partner for multiple funds, each with their own limited partners and portfolio companies. The qualified investors who invest as limited partners include pension plans, other private funds, foreign institutional investors, insurance companies, and high-net-worth individuals. Investments in portfolio companies could take the form of leveraged buyouts. For more information on the private equity industry generally, including its structure, size, and common terminology, see CRS Report R47053, Private Equity and Capital Markets Policy, by Eva Su. The typical structure of a private equity fund will thus involve several separate entities, all of which are distinct from the portfolio companies controlled by the fund. Portfolio companies may themselves consist of a collection of separate legal entities, including corporations and limited liability companies (LLCs). Under general principles of corporate law, the shareholders of a corporation and the members of an LLC are ordinarily not liable for the entity’s obligations. Instead, they risk only the amount they have invested in the business. These principles do not always shield owners from liability. In some rare circumstances, the corporate entity may be disregarded and liability imposed upon the company’s owners for corporate conduct, a process called piercing the corporate veil. Owners of a company may also be held directly liable for their own conduct, separate from the company’s conduct or liability.

All information in your response must come from the provided text. Do not use any outside information. A 2021 report from the Medicare Payment Advisory Commission (MedPAC) found that private equity investments in health care substantially expanded in the preceding 20 years, particularly with respect to acquisitions of health care providers, including hospitals, physician groups, and nursing homes. While the overall significance of these investments to the health care sector is disputed, they have attracted regulatory, legislative, and academic interest, particularly in the midst of ongoing conversations about health care quality and costs. Scrutiny often focuses on the structure and incentives of private equity investment in health care. Private equity funds typically aim to acquire portfolio companies, increase their value, and exit from these investments, generally in a defined time frame. The structure of private equity can involve an array of corporate entities, which may generally shield fund managers and investors from liability. Regulators have expressed concern that these institutional features may give private equity firms an “undue focus on short-term profits and aggressive cost-cutting” that creates unique risks relative to other market participants, with impacts on patient care and competition. For example, MedPAC’s report details ongoing debates regarding the effects of private equity efforts to increase profitability in health care investments by increasing revenue while reducing costs. On the other hand, private equity representatives and other stakeholders argue that such efforts can improve both efficiency and patient care, and that private equity has been scapegoated for broader issues in the health care system. In December 2023, the Biden Administration announced that federal agencies, including the Department of Justice (DOJ), the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), would take increased actions to lower health care costs, increase quality, and protect consumers. As part of this effort, the agencies released a Request for Information (RFI) soliciting public comments on the effects of private equity investments on patients and health care workers. The agencies argued that “[a]cademic research and agency experience in enforcement actions” have demonstrated that “patients, health care workers, and others may suffer negative consequences” as a result of these investments in the health care sector. Although there is limited federal law that directly addresses private equity ownership in health care, private equity firms and funds have recently faced claims alongside their portfolio companies in the health care sector under federal laws concerning both fraudulent and anticompetitive behavior. Legal commentators have noted the increased legal risk such trends create for private equity investors, whose involvement in managing portfolio businesses may support alleged knowledge of wrongdoing. This Legal Sidebar explores recent regulatory and enforcement activities involving private equity investments in health care under federal antitrust law and the False Claims Act, including efforts to hold private equity firms and funds directly liable alongside portfolio companies. The term private equity is often used to refer to a variety of investments that typically pool private funds from specific, qualified investors for a set period of time and use them to purchase controlling interests in operating businesses, known as portfolio companies. Private equity funds are generally structured as limited partnerships; the general partners manage the fund’s investments, and limited partners are those that invest in the fund but are not directly involved in its operation. A private equity firm may serve as the general partner for multiple funds, each with their own limited partners and portfolio companies. The qualified investors who invest as limited partners include pension plans, other private funds, foreign institutional investors, insurance companies, and high-net-worth individuals. Investments in portfolio companies could take the form of leveraged buyouts. For more information on the private equity industry generally, including its structure, size, and common terminology, see CRS Report R47053, Private Equity and Capital Markets Policy, by Eva Su. The typical structure of a private equity fund will thus involve several separate entities, all of which are distinct from the portfolio companies controlled by the fund. Portfolio companies may themselves consist of a collection of separate legal entities, including corporations and limited liability companies (LLCs). Under general principles of corporate law, the shareholders of a corporation and the members of an LLC are ordinarily not liable for the entity’s obligations. Instead, they risk only the amount they have invested in the business. These principles do not always shield owners from liability. In some rare circumstances, the corporate entity may be disregarded and liability imposed upon the company’s owners for corporate conduct, a process called piercing the corporate veil. Owners of a company may also be held directly liable for their own conduct, separate from the company’s conduct or liability. What are the leading arguments around private equity firms trying to increase revenue and reduce costs in healthcare?

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. [user request] [context document]

My vet told me he thinks my dog has pancreatitis. I'm worried I have done something to cause it. What are the signs and symptoms of this? Are certain breeds prone to this and what are some risk factors? He wants me to bring him in for testing. What will they do to him?

Key Points Pancreatitis in dogs is potentially life-threatening — know the signs to look for. If you suspect your dog may have pancreatitis, a call to the veterinarian quickly is vital. There are a number of causes and risk factors that can bring on pancreatitis, though it often seems to hit out of the blue. emergency Pancreatitis in dogs is one of those conditions that owners must be informed about before it strikes because the warning signs may not always be obvious at first, the symptoms might be mistaken for something less serious, and yet it’s potentially life-threatening. The medical definition of pancreatitis is simple: “inflammation of the pancreas.” But like all serious conditions, there is more to it than that. Because it is dangerous, a suspected case of pancreatitis needs to be addressed by a veterinarian as quickly as possible and not dealt with by “DIY” treatments. As with all medical issues, even the best online resource is not a replacement for the medical guidance from your vet. Before looking at the details of pancreatitis, let’s take away the “ititis” and explain the small but vital organ itself: The pancreas is responsible for releasing enzymes that aid in digestion. When the organ is working normally, the enzymes become active only when they reach the small intestine. In a dog with pancreatitis, however, the enzymes activate when they’re released, inflaming and causing damage to the pancreas and its surrounding tissue and other organs. According to the Whole Dog Journal, the enzymes can actually begin to digest the pancreas itself, which causes extreme pain to your dog. pancreatitis xray Classic signs of pancreatitis in dogs Hunched back Repeated vomiting (either several times within a few hours or periodically over several days) Pain or distention of the abdomen (dog appears uncomfortable or bloated) Diarrhea Loss of appetite Dehydration Weakness/lethargy Fever If your dog exhibits one of these signs, and only infrequently, monitor her. But if she exhibits multiple signs at once, and repeatedly, a call to the veterinarian quickly is vital. Dehydration and pancreatitis in dogs Dehydration is due to a greater fluid loss than fluid intake. Diarrhea or vomiting can cause dehydration, but those signs together will cause a greater fluid deficit and dehydration because the dog’s fluid input (drinking) cannot keep up with the fluid losses. If the diarrhea becomes bloody, the condition worsens and the dehydration can become an emergency. Other factors such as fever require increase fluid intake and can lead to dehydration along with other metabolic issues such as kidney disease, etc. Blood in a dog’s stool indicates a loos and significant inflammatory response requiring a veterinarian’s attention but it can be cause by a multitude of factors, from ulceration to parasites. Dehydration is a serious condition that can lead to death. It is an emergency and requires immediate veterinary care. Any lethargic dog who is not drinking water or cannot hold water down should be suspect of dehydration and examined by a veterinarian. Dry mucous membranes (such as gums) may be a quick way of assessing dehydration but as always, when in doubt, consult with your veterinarian. Cane Corso laying down in the shade outdoors. ©Evelina - stock.adobe.com Causes of pancreatitis in dogs There are a number of causes and risk factors that can bring on pancreatitis. Though often the attack appears seemingly out of the blue. Among them are: A high-fat diet This is a major cause of pancreatitis, especially for a dog who gets one large helping of fatty food in one sitting A history of dietary indiscretion (a medical term for saying your dog will eat anything) Obesity Hypothyroidism (or other endocrine diseases) Severe blunt trauma Diabetes mellitus Certain medications or other toxins These include cholinesterase inhibitors, calcium, potassium bromide, phenobarbital, l-asparaginase, estrogen, salicylates, azathioprine, thiazide diuretics, and vinca alkaloids. There may, in some cases, be a genetic predisposition. Certain breeds or types of dogs have been associated with higher risks of pancreatitis such as Miniature Schnauzers and some of the smaller toy and terrier breeds. More about those fats: Human food is especially dangerous, though even high-fat dog food may cause pancreatitis. So owner vigilance is particularly required around holidays and other festive occasions—they can bring well-meaning guests who slip your buddy a fatty piece of lamb, or a tray of buttery cookies left within reach of an eager muzzle. In fact, the day after Thanksgiving is known for more than just Black Friday bargains. It’s one of the busiest days of the year pancreatitis-related emergency vet visits. Basically, if your dog is showing any signs of abdominal pain, the worst thing to do is feed him a fatty diet. This is one of many reasons that giving your dog table scraps, as tempting as it may be, is not advisable. How does a vet diagnose pancreatitis in dogs? Your dog’s medical history Blood tests to measure pancreatic enzymes Physical examination including stomach, gums, heart, temperature Radiographs or ultrasound, to rule out other causes Fine needle aspiration of the pancreas As the Merck Veterinary Manual notes, as with any disease, no test should be used in isolation for diagnosis, and all clinical findings should be used in conjunction to arrive at the most appropriate diagnosis. What’s the difference between acute and chronic pancreatitis? Acute Pancreatitis An acute attack of pancreatitis means it comes on suddenly, with no previous appearance of the condition before. It can become life threatening to other organs if the inflammation spreads. Chronic Pancreatitis A chronic condition is one that has developed over time, slowly, and often without symptoms. This condition can result from repeated bouts of acute pancreatitis. Both acute and chronic forms can be either severe or mild, and both result in pain. Treatment and management of pancreatitis in dogs There’s no fancy treatment for acute pancreatitis. First and foremost, your dog’s pain must be managed, and early intervention to prevent further complications is key. The most common treatment and management options are: Intravenous (IV) fluid therapy in severe pancreatitis Vigorous monitoring of a worsening condition Antiemetic medication for vomiting (to prevent dehydration) Resting the pancreas (withholding food and water for 24 hours) Long-term management includes: Vigilant monitoring of fat intake—No table scraps allowed! Use of a prescription diet of gastrointestinal-supportive low-fat, or ultra-low fat, food. Feed smaller, more frequent meals instead of one larger meal Have amylase and lipase levels checked by a veterinarian regularly Can supplements be used to prevent or manage pancreatitis in dogs? It is important to reiterate that pancreatitis is a serious condition, so home remedies shouldn’t be used in place of veterinary intervention. That said, some vets believe digestive enzyme supplements with pancreatin can help some (not all) dogs by reducing the work of the pancreas and inhibiting pancreatic secretion. These come in over-the-counter strength as well as prescription strength. Fish oil may seem counterintuitive at first, because of its high fat content, but it can actually help lower blood lipid levels. Studies suggest a high level of fish oil (about 1,000 mg. per 10 pounds of body weight for dog with high lipid levels; about half that amount for dogs with normal levels) is helpful to dogs with acute pancreatitis. When supplementing with fish oil, also supplement with 5 to 10 IU of vitamin E. There have been human studies suggesting that vitamin E (with selenium), vitamin C, beta-carotene, and methionine may help prevent pancreatitis. Conversely, another human study reveals that probiotics can make acute pancreatitis worse. Always speak with your veterinarian before offering any supplements to your pet.

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. My vet told me he thinks my dog has pancreatitis. I'm worried I have done something to cause it. What are the signs and symptoms of this? Are certain breeds prone to this and what are some risk factors? He wants me to bring him in for testing. What will they do to him? Key Points Pancreatitis in dogs is potentially life-threatening — know the signs to look for. If you suspect your dog may have pancreatitis, a call to the veterinarian quickly is vital. There are a number of causes and risk factors that can bring on pancreatitis, though it often seems to hit out of the blue. emergency Pancreatitis in dogs is one of those conditions that owners must be informed about before it strikes because the warning signs may not always be obvious at first, the symptoms might be mistaken for something less serious, and yet it’s potentially life-threatening. The medical definition of pancreatitis is simple: “inflammation of the pancreas.” But like all serious conditions, there is more to it than that. Because it is dangerous, a suspected case of pancreatitis needs to be addressed by a veterinarian as quickly as possible and not dealt with by “DIY” treatments. As with all medical issues, even the best online resource is not a replacement for the medical guidance from your vet. Before looking at the details of pancreatitis, let’s take away the “ititis” and explain the small but vital organ itself: The pancreas is responsible for releasing enzymes that aid in digestion. When the organ is working normally, the enzymes become active only when they reach the small intestine. In a dog with pancreatitis, however, the enzymes activate when they’re released, inflaming and causing damage to the pancreas and its surrounding tissue and other organs. According to the Whole Dog Journal, the enzymes can actually begin to digest the pancreas itself, which causes extreme pain to your dog. pancreatitis xray Classic signs of pancreatitis in dogs Hunched back Repeated vomiting (either several times within a few hours or periodically over several days) Pain or distention of the abdomen (dog appears uncomfortable or bloated) Diarrhea Loss of appetite Dehydration Weakness/lethargy Fever If your dog exhibits one of these signs, and only infrequently, monitor her. But if she exhibits multiple signs at once, and repeatedly, a call to the veterinarian quickly is vital. Dehydration and pancreatitis in dogs Dehydration is due to a greater fluid loss than fluid intake. Diarrhea or vomiting can cause dehydration, but those signs together will cause a greater fluid deficit and dehydration because the dog’s fluid input (drinking) cannot keep up with the fluid losses. If the diarrhea becomes bloody, the condition worsens and the dehydration can become an emergency. Other factors such as fever require increase fluid intake and can lead to dehydration along with other metabolic issues such as kidney disease, etc. Blood in a dog’s stool indicates a loos and significant inflammatory response requiring a veterinarian’s attention but it can be cause by a multitude of factors, from ulceration to parasites. Dehydration is a serious condition that can lead to death. It is an emergency and requires immediate veterinary care. Any lethargic dog who is not drinking water or cannot hold water down should be suspect of dehydration and examined by a veterinarian. Dry mucous membranes (such as gums) may be a quick way of assessing dehydration but as always, when in doubt, consult with your veterinarian. Cane Corso laying down in the shade outdoors. ©Evelina - stock.adobe.com Causes of pancreatitis in dogs There are a number of causes and risk factors that can bring on pancreatitis. Though often the attack appears seemingly out of the blue. Among them are: A high-fat diet This is a major cause of pancreatitis, especially for a dog who gets one large helping of fatty food in one sitting A history of dietary indiscretion (a medical term for saying your dog will eat anything) Obesity Hypothyroidism (or other endocrine diseases) Severe blunt trauma Diabetes mellitus Certain medications or other toxins These include cholinesterase inhibitors, calcium, potassium bromide, phenobarbital, l-asparaginase, estrogen, salicylates, azathioprine, thiazide diuretics, and vinca alkaloids. There may, in some cases, be a genetic predisposition. Certain breeds or types of dogs have been associated with higher risks of pancreatitis such as Miniature Schnauzers and some of the smaller toy and terrier breeds. More about those fats: Human food is especially dangerous, though even high-fat dog food may cause pancreatitis. So owner vigilance is particularly required around holidays and other festive occasions—they can bring well-meaning guests who slip your buddy a fatty piece of lamb, or a tray of buttery cookies left within reach of an eager muzzle. In fact, the day after Thanksgiving is known for more than just Black Friday bargains. It’s one of the busiest days of the year pancreatitis-related emergency vet visits. Basically, if your dog is showing any signs of abdominal pain, the worst thing to do is feed him a fatty diet. This is one of many reasons that giving your dog table scraps, as tempting as it may be, is not advisable. How does a vet diagnose pancreatitis in dogs? Your dog’s medical history Blood tests to measure pancreatic enzymes Physical examination including stomach, gums, heart, temperature Radiographs or ultrasound, to rule out other causes Fine needle aspiration of the pancreas As the Merck Veterinary Manual notes, as with any disease, no test should be used in isolation for diagnosis, and all clinical findings should be used in conjunction to arrive at the most appropriate diagnosis. What’s the difference between acute and chronic pancreatitis? Acute Pancreatitis An acute attack of pancreatitis means it comes on suddenly, with no previous appearance of the condition before. It can become life threatening to other organs if the inflammation spreads. Chronic Pancreatitis A chronic condition is one that has developed over time, slowly, and often without symptoms. This condition can result from repeated bouts of acute pancreatitis. Both acute and chronic forms can be either severe or mild, and both result in pain. Treatment and management of pancreatitis in dogs There’s no fancy treatment for acute pancreatitis. First and foremost, your dog’s pain must be managed, and early intervention to prevent further complications is key. The most common treatment and management options are: Intravenous (IV) fluid therapy in severe pancreatitis Vigorous monitoring of a worsening condition Antiemetic medication for vomiting (to prevent dehydration) Resting the pancreas (withholding food and water for 24 hours) Long-term management includes: Vigilant monitoring of fat intake—No table scraps allowed! Use of a prescription diet of gastrointestinal-supportive low-fat, or ultra-low fat, food. Feed smaller, more frequent meals instead of one larger meal Have amylase and lipase levels checked by a veterinarian regularly Can supplements be used to prevent or manage pancreatitis in dogs? It is important to reiterate that pancreatitis is a serious condition, so home remedies shouldn’t be used in place of veterinary intervention. That said, some vets believe digestive enzyme supplements with pancreatin can help some (not all) dogs by reducing the work of the pancreas and inhibiting pancreatic secretion. These come in over-the-counter strength as well as prescription strength. Fish oil may seem counterintuitive at first, because of its high fat content, but it can actually help lower blood lipid levels. Studies suggest a high level of fish oil (about 1,000 mg. per 10 pounds of body weight for dog with high lipid levels; about half that amount for dogs with normal levels) is helpful to dogs with acute pancreatitis. When supplementing with fish oil, also supplement with 5 to 10 IU of vitamin E. There have been human studies suggesting that vitamin E (with selenium), vitamin C, beta-carotene, and methionine may help prevent pancreatitis. Conversely, another human study reveals that probiotics can make acute pancreatitis worse. Always speak with your veterinarian before offering any supplements to your pet. https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/health/pancreatitis-in-dogs/

Only information from the provided context can be used to respond to user requests. Information not in the source text should be disregarded. Any surnames used in your responses must be given in all capitals.

I'm interested in learning more about Kahneman, and I think the book they're referring to is Thinking Fast and Thinking Slow. What search terms should I use to identify the work mentioned in this text?

The emergence of foundation models, especially Large Language Models (LLMs), has revolutionized the field of artificial intelligence. These models, exemplified by their extensive training data and capacity for generalization, have dramatically expanded the horizons of computational linguistics, text understanding, and text generation [5, 10, 34–37]. However, a critical challenge faced by LLMs is their limited efficacy in executing complex reasoning tasks, particularly in areas requiring deep, abstract thought such as advanced mathematics [25]. This limitation points towards a need for enhanced methodologies that can augment LLMs’ reasoning faculties. The root of this challenge lies in the architecture of modern LLMs, which is predominantly oriented toward auto-regressive token prediction [5, 35, 36]. While efficient for a broad spectrum of tasks, this approach is not meticulously designed to support the depth and sophistication of human-like analytical thinking. This discrepancy is highlighted by the dual-process theory of cognitive psychology, articulated by Kahneman [21], which differentiates the fast, intuitive responses of System 1 thinking from the slower, more deliberate reasoning of System 2 thinking. LLMs, in their typical operations, mirror System 1 processes and thus encounter difficulties with tasks that require the more deliberate, structured approach characteristic of System 2 thinking. Attempts to bridge this gap have led to the development of innovative methodologies such as Chain-of-Thought (CoT) [44] and Tree-of-Thought (ToT) [28, 49], which guide LLMs in articulating intermediate steps in reasoning tasks. These methods, although valuable, have not fully realized the depth and flexibility of human cognitive processes in an abstract sense. In response to these challenges, we introduce Meta Prompting (MP) and establish a theoretical framework for it, a novel approach that represents a substantial advance in the field of LLM reasoning. Meta Prompting extends beyond existing methods by abstracting and generalizing key principles for enhanced cognitive processing. Unlike its predecessors, Meta Prompting shifts the focus from content-driven reasoning to a more structure-oriented perspective. This method draws inspiration from category theory and type theory, establishing a functorial relationship between tasks and their corresponding prompts. This categorical approach allows for a more systematic and adaptable framework, capable of addressing a wide range of cognitive tasks with depth and nuance akin to human reasoning. Furthermore, a pivotal aspect of meta prompting is its application to Meta Prompting for prompting tasks in an in-context and recursive way utilizing the functorial and compositional properties of Meta Prompting, which we call Recursive Meta Prompting (RMP). This concept, akin to metaprogramming in programming language theory, involves using LLMs to design new prompts autonomously. The functorial nature of Meta Prompting allows for this advanced capability, where LLMs can not only solve problems but also generate the structures to solve them. This self-referential and recursive ability marks a significant leap in LLMs’ autonomy and adaptability. The practical efficacy of the Meta Prompting framework is empirically validated through a series of experiments, ranging from solving the Game of 24 puzzles [49] to addressing complex MATH problems [17], underscoring the Meta Prompting’s versatility and empowering LLMs with advanced reasoning capabilities. In summary, our contributions can be listed as follows: • We propose the structured and syntax-oriented Meta Prompting (MP), and introduce a theoretical framework for meta prompting based on category theory. We further investigate meta prompting for prompting tasks and Recursive Meta Prompting (RMP) in a metaprogramming-like manner. • Our experiments on solving MATH problems with a Qwen-72B base language model [3] equipped with meta prompt without instruction-tuning to solve MATH problems with accuracy at 46.3% which surpasses the supervised fine-tuned counterpart trained with extensive mathematical QA instruction pairs and even the initial version of GPT-4, solving GSM8K problems with 83.5% accuracy with zero-shot meta-prompted Qwen-72B base language model, and solving the Game of 24 tasks with 100% success rate using GPT-4, show the efficacy of meta prompting in problem-solving and in-context alignment.

Only information from the provided context can be used to respond to user requests. Information not in the source text should be disregarded. Any surnames used in your responses must be given in all capitals. The emergence of foundation models, especially Large Language Models (LLMs), has revolutionized the field of artificial intelligence. These models, exemplified by their extensive training data and capacity for generalization, have dramatically expanded the horizons of computational linguistics, text understanding, and text generation [5, 10, 34–37]. However, a critical challenge faced by LLMs is their limited efficacy in executing complex reasoning tasks, particularly in areas requiring deep, abstract thought such as advanced mathematics [25]. This limitation points towards a need for enhanced methodologies that can augment LLMs’ reasoning faculties. The root of this challenge lies in the architecture of modern LLMs, which is predominantly oriented toward auto-regressive token prediction [5, 35, 36]. While efficient for a broad spectrum of tasks, this approach is not meticulously designed to support the depth and sophistication of human-like analytical thinking. This discrepancy is highlighted by the dual-process theory of cognitive psychology, articulated by Kahneman [21], which differentiates the fast, intuitive responses of System 1 thinking from the slower, more deliberate reasoning of System 2 thinking. LLMs, in their typical operations, mirror System 1 processes and thus encounter difficulties with tasks that require the more deliberate, structured approach characteristic of System 2 thinking. Attempts to bridge this gap have led to the development of innovative methodologies such as Chain-of-Thought (CoT) [44] and Tree-of-Thought (ToT) [28, 49], which guide LLMs in articulating intermediate steps in reasoning tasks. These methods, although valuable, have not fully realized the depth and flexibility of human cognitive processes in an abstract sense. In response to these challenges, we introduce Meta Prompting (MP) and establish a theoretical framework for it, a novel approach that represents a substantial advance in the field of LLM reasoning. Meta Prompting extends beyond existing methods by abstracting and generalizing key principles for enhanced cognitive processing. Unlike its predecessors, Meta Prompting shifts the focus from content-driven reasoning to a more structure-oriented perspective. This method draws inspiration from category theory and type theory, establishing a functorial relationship between tasks and their corresponding prompts. This categorical approach allows for a more systematic and adaptable framework, capable of addressing a wide range of cognitive tasks with depth and nuance akin to human reasoning. Furthermore, a pivotal aspect of meta prompting is its application to Meta Prompting for prompting tasks in an in-context and recursive way utilizing the functorial and compositional properties of Meta Prompting, which we call Recursive Meta Prompting (RMP). This concept, akin to metaprogramming in programming language theory, involves using LLMs to design new prompts autonomously. The functorial nature of Meta Prompting allows for this advanced capability, where LLMs can not only solve problems but also generate the structures to solve them. This self-referential and recursive ability marks a significant leap in LLMs’ autonomy and adaptability. The practical efficacy of the Meta Prompting framework is empirically validated through a series of experiments, ranging from solving the Game of 24 puzzles [49] to addressing complex MATH problems [17], underscoring the Meta Prompting’s versatility and empowering LLMs with advanced reasoning capabilities. In summary, our contributions can be listed as follows: • We propose the structured and syntax-oriented Meta Prompting (MP), and introduce a theoretical framework for meta prompting based on category theory. We further investigate meta prompting for prompting tasks and Recursive Meta Prompting (RMP) in a metaprogramming-like manner. • Our experiments on solving MATH problems with a Qwen-72B base language model [3] equipped with meta prompt without instruction-tuning to solve MATH problems with accuracy at 46.3% which surpasses the supervised fine-tuned counterpart trained with extensive mathematical QA instruction pairs and even the initial version of GPT-4, solving GSM8K problems with 83.5% accuracy with zero-shot meta-prompted Qwen-72B base language model, and solving the Game of 24 tasks with 100% success rate using GPT-4, show the efficacy of meta prompting in problem-solving and in-context alignment. I'm interested in learning more about Kahneman, and I think the book they're referring to is Thinking Fast and Thinking Slow. What search terms should I use to identify the work mentioned in this text?

Draw information from the context only to inform your response.

Discuss the concept of fast fashion and its effect on workers as outlined in the text.

I. Introduction Fast fashion is an approach to the design, creation, and marketing of clothing with an emphasis on making trends quickly and cheaply available to consumers.2 The term was coined by the New York Times in the early 2000s when describing Zara’s mission to take a garment from the design stage to being sold in stores in just fifteen days.3 The idea behind this phenomenon is to get the newest styles on the market as fast as possible so that consumers can get them at the height of their popularity.4 Increased consumption in wealthy, first-world countries has driven the success of fast fashion and placed a significant strain on garment factories and their workers.5 Because fashion is one of the most labor-dependent industries—as each piece of apparel must be handmade along a lengthy supply chain—brands have looked to outsource labor overseas to minimize costs and maximize profits.6 The goal of outsourcing is to locate low-cost production sources in emerging economies, like Bangladesh, where input costs are low and productivity is high.7 As retail prices have decreased and production prices have increased, there continues to be pressure on manufacturers’ margins.8 Because of this cycle, garment workers are often subjected to poor employment conditions and factories are less able to invest in the improvement of labor conditions or increase workers’ pay.9 For decades, brands have turned a blind eye to these key issues, continuing to profit off cheap, forced labor.10 Zara, H&M, and Topshop were among the first companies to take looks and designs from top fashion houses and reproduce them quickly and cheaply.11 Key characteristics of fast fashion brands include: (1) having thousands of styles, particularly those that touch on the latest trends; (2) extremely short turnaround times between when a trend is seen on the catwalk and when it hits the shelves; (3) offshore manufacturing where labor is cheap; (4) limited quantities of particular garments; and (5) cheap, low-quality materials.12 This note will explore how the fast fashion cycle perpetuates neglect of consumer responsibility, social and ecological harm, capitalization of fast production and cheap prices, and labor exploitation. II. Background A. A Journey Down the Supply Chain As clothes have gotten cheaper, trend cycles have sped up, and shopping has become a hobby, consumers, perhaps unknowingly, have perpetuated a cycle of abusive labor practices in overseas garment factories.13 Because labor costs remain high in the Western Hemisphere, production has largely moved overseas and fashion companies industry-wide are utilizing subcontracting to produce their garments.14 Subcontracting is the process by which a company divides parts of the supply chain across multiple countries and into multiple parts, including design, spinning, yarn production, dyeing, cutting, stitching, and final garment production.15 The general supply chain involves multiple steps: (1) cotton is grown and sold to the global market; (2) spinners use cotton or synthetic fibers to produce yarn or fabric; (3) garment factories cut and sew the fabric and add trim to produce garments; (4) garment factories that lack capacity for some processes subcontract them to other facilities; (5) garments are shipped to the brands that place the order; (6) brands distribute the garments to retail and online stores; and (7) consumers purchase the garments.16 Subcontracting allows for the success of fast fashion because it permits companies to utilize the low cost of overseas labor as subcontracted units are not regulated.17 It is not uncommon that the clothing consumers buy in store has already been in multiple different countries or factories before hitting the shelves.18 Manufacturing supply chains in the fashion industry are known for being rife with abuse, forced labor, and extremely low wages.19 Buyers often participate in a practice called “underground bidding,” where they use the quoted prices of one factory to get another factory to lower their prices.20 The company then selects the factory that commits to the fastest turnaround time and the lowest price, effectively pushing down wages and worsening working conditions.21 This perpetuates a skewed power dynamic where buyers dominate, as factories accept low prices for orders while remaining under pressure to maintain high product quality and productivity levels with very little financial resources.22 As delivery time for orders has decreased ten to twenty percent over the last five years, urgent orders have become more frequent.23 Consequently, workers are forced to work overtime hours, often without overtime pay, in order to meet these quick turnaround times and order changes.24 B. Working Conditions in Overseas Garment Factories Workers in fashion supply chains often endure unimaginable conditions in garment factories, where buildings lack fire alarms, and managers can lock doors and keep workers in until they complete the orders.25 Other dangerous conditions include crumbling buildings, broken alarms, and missing sprinklers and fire barriers.26 In countries like Bangladesh, local laws regulating fire safety, pay, and working conditions are not well-enforced as there are not enough inspectors and there is significant potential for the corruption of officials.27 Specifically, the Bangladesh government has failed to enforce national building codes, especially in buildings owned by wellconnected landlords.28 Thus, garment workers often endure brutal, unsafe working conditions at the mercy of their employer.29 In 2013, an eight-story clothing manufacturing building in Dhaka, Bangladesh collapsed, killing over one thousand garment workers.30 Just five months earlier, at least 112 workers died in a factory fire in Tazreen on the outskirts of Dhaka.31 Following these incidents, many major United States (U.S.) retailers joined safety-monitoring groups that required them to stop selling clothing from factories that violated safety standards.32 But Amazon—one of the world’s largest retailers— did not join this coalition and continues to sell clothing made from factories operating under similar conditions.33 Amazon has stated that it does not inspect the factories that produce the clothing they buy from wholesalers or other third-party sellers.34 In fact, the company will only remove a product from their site if they become aware that the product came from a factory that may not meet their supply chain standards.35 With a marketplace as large as Amazon’s, this is clearly a problem as it keeps unsafe workplaces up and running.36 While consumers may not currently be aware that the clothing they are buying originated in a factory where workers are subject to long hours and serious injuries, it is important that it is made known and steps are taken to end such practices. III. Development and Problems A. Absence of Worker Protections in the Garment Industries Stark contrasts exist between garment workers’ rights in countries like the U.S. and Bangladesh.37 While workers in the U.S. have protection under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) and through regulatory oversight, Bangladesh lacks a well-functioning labor inspection system or enforcement mechanisms.38 Moreover, because supply chains are organizationally fragmented and geographically dispersed, it becomes difficult for garment workers to unionize and fight for change.39 1. Minimum Wage A living wage is the lowest wage paid to a full-time worker—earned in no more than forty-eight hours per week—needed to cover basics like food, decent housing, healthcare, clothing, transportation, utilities, childcare, education, and other essential needs, in addition to some savings for the future and unexpected events.40 The legal minimum wage for garment workers in Bangladesh is approximately 8000 taka per month, which amounts to $79 USD.41 But instead of paying workers a legal minimum wage, some factories will utilize a piece-rate system in which they pay workers pennies per garment sewn—a practice also used in the U.S.42 Under this system, workers are paid $0.02 to $0.06 per garment, which can translate to, at most, $6 per hour.43 Although the Bangladesh government sets a minimum wage, it is not properly enforced, resulting in many workers making much less.44 In a research study examining the working conditions and lives of garment workers in Bangladesh and Vietnam, one hundred percent of garment workers interviewed in Bangladesh earned below a living wage.45 Of those interviewed, ninety percent said they could not afford enough food for themselves or their families, seventy-two percent could not afford medical treatment when they got sick or injured, seventy-six percent had no running water inside their home, and thirty-three percent had been separated from their children, primarily due to insufficient income.46 Moreover, Fifty-six percent of workers reported that they experienced wage cuts, although technically illegal in Bangladesh, for things such as not meeting targets, absence, late attendance, poor quality, product mistakes, or refusing to do overtime or night duty. In order to make ends meet, parents often remove their children from school to start working in garment factories—some as young as eleven years old.

System Instructions: Draw information from the context only to inform your response. Prompt: Discuss the concept of fast fashion and its effect on workers as outlined in the text. Context: I. Introduction Fast fashion is an approach to the design, creation, and marketing of clothing with an emphasis on making trends quickly and cheaply available to consumers.2 The term was coined by the New York Times in the early 2000s when describing Zara’s mission to take a garment from the design stage to being sold in stores in just fifteen days.3 The idea behind this phenomenon is to get the newest styles on the market as fast as possible so that consumers can get them at the height of their popularity.4 Increased consumption in wealthy, first-world countries has driven the success of fast fashion and placed a significant strain on garment factories and their workers.5 Because fashion is one of the most labor-dependent industries—as each piece of apparel must be handmade along a lengthy supply chain—brands have looked to outsource labor overseas to minimize costs and maximize profits.6 The goal of outsourcing is to locate low-cost production sources in emerging economies, like Bangladesh, where input costs are low and productivity is high.7 As retail prices have decreased and production prices have increased, there continues to be pressure on manufacturers’ margins.8 Because of this cycle, garment workers are often subjected to poor employment conditions and factories are less able to invest in the improvement of labor conditions or increase workers’ pay.9 For decades, brands have turned a blind eye to these key issues, continuing to profit off cheap, forced labor.10 Zara, H&M, and Topshop were among the first companies to take looks and designs from top fashion houses and reproduce them quickly and cheaply.11 Key characteristics of fast fashion brands include: (1) having thousands of styles, particularly those that touch on the latest trends; (2) extremely short turnaround times between when a trend is seen on the catwalk and when it hits the shelves; (3) offshore manufacturing where labor is cheap; (4) limited quantities of particular garments; and (5) cheap, low-quality materials.12 This note will explore how the fast fashion cycle perpetuates neglect of consumer responsibility, social and ecological harm, capitalization of fast production and cheap prices, and labor exploitation. II. Background A. A Journey Down the Supply Chain As clothes have gotten cheaper, trend cycles have sped up, and shopping has become a hobby, consumers, perhaps unknowingly, have perpetuated a cycle of abusive labor practices in overseas garment factories.13 Because labor costs remain high in the Western Hemisphere, production has largely moved overseas and fashion companies industry-wide are utilizing subcontracting to produce their garments.14 Subcontracting is the process by which a company divides parts of the supply chain across multiple countries and into multiple parts, including design, spinning, yarn production, dyeing, cutting, stitching, and final garment production.15 The general supply chain involves multiple steps: (1) cotton is grown and sold to the global market; (2) spinners use cotton or synthetic fibers to produce yarn or fabric; (3) garment factories cut and sew the fabric and add trim to produce garments; (4) garment factories that lack capacity for some processes subcontract them to other facilities; (5) garments are shipped to the brands that place the order; (6) brands distribute the garments to retail and online stores; and (7) consumers purchase the garments.16 Subcontracting allows for the success of fast fashion because it permits companies to utilize the low cost of overseas labor as subcontracted units are not regulated.17 It is not uncommon that the clothing consumers buy in store has already been in multiple different countries or factories before hitting the shelves.18 Manufacturing supply chains in the fashion industry are known for being rife with abuse, forced labor, and extremely low wages.19 Buyers often participate in a practice called “underground bidding,” where they use the quoted prices of one factory to get another factory to lower their prices.20 The company then selects the factory that commits to the fastest turnaround time and the lowest price, effectively pushing down wages and worsening working conditions.21 This perpetuates a skewed power dynamic where buyers dominate, as factories accept low prices for orders while remaining under pressure to maintain high product quality and productivity levels with very little financial resources.22 As delivery time for orders has decreased ten to twenty percent over the last five years, urgent orders have become more frequent.23 Consequently, workers are forced to work overtime hours, often without overtime pay, in order to meet these quick turnaround times and order changes.24 B. Working Conditions in Overseas Garment Factories Workers in fashion supply chains often endure unimaginable conditions in garment factories, where buildings lack fire alarms, and managers can lock doors and keep workers in until they complete the orders.25 Other dangerous conditions include crumbling buildings, broken alarms, and missing sprinklers and fire barriers.26 In countries like Bangladesh, local laws regulating fire safety, pay, and working conditions are not well-enforced as there are not enough inspectors and there is significant potential for the corruption of officials.27 Specifically, the Bangladesh government has failed to enforce national building codes, especially in buildings owned by wellconnected landlords.28 Thus, garment workers often endure brutal, unsafe working conditions at the mercy of their employer.29 In 2013, an eight-story clothing manufacturing building in Dhaka, Bangladesh collapsed, killing over one thousand garment workers.30 Just five months earlier, at least 112 workers died in a factory fire in Tazreen on the outskirts of Dhaka.31 Following these incidents, many major United States (U.S.) retailers joined safety-monitoring groups that required them to stop selling clothing from factories that violated safety standards.32 But Amazon—one of the world’s largest retailers— did not join this coalition and continues to sell clothing made from factories operating under similar conditions.33 Amazon has stated that it does not inspect the factories that produce the clothing they buy from wholesalers or other third-party sellers.34 In fact, the company will only remove a product from their site if they become aware that the product came from a factory that may not meet their supply chain standards.35 With a marketplace as large as Amazon’s, this is clearly a problem as it keeps unsafe workplaces up and running.36 While consumers may not currently be aware that the clothing they are buying originated in a factory where workers are subject to long hours and serious injuries, it is important that it is made known and steps are taken to end such practices. III. Development and Problems A. Absence of Worker Protections in the Garment Industries Stark contrasts exist between garment workers’ rights in countries like the U.S. and Bangladesh.37 While workers in the U.S. have protection under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) and through regulatory oversight, Bangladesh lacks a well-functioning labor inspection system or enforcement mechanisms.38 Moreover, because supply chains are organizationally fragmented and geographically dispersed, it becomes difficult for garment workers to unionize and fight for change.39 1. Minimum Wage A living wage is the lowest wage paid to a full-time worker—earned in no more than forty-eight hours per week—needed to cover basics like food, decent housing, healthcare, clothing, transportation, utilities, childcare, education, and other essential needs, in addition to some savings for the future and unexpected events.40 The legal minimum wage for garment workers in Bangladesh is approximately 8000 taka per month, which amounts to $79 USD.41 But instead of paying workers a legal minimum wage, some factories will utilize a piece-rate system in which they pay workers pennies per garment sewn—a practice also used in the U.S.42 Under this system, workers are paid $0.02 to $0.06 per garment, which can translate to, at most, $6 per hour.43 Although the Bangladesh government sets a minimum wage, it is not properly enforced, resulting in many workers making much less.44 In a research study examining the working conditions and lives of garment workers in Bangladesh and Vietnam, one hundred percent of garment workers interviewed in Bangladesh earned below a living wage.45 Of those interviewed, ninety percent said they could not afford enough food for themselves or their families, seventy-two percent could not afford medical treatment when they got sick or injured, seventy-six percent had no running water inside their home, and thirty-three percent had been separated from their children, primarily due to insufficient income.46 Moreover, Fifty-six percent of workers reported that they experienced wage cuts, although technically illegal in Bangladesh, for things such as not meeting targets, absence, late attendance, poor quality, product mistakes, or refusing to do overtime or night duty. In order to make ends meet, parents often remove their children from school to start working in garment factories—some as young as eleven years old.

"================ <TEXT PASSAGE> ======= [context document] ================ <QUESTION> ======= [user request] ================ <TASK> ======= You are an expert in question answering. Your task is to reply to a query or question, based only on the information provided by the user. It should only use information in the article provided."

My credit card interest rates are the highest they have ever been. It's really making it hard to pay them down when I can only afford the minimum payment and it mostly goes to interest. How have the interest rates changed?

Higher APR margin has fueled the profitability of revolving balances. Typically, card issuers set an APR margin to generate a profit that is at least commensurate with the risk of lending money to consumers. In the eight years after the Great Recession, the average APR margin stayed around 10 percent, as issuers adapted to reforms in the Credit Card Accountability Responsibility and Disclosure Act of 2009 (CARD Act) that restricted harmful back-end and hidden pricing practices. But issuers began to gradually increase APR margin in 2016. The trend accelerated in 2018, and it continued through the pandemic. Over the past decade, card issuers increased APR margin despite lower charge-off rates and a relatively stable share of cardholders with subprime credit scores. The average APR margin increased 4.3 percentage points from 2013 to 2023 (while the prime rate was nearly 5 percentage points higher). As such, the profitability of revolving balances excluding loan loss provisions (the money that banks set aside for expected charge-offs) has been increasing over this time period. Figure 2: Average APR Margin and Charge-Off Rate (Federal Reserve) Figure 2 is a line graph that shows the quarterly average APR margin and charge off rate from 1995 through 2023. Since 2013, the APR margin has generally increased while the charge off rate decreased. Source: Federal Reserve Excess APR margin costs consumers billions of dollars a year. In 2023, major credit card issuers, with around $590 billion in revolving balances, charged an estimated $25 billion in additional interest fees by raising the average APR margin by 4.3 percentage points over the last ten years. For an average consumer with a $5,300 balance across credit cards, the excess APR margin cost them over $250 in 2023. Since finance charges are typically part of the minimum amount due, this additional interest burden may push consumers into persistent debt, accruing more in interest and fees than they pay towards the principal each year — or even delinquency. The increase in APR margin has occurred across all credit tiers. Even consumers with the highest credit scores are incurring higher costs. The average APR margin for accounts with credit scores at 800 or above grew 1.6 percentage points from 2015 to 2022 without a corresponding increase in late payments. Credit card interest rates are a core driver of profits. Credit card issuers are reliant on revenue from interest charged to borrowers who revolve on their balances to drive overall profits, as reflected in increasing APR margins. The return on assets on general purpose cards, one measure of profitability, was higher in 2022 (at 5.9 percent) than in 2019 (at 4.5 percent), and far greater than the returns banks received on other lines of business. Even when excluding the impact of loan loss provisions, the profitability of credit cards has been increasing. CFPB research has found high levels of concentration in the consumer credit card market and evidence of practices that inhibit consumers’ ability to find alternatives to expensive credit card products. These practices may help explain why credit card issuers have been able to prop up high interest rates to fuel profits. Our recent research has shown that while the top credit card companies dominate the market, smaller issuers many times offer credit cards with significantly lower APRs. The CFPB will continue to take steps to ensure that the consumer credit card market is fair, competitive, and transparent and to help consumers avoid debt spirals that can be difficult to escape.

"================ <TEXT PASSAGE> ======= Higher APR margin has fueled the profitability of revolving balances. Typically, card issuers set an APR margin to generate a profit that is at least commensurate with the risk of lending money to consumers. In the eight years after the Great Recession, the average APR margin stayed around 10 percent, as issuers adapted to reforms in the Credit Card Accountability Responsibility and Disclosure Act of 2009 (CARD Act) that restricted harmful back-end and hidden pricing practices. But issuers began to gradually increase APR margin in 2016. The trend accelerated in 2018, and it continued through the pandemic. Over the past decade, card issuers increased APR margin despite lower charge-off rates and a relatively stable share of cardholders with subprime credit scores. The average APR margin increased 4.3 percentage points from 2013 to 2023 (while the prime rate was nearly 5 percentage points higher). As such, the profitability of revolving balances excluding loan loss provisions (the money that banks set aside for expected charge-offs) has been increasing over this time period. Figure 2: Average APR Margin and Charge-Off Rate (Federal Reserve) Figure 2 is a line graph that shows the quarterly average APR margin and charge off rate from 1995 through 2023. Since 2013, the APR margin has generally increased while the charge off rate decreased. Source: Federal Reserve Excess APR margin costs consumers billions of dollars a year. In 2023, major credit card issuers, with around $590 billion in revolving balances, charged an estimated $25 billion in additional interest fees by raising the average APR margin by 4.3 percentage points over the last ten years. For an average consumer with a $5,300 balance across credit cards, the excess APR margin cost them over $250 in 2023. Since finance charges are typically part of the minimum amount due, this additional interest burden may push consumers into persistent debt, accruing more in interest and fees than they pay towards the principal each year — or even delinquency. The increase in APR margin has occurred across all credit tiers. Even consumers with the highest credit scores are incurring higher costs. The average APR margin for accounts with credit scores at 800 or above grew 1.6 percentage points from 2015 to 2022 without a corresponding increase in late payments. Credit card interest rates are a core driver of profits. Credit card issuers are reliant on revenue from interest charged to borrowers who revolve on their balances to drive overall profits, as reflected in increasing APR margins. The return on assets on general purpose cards, one measure of profitability, was higher in 2022 (at 5.9 percent) than in 2019 (at 4.5 percent), and far greater than the returns banks received on other lines of business. Even when excluding the impact of loan loss provisions, the profitability of credit cards has been increasing. CFPB research has found high levels of concentration in the consumer credit card market and evidence of practices that inhibit consumers’ ability to find alternatives to expensive credit card products. These practices may help explain why credit card issuers have been able to prop up high interest rates to fuel profits. Our recent research has shown that while the top credit card companies dominate the market, smaller issuers many times offer credit cards with significantly lower APRs. The CFPB will continue to take steps to ensure that the consumer credit card market is fair, competitive, and transparent and to help consumers avoid debt spirals that can be difficult to escape. https://www.consumerfinance.gov/about-us/blog/credit-card-interest-rate-margins-at-all-time-high/ ================ <QUESTION> ======= My credit card interest rates are the highest they have ever been. It's really making it hard to pay them down when I can only afford the minimum payment and it mostly goes to interest. How have the interest rates changed? ================ <TASK> ======= You are an expert in question answering. Your task is to reply to a query or question, based only on the information provided by the user. It should only use information in the article provided."

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. [user request] [context document]

What is the mechanism of action of the drug Amoxicillin and what are some of the potential side effects involved with its usage? Respond in more than 150 words.

Amoxicillin is a widely utilized beta-lactam antimicrobial drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the primary care setting. Amoxicillin is an aminopenicillin created by adding an extra amino group to penicillin to battle antibiotic resistance. This drug is indicated for the treatment of infections caused by susceptible isolates of selected bacteria, specifically those that are beta-lactamase–negative, including ear, nose, and throat infections, Helicobacter pylori eradication, lower respiratory and urinary tract infections, acute bacterial sinusitis, and skin and structure infections. Amoxicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-positive bacteria, offering additional coverage against some gram-negative organisms compared to penicillin. Amoxicillin's spectrum of activity includes coverage against Streptococcus species, with heightened efficacy against Listeria monocytogenes and Enterococcus spp. Furthermore, amoxicillin also demonstrates effectiveness against Haemophilus influenzae, select Escherichia coli strains, Actinomyces spp., Clostridium species, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and Corynebacteria spp. This activity delves into the indications, mechanism of action, administration, contraindications, and adverse event profiles associated with amoxicillin. This activity equips clinicians with a comprehensive understanding of amoxicillin to optimally enhance their ability to manage infectious diseases in patients. Amoxicillin is a widely utilized beta-lactam antimicrobial drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the primary care setting. Amoxicillin is an aminopenicillin created by adding an extra amino group to penicillin to battle antibiotic resistance. The medication is effective against a wide range of gram-positive bacteria, offering additional coverage against some gram-negative organisms compared to penicillin. Amoxicillin's spectrum of activity includes coverage against Streptococcus species, with heightened efficacy against Listeria monocytogenes and Enterococcus spp. Furthermore, amoxicillin also demonstrates effectiveness against Haemophilus influenzae, select Escherichia coli strains, Actinomyces spp., Clostridium species, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and Corynebacteria spp. FDA-Approved Indications Amoxicillin is indicated for treating infections caused by susceptible isolates of selected bacteria, specifically beta-lactamase–negative, in the conditions listed below. Ear, nose, and throat infections: Amoxicillin is approved for the treatment of tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and otitis media in adults and pediatric patients aged 12 and older. The microbiological spectrum covers infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative Streptococcus species (alpha- and beta-hemolytic isolates only), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus species, or H influenzae.[1] Helicobacter pylori eradication: H pylori eradication involves triple therapy using clarithromycin, amoxicillin, and lansoprazole to reduce the risk of duodenal ulcer recurrence. In addition, dual treatment with amoxicillin and lansoprazole is FDA-approved for eradicating H pylori infection.[2] Lower respiratory tract infections: Amoxicillin is prescribed for treating lower respiratory tract infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative Streptococcus species (limited to alpha- and beta-hemolytic strains), Pneumococcus or Staphylococcus species, or H influenzae. In cases of community-acquired pneumonia, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) recommends a combination therapy comprising amoxicillin and a macrolide antibiotic.[3] Acute bacterial sinusitis: The treatment for acute bacterial sinusitis involves addressing infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative Streptococcus species (limited to alpha- and beta-hemolytic isolates), S pneumoniae, Staphylococcus species, or H influenzae.[4] Skin and skin structure infections: Amoxicillin in the immediate-release formulation is prescribed to treat skin infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative Streptococcus species (restricted to alpha- and beta-hemolytic strains), Staphylococcus species, or E coli.[5] Urinary tract infection: Amoxicillin is indicated for treating genitourinary tract infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative E coli, Proteus mirabilis, or Enterococcus faecalis.[6] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends using amoxicillin as a second-line agent for post-exposure prophylaxis for anthrax.[7] Off-label Uses Amoxicillin is often used for Lyme disease if there are contraindications for doxycycline.[8] Infectious endocarditis prophylaxis is recommended for individuals with high-risk cardiac conditions, such as a prosthetic cardiac valve or congenital heart disease, using amoxicillin.[9] Amoxicillin, combined with metronidazole, is used to treat periodontitis.[10] Amoxicillin is often used for the treatment of actinomycosis.[11] Amoxicillin belongs to the class of beta-lactam antimicrobials. Beta-lactams bind to penicillin-binding proteins, inhibiting transpeptidation — a crucial step in cell wall synthesis involving cross-linking. This action activates autolytic enzymes in the bacterial cell wall, resulting in cell wall lysis and bacterial cell destruction. This mechanism is known as bactericidal killing.[12] Amoxicillin administration can be combined with a beta-lactamase inhibitor, such as clavulanic acid or sulbactam. These inhibitors function by irreversibly binding to the catalytic site of the organism's beta-lactamase enzyme, preventing resistance to the original beta-lactam ring of amoxicillin. Although these inhibitors lack inherent bactericidal activity, their combination with amoxicillin may broaden its spectrum to include organisms producing the beta-lactamase enzyme.[13] Pharmacokinetics Absorption: Amoxicillin exhibits stability in the presence of gastric acid and is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, with average peak blood levels typically reached within 1 to 2 hours. Distribution: Amoxicillin displays significant tissue and fluid diffusion throughout the body, with the exception of the brain and spinal fluid, except in cases where meningeal inflammation is present. Amoxicillin exhibits approximately 20% plasma protein binding. Metabolism: The metabolism of amoxicillin involves oxidation, hydroxylation, and deamination processes. Amoxicillin is a substrate of organic anion transporters (OATs), specifically OATs 1 and 3.[14][15] Elimination: Amoxicillin has an approximate half-life of 61.3 minutes, and about 60% of the administered dose is excreted in the urine within 6 to 8 hours. Co-administration of probenecid can delay amoxicillin excretion, as the majority of the drug is eliminated unchanged in the urine. Common Adverse Drug Reactions Although generally well-tolerated, amoxicillin may lead to common gastrointestinal symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Additional adverse drug reactions associated with amoxicillin are listed below. Nephrotoxicity: Amoxicillin may cause crystalluria and interstitial nephritis.[23][24] Hypersensitivity reactions: Amoxicillin has the potential to cause hypersensitivity reactions categorized as type I, II, III, or IV. Differentiating between a type-I and type-IV reaction is crucial due to varying danger levels. A type-I hypersensitivity reaction involves an IgE-mediated response in sensitized patients, inducing widespread histamine release, resulting in an urticarial-like pruritic rash or severe anaphylaxis. In contrast, a type-IV hypersensitivity reaction is not mediated by histamine release and typically presents as a more papular or morbilliform rash, often without itching. Notably, almost all patients receiving amoxicillin inadvertently for infectious mononucleosis may develop a maculopapular rash attributed to a type IV–mediated hypersensitivity reaction. Notably, reactions of this type are not associated with anaphylaxis.[25] Hepatotoxicity: Cases of idiosyncratic liver injury have been reported in individuals receiving amoxicillin. The associated serum enzyme pattern reveals a hepatocellular pattern characterized by significant elevations in aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT), with minimal increases in alkaline phosphatase. Most patients experience rapid recovery upon withdrawal of amoxicillin. The cause of liver injury associated with amoxicillin use is attributed to hypersensitivity. Although rare, cases of acute liver failure and vanishing bile duct syndrome have been reported. Corticosteroids are often used to treat allergic reactions caused by penicillin-related immunoallergic hepatitis, which is a rare cause of clinically apparent liver injury, with a likelihood score of B.[26] Postmarketing Adverse Drug Reactions Gastrointestinal: Gastrointestinal effects may include black hairy tongue, pseudomembranous colitis, and hemorrhagic colitis.[27] Neurological: Neurological effects may encompass reversible hyperactivity, agitation, anxiety, insomnia, confusion, convulsions, and aseptic meningitis.[28] Dermatological: Dermatological effects may manifest as serum sickness-like reactions, erythematous maculopapular rashes, exfoliative dermatitis, toxic epidermal necrolysis, and hypersensitivity vasculitis.[30]

Answer the question based solely on the information provided in the passage. Do not use any external knowledge or resources. What is the mechanism of action of the drug Amoxicillin and what are some of the potential side effects involved with its usage? Respond in more than 150 words. Amoxicillin is a widely utilized beta-lactam antimicrobial drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the primary care setting. Amoxicillin is an aminopenicillin created by adding an extra amino group to penicillin to battle antibiotic resistance. This drug is indicated for the treatment of infections caused by susceptible isolates of selected bacteria, specifically those that are beta-lactamase–negative, including ear, nose, and throat infections, Helicobacter pylori eradication, lower respiratory and urinary tract infections, acute bacterial sinusitis, and skin and structure infections. Amoxicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-positive bacteria, offering additional coverage against some gram-negative organisms compared to penicillin. Amoxicillin's spectrum of activity includes coverage against Streptococcus species, with heightened efficacy against Listeria monocytogenes and Enterococcus spp. Furthermore, amoxicillin also demonstrates effectiveness against Haemophilus influenzae, select Escherichia coli strains, Actinomyces spp., Clostridium species, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and Corynebacteria spp. This activity delves into the indications, mechanism of action, administration, contraindications, and adverse event profiles associated with amoxicillin. This activity equips clinicians with a comprehensive understanding of amoxicillin to optimally enhance their ability to manage infectious diseases in patients. Amoxicillin is a widely utilized beta-lactam antimicrobial drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the primary care setting. Amoxicillin is an aminopenicillin created by adding an extra amino group to penicillin to battle antibiotic resistance. The medication is effective against a wide range of gram-positive bacteria, offering additional coverage against some gram-negative organisms compared to penicillin. Amoxicillin's spectrum of activity includes coverage against Streptococcus species, with heightened efficacy against Listeria monocytogenes and Enterococcus spp. Furthermore, amoxicillin also demonstrates effectiveness against Haemophilus influenzae, select Escherichia coli strains, Actinomyces spp., Clostridium species, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and Corynebacteria spp. FDA-Approved Indications Amoxicillin is indicated for treating infections caused by susceptible isolates of selected bacteria, specifically beta-lactamase–negative, in the conditions listed below. Ear, nose, and throat infections: Amoxicillin is approved for the treatment of tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and otitis media in adults and pediatric patients aged 12 and older. The microbiological spectrum covers infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative Streptococcus species (alpha- and beta-hemolytic isolates only), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus species, or H influenzae.[1] Helicobacter pylori eradication: H pylori eradication involves triple therapy using clarithromycin, amoxicillin, and lansoprazole to reduce the risk of duodenal ulcer recurrence. In addition, dual treatment with amoxicillin and lansoprazole is FDA-approved for eradicating H pylori infection.[2] Lower respiratory tract infections: Amoxicillin is prescribed for treating lower respiratory tract infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative Streptococcus species (limited to alpha- and beta-hemolytic strains), Pneumococcus or Staphylococcus species, or H influenzae. In cases of community-acquired pneumonia, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) recommends a combination therapy comprising amoxicillin and a macrolide antibiotic.[3] Acute bacterial sinusitis: The treatment for acute bacterial sinusitis involves addressing infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative Streptococcus species (limited to alpha- and beta-hemolytic isolates), S pneumoniae, Staphylococcus species, or H influenzae.[4] Skin and skin structure infections: Amoxicillin in the immediate-release formulation is prescribed to treat skin infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative Streptococcus species (restricted to alpha- and beta-hemolytic strains), Staphylococcus species, or E coli.[5] Urinary tract infection: Amoxicillin is indicated for treating genitourinary tract infections caused by beta-lactamase–negative E coli, Proteus mirabilis, or Enterococcus faecalis.[6] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends using amoxicillin as a second-line agent for post-exposure prophylaxis for anthrax.[7] Off-label Uses Amoxicillin is often used for Lyme disease if there are contraindications for doxycycline.[8] Infectious endocarditis prophylaxis is recommended for individuals with high-risk cardiac conditions, such as a prosthetic cardiac valve or congenital heart disease, using amoxicillin.[9] Amoxicillin, combined with metronidazole, is used to treat periodontitis.[10] Amoxicillin is often used for the treatment of actinomycosis.[11] Amoxicillin belongs to the class of beta-lactam antimicrobials. Beta-lactams bind to penicillin-binding proteins, inhibiting transpeptidation — a crucial step in cell wall synthesis involving cross-linking. This action activates autolytic enzymes in the bacterial cell wall, resulting in cell wall lysis and bacterial cell destruction. This mechanism is known as bactericidal killing.[12] Amoxicillin administration can be combined with a beta-lactamase inhibitor, such as clavulanic acid or sulbactam. These inhibitors function by irreversibly binding to the catalytic site of the organism's beta-lactamase enzyme, preventing resistance to the original beta-lactam ring of amoxicillin. Although these inhibitors lack inherent bactericidal activity, their combination with amoxicillin may broaden its spectrum to include organisms producing the beta-lactamase enzyme.[13] Pharmacokinetics Absorption: Amoxicillin exhibits stability in the presence of gastric acid and is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, with average peak blood levels typically reached within 1 to 2 hours. Distribution: Amoxicillin displays significant tissue and fluid diffusion throughout the body, with the exception of the brain and spinal fluid, except in cases where meningeal inflammation is present. Amoxicillin exhibits approximately 20% plasma protein binding. Metabolism: The metabolism of amoxicillin involves oxidation, hydroxylation, and deamination processes. Amoxicillin is a substrate of organic anion transporters (OATs), specifically OATs 1 and 3.[14][15] Elimination: Amoxicillin has an approximate half-life of 61.3 minutes, and about 60% of the administered dose is excreted in the urine within 6 to 8 hours. Co-administration of probenecid can delay amoxicillin excretion, as the majority of the drug is eliminated unchanged in the urine. Common Adverse Drug Reactions Although generally well-tolerated, amoxicillin may lead to common gastrointestinal symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Additional adverse drug reactions associated with amoxicillin are listed below. Nephrotoxicity: Amoxicillin may cause crystalluria and interstitial nephritis.[23][24] Hypersensitivity reactions: Amoxicillin has the potential to cause hypersensitivity reactions categorized as type I, II, III, or IV. Differentiating between a type-I and type-IV reaction is crucial due to varying danger levels. A type-I hypersensitivity reaction involves an IgE-mediated response in sensitized patients, inducing widespread histamine release, resulting in an urticarial-like pruritic rash or severe anaphylaxis. In contrast, a type-IV hypersensitivity reaction is not mediated by histamine release and typically presents as a more papular or morbilliform rash, often without itching. Notably, almost all patients receiving amoxicillin inadvertently for infectious mononucleosis may develop a maculopapular rash attributed to a type IV–mediated hypersensitivity reaction. Notably, reactions of this type are not associated with anaphylaxis.[25] Hepatotoxicity: Cases of idiosyncratic liver injury have been reported in individuals receiving amoxicillin. The associated serum enzyme pattern reveals a hepatocellular pattern characterized by significant elevations in aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT), with minimal increases in alkaline phosphatase. Most patients experience rapid recovery upon withdrawal of amoxicillin. The cause of liver injury associated with amoxicillin use is attributed to hypersensitivity. Although rare, cases of acute liver failure and vanishing bile duct syndrome have been reported. Corticosteroids are often used to treat allergic reactions caused by penicillin-related immunoallergic hepatitis, which is a rare cause of clinically apparent liver injury, with a likelihood score of B.[26] Postmarketing Adverse Drug Reactions Gastrointestinal: Gastrointestinal effects may include black hairy tongue, pseudomembranous colitis, and hemorrhagic colitis.[27] Neurological: Neurological effects may encompass reversible hyperactivity, agitation, anxiety, insomnia, confusion, convulsions, and aseptic meningitis.[28] Dermatological: Dermatological effects may manifest as serum sickness-like reactions, erythematous maculopapular rashes, exfoliative dermatitis, toxic epidermal necrolysis, and hypersensitivity vasculitis.[30] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482250/

You must respond only using the information provided in the prompt context. No outside information or prior knowledge can be utilized in your answer.

When can a person give consent to process their data?

Lawfulness of processing 1. Processing shall be lawful only if and to the extent that at least one of the following applies: (a) the data subject has given consent to the processing of his or her personal data for one or more specific purposes; (b) processing is necessary for the performance of a contract to which the data subject is party or in order to take steps at the request of the data subject prior to entering into a contract; (c) processing is necessary for compliance with a legal obligation to which the controller is subject; (d) processing is necessary in order to protect the vital interests of the data subject or of another natural person; (e) processing is necessary for the performance of a task carried out in the public interest or in the exercise of official authority vested in the controller; (f) processing is necessary for the purposes of the legitimate interests pursued by the controller or by a third party, except where such interests are overridden by the interests or fundamental rights and freedoms of the data subject which require protection of personal data, in particular where the data subject is a child. Point (f) of the first subparagraph shall not apply to processing carried out by public authorities in the performance of their tasks. 2. Member States may maintain or introduce more specific provisions to adapt the application of the rules of this Regulation with regard to processing for compliance with points (c) and (e) of paragraph 1 by determining more precisely specific requirements for the processing and other measures to ensure lawful and fair processing including for other specific processing situations as provided for in Chapter IX. 3. The basis for the processing referred to in point (c) and (e) of paragraph 1 shall be laid down by: (a) Union law; or (b) Member State law to which the controller is subject. The purpose of the processing shall be determined in that legal basis or, as regards the processing referred to in point (e) of paragraph 1, shall be necessary for the performance of a task carried out in the public interest or in the exercise of official authority vested in the controller. That legal basis may contain specific provisions to adapt the application of rules of this Regulation, inter alia: the general conditions governing the lawfulness of processing by the controller; the types of data which are subject to the processing; the data subjects concerned; the entities to, and the purposes for which, the personal data may be disclosed; the purpose limitation; storage periods; and processing operations and processing procedures, including measures to ensure lawful and fair processing such as those for other specific L 119/36 EN Official Journal of the European Union 4.5.2016 processing situations as provided for in Chapter IX. The Union or the Member State law shall meet an objective of public interest and be proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued. 4. Where the processing for a purpose other than that for which the personal data have been collected is not based on the data subject's consent or on a Union or Member State law which constitutes a necessary and proportionate measure in a democratic society to safeguard the objectives referred to in Article 23(1), the controller shall, in order to ascertain whether processing for another purpose is compatible with the purpose for which the personal data are initially collected, take into account, inter alia: (a) any link between the purposes for which the personal data have been collected and the purposes of the intended further processing; (b) the context in which the personal data have been collected, in particular regarding the relationship between data subjects and the controller; (c) the nature of the personal data, in particular whether special categories of personal data are processed, pursuant to Article 9, or whether personal data related to criminal convictions and offences are processed, pursuant to Article 10; (d) the possible consequences of the intended further processing for data subjects; (e) the existence of appropriate safeguards, which may include encryption or pseudonymisation. Article 7 Conditions for consent 1. Where processing is based on consent, the controller shall be able to demonstrate that the data subject has consented to processing of his or her personal data. 2. If the data subject's consent is given in the context of a written declaration which also concerns other matters, the request for consent shall be presented in a manner which is clearly distinguishable from the other matters, in an intelligible and easily accessible form, using clear and plain language. Any part of such a declaration which constitutes an infringement of this Regulation shall not be binding. 3. The data subject shall have the right to withdraw his or her consent at any time. The withdrawal of consent shall not affect the lawfulness of processing based on consent before its withdrawal. Prior to giving consent, the data subject shall be informed thereof. It shall be as easy to withdraw as to give consent. 4. When assessing whether consent is freely given, utmost account shall be taken of whether, inter alia, the performance of a contract, including the provision of a service, is conditional on consent to the processing of personal data that is not necessary for the performance of that contract. Article 8 Conditions applicable to child's consent in relation to information society services 1. Where point (a) of Article 6(1) applies, in relation to the offer of information society services directly to a child, the processing of the personal data of a child shall be lawful where the child is at least 16 years old. Where the child is below the age of 16 years, such processing shall be lawful only if and to the extent that consent is given or authorised by the holder of parental responsibility over the child. Member States may provide by law for a lower age for those purposes provided that such lower age is not below 13 years. 4.5.2016 EN Official Journal of the European Union L 119/37 2. The controller shall make reasonable efforts to verify in such cases that consent is given or authorised by the holder of parental responsibility over the child, taking into consideration available technology. 3. Paragraph 1 shall not affect the general contract law of Member States such as the rules on the validity, formation or effect of a contract in relation to a child. Article 9 Processing of special categories of personal data 1. Processing of personal data revealing racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, or trade union membership, and the processing of genetic data, biometric data for the purpose of uniquely identifying a natural person, data concerning health or data concerning a natural person's sex life or sexual orientation shall be prohibited. 2. Paragraph 1 shall not apply if one of the following applies: (a) the data subject has given explicit consent to the processing of those personal data for one or more specified purposes, except where Union or Member State law provide that the prohibition referred to in paragraph 1 may not be lifted by the data subject; (b) processing is necessary for the purposes of carrying out the obligations and exercising specific rights of the controller or of the data subject in the field of employment and social security and social protection law in so far as it is authorised by Union or Member State law or a collective agreement pursuant to Member State law providing for appropriate safeguards for the fundamental rights and the interests of the data subject; (c) processing is necessary to protect the vital interests of the data subject or of another natural person where the data subject is physically or legally incapable of giving consent; (d) processing is carried out in the course of its legitimate activities with appropriate safeguards by a foundation, association or any other not-for-profit body with a political, philosophical, religious or trade union aim and on condition that the processing relates solely to the members or to former members of the body or to persons who have regular contact with it in connection with its purposes and that the personal data are not disclosed outside that body without the consent of the data subjects; (e) processing relates to personal data which are manifestly made public by the data subject; (f) processing is necessary for the establishment, exercise or defence of legal claims or whenever courts are acting in their judicial capacity;

You must respond only using the information provided in the prompt context. No outside information or prior knowledge can be utilized in your answer. When can a person give consent to process their data? Lawfulness of processing 1. Processing shall be lawful only if and to the extent that at least one of the following applies: (a) the data subject has given consent to the processing of his or her personal data for one or more specific purposes; (b) processing is necessary for the performance of a contract to which the data subject is party or in order to take steps at the request of the data subject prior to entering into a contract; (c) processing is necessary for compliance with a legal obligation to which the controller is subject; (d) processing is necessary in order to protect the vital interests of the data subject or of another natural person; (e) processing is necessary for the performance of a task carried out in the public interest or in the exercise of official authority vested in the controller; (f) processing is necessary for the purposes of the legitimate interests pursued by the controller or by a third party, except where such interests are overridden by the interests or fundamental rights and freedoms of the data subject which require protection of personal data, in particular where the data subject is a child. Point (f) of the first subparagraph shall not apply to processing carried out by public authorities in the performance of their tasks. 2. Member States may maintain or introduce more specific provisions to adapt the application of the rules of this Regulation with regard to processing for compliance with points (c) and (e) of paragraph 1 by determining more precisely specific requirements for the processing and other measures to ensure lawful and fair processing including for other specific processing situations as provided for in Chapter IX. 3. The basis for the processing referred to in point (c) and (e) of paragraph 1 shall be laid down by: (a) Union law; or (b) Member State law to which the controller is subject. The purpose of the processing shall be determined in that legal basis or, as regards the processing referred to in point (e) of paragraph 1, shall be necessary for the performance of a task carried out in the public interest or in the exercise of official authority vested in the controller. That legal basis may contain specific provisions to adapt the application of rules of this Regulation, inter alia: the general conditions governing the lawfulness of processing by the controller; the types of data which are subject to the processing; the data subjects concerned; the entities to, and the purposes for which, the personal data may be disclosed; the purpose limitation; storage periods; and processing operations and processing procedures, including measures to ensure lawful and fair processing such as those for other specific L 119/36 EN Official Journal of the European Union 4.5.2016 processing situations as provided for in Chapter IX. The Union or the Member State law shall meet an objective of public interest and be proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued. 4. Where the processing for a purpose other than that for which the personal data have been collected is not based on the data subject's consent or on a Union or Member State law which constitutes a necessary and proportionate measure in a democratic society to safeguard the objectives referred to in Article 23(1), the controller shall, in order to ascertain whether processing for another purpose is compatible with the purpose for which the personal data are initially collected, take into account, inter alia: (a) any link between the purposes for which the personal data have been collected and the purposes of the intended further processing; (b) the context in which the personal data have been collected, in particular regarding the relationship between data subjects and the controller; (c) the nature of the personal data, in particular whether special categories of personal data are processed, pursuant to Article 9, or whether personal data related to criminal convictions and offences are processed, pursuant to Article 10; (d) the possible consequences of the intended further processing for data subjects; (e) the existence of appropriate safeguards, which may include encryption or pseudonymisation. Article 7 Conditions for consent 1. Where processing is based on consent, the controller shall be able to demonstrate that the data subject has consented to processing of his or her personal data. 2. If the data subject's consent is given in the context of a written declaration which also concerns other matters, the request for consent shall be presented in a manner which is clearly distinguishable from the other matters, in an intelligible and easily accessible form, using clear and plain language. Any part of such a declaration which constitutes an infringement of this Regulation shall not be binding. 3. The data subject shall have the right to withdraw his or her consent at any time. The withdrawal of consent shall not affect the lawfulness of processing based on consent before its withdrawal. Prior to giving consent, the data subject shall be informed thereof. It shall be as easy to withdraw as to give consent. 4. When assessing whether consent is freely given, utmost account shall be taken of whether, inter alia, the performance of a contract, including the provision of a service, is conditional on consent to the processing of personal data that is not necessary for the performance of that contract. Article 8 Conditions applicable to child's consent in relation to information society services 1. Where point (a) of Article 6(1) applies, in relation to the offer of information society services directly to a child, the processing of the personal data of a child shall be lawful where the child is at least 16 years old. Where the child is below the age of 16 years, such processing shall be lawful only if and to the extent that consent is given or authorised by the holder of parental responsibility over the child. Member States may provide by law for a lower age for those purposes provided that such lower age is not below 13 years. 4.5.2016 EN Official Journal of the European Union L 119/37 2. The controller shall make reasonable efforts to verify in such cases that consent is given or authorised by the holder of parental responsibility over the child, taking into consideration available technology. 3. Paragraph 1 shall not affect the general contract law of Member States such as the rules on the validity, formation or effect of a contract in relation to a child. Article 9 Processing of special categories of personal data 1. Processing of personal data revealing racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, or trade union membership, and the processing of genetic data, biometric data for the purpose of uniquely identifying a natural person, data concerning health or data concerning a natural person's sex life or sexual orientation shall be prohibited. 2. Paragraph 1 shall not apply if one of the following applies: (a) the data subject has given explicit consent to the processing of those personal data for one or more specified purposes, except where Union or Member State law provide that the prohibition referred to in paragraph 1 may not be lifted by the data subject; (b) processing is necessary for the purposes of carrying out the obligations and exercising specific rights of the controller or of the data subject in the field of employment and social security and social protection law in so far as it is authorised by Union or Member State law or a collective agreement pursuant to Member State law providing for appropriate safeguards for the fundamental rights and the interests of the data subject; (c) processing is necessary to protect the vital interests of the data subject or of another natural person where the data subject is physically or legally incapable of giving consent; (d) processing is carried out in the course of its legitimate activities with appropriate safeguards by a foundation, association or any other not-for-profit body with a political, philosophical, religious or trade union aim and on condition that the processing relates solely to the members or to former members of the body or to persons who have regular contact with it in connection with its purposes and that the personal data are not disclosed outside that body without the consent of the data subjects; (e) processing relates to personal data which are manifestly made public by the data subject; (f) processing is necessary for the establishment, exercise or defence of legal claims or whenever courts are acting in their judicial capacity;

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

Please summarize all of the major points in this article. Describe and explain the differences between the various protocols. Make sure to define them in relation to each other and the concepts discussed in the article so I can understand them better.

Point-to-Point Generic Routing Encapsulation over IP Security Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is a widely used encapsulation protocol in computer networking. It allows the transmission of diverse network protocols over an IP network infrastructure. In this blog post, we'll delve into the details of the GRE and its significance in modern networking. GRE acts as a tunneling protocol, encapsulating packets from one network protocol within another. By creating a virtual point-to-point link, it facilitates the transmission of data across different network domains. This enables the interconnection of disparate networks, making GRE a crucial tool for securely building virtual private networks (VPNs) and connecting remote sites. P2P GRE is a tunneling protocol that allows the encapsulation of various network layer protocols within IP packets. It provides a secure and reliable method of transmitting data between two points in a network. By encapsulating packets in IP headers, P2P GRE ensures data integrity and confidentiality. IP Security (IPsec) plays a crucial role in enhancing the security of P2P GRE tunnels. By leveraging cryptographic algorithms, IPsec provides authentication, integrity, and confidentiality of data transmitted over the network. It establishes a secure channel between two endpoints, ensuring that data remains protected from unauthorized access and tampering. Enhanced Network Security: P2P GRE over IP Security offers a robust security solution for organizations by providing secure communication channels across public and private networks. It allows for the establishment of secure connections between geographically dispersed locations, ensuring the confidentiality of sensitive data. Improved Network Performance: P2P GRE over IP Security optimizes network performance by encapsulating and routing packets efficiently. It enables the transmission of data across different network topologies, reducing network congestion and enhancing overall network efficiency. Seamless Integration with Existing Infrastructures: One of the key advantages of P2P GRE over IP Security is its compatibility with existing network infrastructures. It can be seamlessly integrated into existing networks without the need for significant architectural changes, making it a cost-effective solution for organizations. Security Measures: Implementing P2P GRE over IP Security requires careful consideration of security measures. Organizations should ensure that strong encryption algorithms are utilized, proper key management practices are in place, and regular security audits are conducted to maintain the integrity of the network. Scalability and Performance Optimization: To ensure optimal performance, network administrators should carefully plan and configure the P2P GRE tunnels. Factors such as bandwidth allocation, traffic prioritization, and Quality of Service (QoS) settings should be taken into account to guarantee the efficient operation of the network. Generic Tunnelling Understanding P2P GRE & IPSec P2P GRE is a tunneling protocol that allows the encapsulation of different network protocols within an IP network. It provides a secure and efficient mechanism for transmitting data between two network endpoints. By encapsulating packets, P2P GRE ensures that information is protected from external threats and remains intact during transmission. IPsec, on the other hand, is a suite of protocols that provides security services at the IP layer. It offers authentication, confidentiality, and integrity to IP packets, ensuring that data remains secure even when traversing untrusted networks. IPsec can be combined with P2P GRE to create a robust and secure communication channel. The combination of P2P GRE and IPsec brings several benefits to network administrators and organizations. Firstly, it enables secure communication between geographically dispersed networks, allowing for seamless connectivity. Additionally, P2P GRE over IPsec provides strong encryption, ensuring the confidentiality of sensitive data. It also allows for the creation of virtual private networks (VPNs), offering a secure and private network environment. P2P GRE over IPsec finds applications in various scenarios. One common use case is connecting branch offices of an organization securely. By establishing a P2P GRE over IPsec tunnel between different locations, organizations can create a secure network environment for their remote sites. Another use case is securely connecting cloud resources to on-premises infrastructure, enabling secure and seamless integration. The role of GRE: In GRE, packets are wrapped within other packets that use supported protocols, allowing the use of protocols not generally supported by a network. To understand this, consider the difference between a car and a ferry. On land, cars travel on roads, while ferries travel on water. Usually, cars cannot travel on water but can be loaded onto ferries. In this analogy, terrain could be compared to a network that supports specific routing protocols and vehicles to data packets. Similarly, one type of vehicle (the car) is loaded onto a different kind of vehicle (the ferry) to cross terrain it could not otherwise. GRE tunneling: how does it work? GRE tunnels encapsulate packets within other packets. Each router represents the end of the tunnel. GRE packets are exchanged directly between routers. When routers are between forwarding packets, they use headers surrounding them rather than opening the encapsulated packets. Every packet of data sent over a network has the payload and the header. The payload contains the data being sent, while the headers contain information about the source and group of the packet. Each network protocol attaches a header to each packet. Unlike load limits on automobile bridges, data packet sizes are limited by MTU and MSS. An MSS measurement only measures a packet’s payload, not its headers. Including the headers, the MTU measures the total size of a packet. Packets that exceed MTU are fragmented to fit through the network. GRE configuration GRE Operation GRE is a layer three protocol, meaning it works at the IP level of the network. It enables a router to encapsulate packets of a particular protocol and send them to another router, where they are decapsulated and forwarded to their destination. This is useful for tunneling, where data must traverse multiple networks and different types of hardware. GRE encapsulates data in a header containing information about the source, destination, and other routing information. The GRE header is then encapsulated in an IP header containing the source and destination IP addresses. When the packet reaches the destination router, the GRE header is stripped off, and the data is sent to its destination. GRE over IPsec Understanding Multipoint GRE Multipoint GRE, or mGRE, is a tunneling protocol for encapsulating packets and transmitting them over an IP network. It enables virtual point-to-multipoint connections, allowing multiple endpoints to communicate simultaneously. By utilizing a single tunnel interface, mGRE simplifies network configurations and optimizes resource utilization. One of Multipoint GRE’s standout features is its ability to transport multicast and broadcast traffic across multiple sites efficiently. It achieves this through a single tunnel interface, eliminating the need for dedicated point-to-point connections. This scalability and flexibility make mGRE an excellent choice for large-scale deployments and multicast applications. DMVPN, as the name suggests, is a virtual private network technology that dynamically creates VPN connections between multiple sites without needing dedicated point-to-point links. It utilizes a hub-and-spoke architecture, with the hub as the central point for all communication. Using the Next Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP), DMVPN provides a highly scalable and flexible solution for securely interconnecting sites. Multipoint GRE, or mGRE, is a tunneling protocol my DMVPN uses to create point-to-multipoint connections. It allows multiple spokes to communicate directly with each other, bypassing the hub. By encapsulating packets within GRE headers, mGRE establishes virtual links between spokes, providing a flexible and efficient method of data transmission.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== Please summarize all of the major points in this article. Describe and explain the differences between the various protocols. Make sure to define them in relation to each other and the concepts discussed in the article so I can understand them better. {passage 0} ========== Point-to-Point Generic Routing Encapsulation over IP Security Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is a widely used encapsulation protocol in computer networking. It allows the transmission of diverse network protocols over an IP network infrastructure. In this blog post, we'll delve into the details of the GRE and its significance in modern networking. GRE acts as a tunneling protocol, encapsulating packets from one network protocol within another. By creating a virtual point-to-point link, it facilitates the transmission of data across different network domains. This enables the interconnection of disparate networks, making GRE a crucial tool for securely building virtual private networks (VPNs) and connecting remote sites. P2P GRE is a tunneling protocol that allows the encapsulation of various network layer protocols within IP packets. It provides a secure and reliable method of transmitting data between two points in a network. By encapsulating packets in IP headers, P2P GRE ensures data integrity and confidentiality. IP Security (IPsec) plays a crucial role in enhancing the security of P2P GRE tunnels. By leveraging cryptographic algorithms, IPsec provides authentication, integrity, and confidentiality of data transmitted over the network. It establishes a secure channel between two endpoints, ensuring that data remains protected from unauthorized access and tampering. Enhanced Network Security: P2P GRE over IP Security offers a robust security solution for organizations by providing secure communication channels across public and private networks. It allows for the establishment of secure connections between geographically dispersed locations, ensuring the confidentiality of sensitive data. Improved Network Performance: P2P GRE over IP Security optimizes network performance by encapsulating and routing packets efficiently. It enables the transmission of data across different network topologies, reducing network congestion and enhancing overall network efficiency. Seamless Integration with Existing Infrastructures: One of the key advantages of P2P GRE over IP Security is its compatibility with existing network infrastructures. It can be seamlessly integrated into existing networks without the need for significant architectural changes, making it a cost-effective solution for organizations. Security Measures: Implementing P2P GRE over IP Security requires careful consideration of security measures. Organizations should ensure that strong encryption algorithms are utilized, proper key management practices are in place, and regular security audits are conducted to maintain the integrity of the network. Scalability and Performance Optimization: To ensure optimal performance, network administrators should carefully plan and configure the P2P GRE tunnels. Factors such as bandwidth allocation, traffic prioritization, and Quality of Service (QoS) settings should be taken into account to guarantee the efficient operation of the network. Generic Tunnelling Understanding P2P GRE & IPSec P2P GRE is a tunneling protocol that allows the encapsulation of different network protocols within an IP network. It provides a secure and efficient mechanism for transmitting data between two network endpoints. By encapsulating packets, P2P GRE ensures that information is protected from external threats and remains intact during transmission. IPsec, on the other hand, is a suite of protocols that provides security services at the IP layer. It offers authentication, confidentiality, and integrity to IP packets, ensuring that data remains secure even when traversing untrusted networks. IPsec can be combined with P2P GRE to create a robust and secure communication channel. The combination of P2P GRE and IPsec brings several benefits to network administrators and organizations. Firstly, it enables secure communication between geographically dispersed networks, allowing for seamless connectivity. Additionally, P2P GRE over IPsec provides strong encryption, ensuring the confidentiality of sensitive data. It also allows for the creation of virtual private networks (VPNs), offering a secure and private network environment. P2P GRE over IPsec finds applications in various scenarios. One common use case is connecting branch offices of an organization securely. By establishing a P2P GRE over IPsec tunnel between different locations, organizations can create a secure network environment for their remote sites. Another use case is securely connecting cloud resources to on-premises infrastructure, enabling secure and seamless integration. The role of GRE: In GRE, packets are wrapped within other packets that use supported protocols, allowing the use of protocols not generally supported by a network. To understand this, consider the difference between a car and a ferry. On land, cars travel on roads, while ferries travel on water. Usually, cars cannot travel on water but can be loaded onto ferries. In this analogy, terrain could be compared to a network that supports specific routing protocols and vehicles to data packets. Similarly, one type of vehicle (the car) is loaded onto a different kind of vehicle (the ferry) to cross terrain it could not otherwise. GRE tunneling: how does it work? GRE tunnels encapsulate packets within other packets. Each router represents the end of the tunnel. GRE packets are exchanged directly between routers. When routers are between forwarding packets, they use headers surrounding them rather than opening the encapsulated packets. Every packet of data sent over a network has the payload and the header. The payload contains the data being sent, while the headers contain information about the source and group of the packet. Each network protocol attaches a header to each packet. Unlike load limits on automobile bridges, data packet sizes are limited by MTU and MSS. An MSS measurement only measures a packet’s payload, not its headers. Including the headers, the MTU measures the total size of a packet. Packets that exceed MTU are fragmented to fit through the network. GRE configuration GRE Operation GRE is a layer three protocol, meaning it works at the IP level of the network. It enables a router to encapsulate packets of a particular protocol and send them to another router, where they are decapsulated and forwarded to their destination. This is useful for tunneling, where data must traverse multiple networks and different types of hardware. GRE encapsulates data in a header containing information about the source, destination, and other routing information. The GRE header is then encapsulated in an IP header containing the source and destination IP addresses. When the packet reaches the destination router, the GRE header is stripped off, and the data is sent to its destination. GRE over IPsec Understanding Multipoint GRE Multipoint GRE, or mGRE, is a tunneling protocol for encapsulating packets and transmitting them over an IP network. It enables virtual point-to-multipoint connections, allowing multiple endpoints to communicate simultaneously. By utilizing a single tunnel interface, mGRE simplifies network configurations and optimizes resource utilization. One of Multipoint GRE’s standout features is its ability to transport multicast and broadcast traffic across multiple sites efficiently. It achieves this through a single tunnel interface, eliminating the need for dedicated point-to-point connections. This scalability and flexibility make mGRE an excellent choice for large-scale deployments and multicast applications. DMVPN, as the name suggests, is a virtual private network technology that dynamically creates VPN connections between multiple sites without needing dedicated point-to-point links. It utilizes a hub-and-spoke architecture, with the hub as the central point for all communication. Using the Next Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP), DMVPN provides a highly scalable and flexible solution for securely interconnecting sites. Multipoint GRE, or mGRE, is a tunneling protocol my DMVPN uses to create point-to-multipoint connections. It allows multiple spokes to communicate directly with each other, bypassing the hub. By encapsulating packets within GRE headers, mGRE establishes virtual links between spokes, providing a flexible and efficient method of data transmission. https://network-insight.net/2014/12/15/point-to-point-generic-routing-encapsulation-gre-over-ip-security-ipsec/

[question] [user request] ===================== [text] [context document] ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

Summarize the user's primary intent for the article and give evidence. How does the expiration of this Act affect me if I make less than 400,000 as a couple business owner?

Crapo Statement at Hearing on the 2025 Tax Policy Debate Washington, D.C.--U.S. Senate Finance Committee Ranking Member Mike Crapo (R-Idaho) delivered the following remarks at a hearing entitled, “The 2025 Tax Policy Debate and Tax Avoidance Strategies.” As prepared for delivery: “Thank you, Mr. Chairman. This hearing is a timely hearing on one of the more critical issues that will face our nation next year and frankly, is facing us right now. “We’ll have an opportunity to talk about the reality of the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA), which is the focus of the debate next year, and what it really does. “The reality, contrary to what is often said by my colleagues on the other side of the aisle, is that the TCJA that was put into place when the Republicans and President Trump controlled the congress, had a massive positive effect on everyone in America. “The economy grew to be the strongest economy, I think, in any of our lifetimes, unemployment was at historic lows, wage growth and job growth was increasing month after month, inflation was at 2 percent rates, and we were moving ahead rapidly and strongly. “Americans today, though, are rightly concerned about rising living costs, slow job growth and an unemployment rate that remains above 4 percent. Not to mention the inflation rate that cumulatively, over just the last three and a half years, is well over 20 percent. “Taxpayers already face too much uncertainty as they look to work, save and invest in this economic environment. And given the litany of tax hike proposals on the table from many of my Democratic colleagues, no area is more uncertain as we head into this election than tax. “When it comes to the 2025 tax policy debate, those proposing all these tax increases continue to avoid a fundamental question: will they allow the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act to expire and inflict multi-trillion-dollar tax hikes on the American people? “Vice President Harris has largely avoided policy specifics and adopted rhetoric about taxing the wealthy and corporations, which ignores the reality of what our current tax code means for middle-income taxpayers. “TCJA lowered tax rates across the board, providing trillions of dollars in tax savings, with middle-income taxpayers receiving the largest proportional benefit of the cuts. “It also doubled the standard deduction, and doubled and expanded the child tax credit, which made the tax code simpler and provided targeted tax relief for the middle class. “If these provisions are allowed to expire, individuals making less than $400,000 per year would face a tax increase at the end of 2025 of more than $2 trillion, breaking the Biden-Harris pledge not to impose tax hikes on the middle class. “And that does not even account for inflation. By the end of this year, that pledge would need to be increased to nearly $500,000 to account for the crushing inflation that families have experienced under the Biden-Harris Administration. The pledge also ignores the marriage penalty for couples who together make more than $400,000, but who if filing separately would be well below it. “Despite her promise to help those starting businesses, Vice President Harris has also not addressed the 20 percent deduction for pass-throughs—the chosen business form for 95 percent of American businesses. Small business owners have repeatedly said extending this deduction is their top priority, stressing that it enables them to create new jobs, pay their employees more and reinvest in their businesses. “Unless Congress moves to extend these provisions by the end of next year, taxpayers would face the largest tax increase in U.S. history. “Despite critics’ rhetoric that the TCJA was simply a ‘tax break for billionaires,’ the law provided a tax break for 80 percent of Americans, and actually limited tax breaks for the wealthy by reducing costly deductions. “For example, the TCJA limited the state and local tax deduction (SALT), effectively a subsidy for many high-income residents in high-tax states like California and New York. “In stark contrast, Senate Democrats pledged as recently as last month to end the cap on SALT, which even the left-leaning Tax Policy Center said would ‘overwhelmingly benefit high income households.’ “By endorsing the Biden budget, Vice President Harris is calling for $5 trillion of tax increases on Americans, which would clearly hit Americans across the income spectrum, and hurt job creators and workers across the country: tax hikes on individuals and families; tax hikes on small business owners, including a top pass-through rate of 44.6 percent, which amounts to a tax increase of more than 50 percent; tax hikes on corporations, and we all know that the burden of the corporate tax is paid by workers, consumers and retirees; tax hikes on savings and investment; and another round of super-sized funding for IRS audits. “Again, these far-left proposals are often presented under the guise of ‘taxing the rich’ and ‘paying one’s fair share.’ “But facts matter. “In fact, the TCJA made the tax code even more progressive, with the share of income taxes paid by high income earners actually increasing, while the bottom 50 percent of earners received the largest reduction in average tax rates. “The Biden-Harris Administration has repeatedly—and falsely—claimed that the federal tax rate for high-income earners is only 8 percent, but the Joint Committee on Taxation recently confirmed their average rate is quadruple that amount, at 34 percent. “As this Committee considers tax policy in the year ahead, the American people deserve more than empty platitudes and $5 trillion in tax hike proposals that even a fully Democrat Congress could not pass. “They deserve careful deliberation of policies that will provide economic growth, tax certainty and opportunities for all Americans. “I am committed to helping all hardworking taxpayers get ahead and I will work with anyone, from either party, who is ready to focus on that priority. “We have an excellent panel before us today. “Thank you all for being here. I look forward to hearing your testimony.”

[question] Summarize the user's primary intent for the article and give evidence. How does the expiration of this Act affect me if I make less than 400,000 as a couple business owner? ===================== [text] Crapo Statement at Hearing on the 2025 Tax Policy Debate Washington, D.C.--U.S. Senate Finance Committee Ranking Member Mike Crapo (R-Idaho) delivered the following remarks at a hearing entitled, “The 2025 Tax Policy Debate and Tax Avoidance Strategies.” As prepared for delivery: “Thank you, Mr. Chairman. This hearing is a timely hearing on one of the more critical issues that will face our nation next year and frankly, is facing us right now. “We’ll have an opportunity to talk about the reality of the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA), which is the focus of the debate next year, and what it really does. “The reality, contrary to what is often said by my colleagues on the other side of the aisle, is that the TCJA that was put into place when the Republicans and President Trump controlled the congress, had a massive positive effect on everyone in America. “The economy grew to be the strongest economy, I think, in any of our lifetimes, unemployment was at historic lows, wage growth and job growth was increasing month after month, inflation was at 2 percent rates, and we were moving ahead rapidly and strongly. “Americans today, though, are rightly concerned about rising living costs, slow job growth and an unemployment rate that remains above 4 percent. Not to mention the inflation rate that cumulatively, over just the last three and a half years, is well over 20 percent. “Taxpayers already face too much uncertainty as they look to work, save and invest in this economic environment. And given the litany of tax hike proposals on the table from many of my Democratic colleagues, no area is more uncertain as we head into this election than tax. “When it comes to the 2025 tax policy debate, those proposing all these tax increases continue to avoid a fundamental question: will they allow the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act to expire and inflict multi-trillion-dollar tax hikes on the American people? “Vice President Harris has largely avoided policy specifics and adopted rhetoric about taxing the wealthy and corporations, which ignores the reality of what our current tax code means for middle-income taxpayers. “TCJA lowered tax rates across the board, providing trillions of dollars in tax savings, with middle-income taxpayers receiving the largest proportional benefit of the cuts. “It also doubled the standard deduction, and doubled and expanded the child tax credit, which made the tax code simpler and provided targeted tax relief for the middle class. “If these provisions are allowed to expire, individuals making less than $400,000 per year would face a tax increase at the end of 2025 of more than $2 trillion, breaking the Biden-Harris pledge not to impose tax hikes on the middle class. “And that does not even account for inflation. By the end of this year, that pledge would need to be increased to nearly $500,000 to account for the crushing inflation that families have experienced under the Biden-Harris Administration. The pledge also ignores the marriage penalty for couples who together make more than $400,000, but who if filing separately would be well below it. “Despite her promise to help those starting businesses, Vice President Harris has also not addressed the 20 percent deduction for pass-throughs—the chosen business form for 95 percent of American businesses. Small business owners have repeatedly said extending this deduction is their top priority, stressing that it enables them to create new jobs, pay their employees more and reinvest in their businesses. “Unless Congress moves to extend these provisions by the end of next year, taxpayers would face the largest tax increase in U.S. history. “Despite critics’ rhetoric that the TCJA was simply a ‘tax break for billionaires,’ the law provided a tax break for 80 percent of Americans, and actually limited tax breaks for the wealthy by reducing costly deductions. “For example, the TCJA limited the state and local tax deduction (SALT), effectively a subsidy for many high-income residents in high-tax states like California and New York. “In stark contrast, Senate Democrats pledged as recently as last month to end the cap on SALT, which even the left-leaning Tax Policy Center said would ‘overwhelmingly benefit high income households.’ “By endorsing the Biden budget, Vice President Harris is calling for $5 trillion of tax increases on Americans, which would clearly hit Americans across the income spectrum, and hurt job creators and workers across the country: tax hikes on individuals and families; tax hikes on small business owners, including a top pass-through rate of 44.6 percent, which amounts to a tax increase of more than 50 percent; tax hikes on corporations, and we all know that the burden of the corporate tax is paid by workers, consumers and retirees; tax hikes on savings and investment; and another round of super-sized funding for IRS audits. “Again, these far-left proposals are often presented under the guise of ‘taxing the rich’ and ‘paying one’s fair share.’ “But facts matter. “In fact, the TCJA made the tax code even more progressive, with the share of income taxes paid by high income earners actually increasing, while the bottom 50 percent of earners received the largest reduction in average tax rates. “The Biden-Harris Administration has repeatedly—and falsely—claimed that the federal tax rate for high-income earners is only 8 percent, but the Joint Committee on Taxation recently confirmed their average rate is quadruple that amount, at 34 percent. “As this Committee considers tax policy in the year ahead, the American people deserve more than empty platitudes and $5 trillion in tax hike proposals that even a fully Democrat Congress could not pass. “They deserve careful deliberation of policies that will provide economic growth, tax certainty and opportunities for all Americans. “I am committed to helping all hardworking taxpayers get ahead and I will work with anyone, from either party, who is ready to focus on that priority. “We have an excellent panel before us today. “Thank you all for being here. I look forward to hearing your testimony.” https://www.finance.senate.gov/ranking-members-news/crapo-statement-at-hearing-on-the-2025-tax-policy-debate ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> [user request] <TEXT> [context document]

I want to sell put credit spreads on Apple to start making passive income but I don't want to own the stock. Based on this article, explain in 500 words if this strategy would truly have defined risk and prevented me from being assigned shares.

In the money or out of the money? The buyer ("owner") of an option has the right, but not the obligation, to exercise the option on or before expiration. A call option5 gives the owner the right to buy the underlying security; a put option6 gives the owner the right to sell the underlying security. Conversely, when you sell an option, you may be assigned—at any time regardless of the ITM amount—if the option owner chooses to exercise. The option seller has no control over assignment and no certainty as to when it could happen. Once the assignment notice is delivered, it's too late to close the position and the option seller must fulfill the terms of the options contract: A long call exercise results in buying the underlying stock at the strike price. A short call assignment results in selling the underlying stock at the strike price. A long put exercise results in selling the underlying stock at the strike price. A short put assignment results in buying the underlying stock at the strike price. An option will likely be exercised if it's in the option owner's best interest to do so, meaning it's optimal to take or to close a position in the underlying security at the strike price rather than at the current market price. After the market close on expiration day, ITM options may be automatically exercised, whereas OTM options are not and typically expire worthless (often referred to as being "abandoned"). The table below spells it out. If the underlying stock price is... ...higher than the strike price ...lower than the strike price If the underlying stock price is... A long call is... ...higher than the strike price ...ITM and typically exercised ...lower than the strike price ...OTM and typically abandoned If the underlying stock price is... A short call is... ...higher than the strike price ...ITM and typically assigned ...lower than the strike price ...OTM and typically abandoned If the underlying stock price is... A long put is... ...higher than the strike price ...OTM and typically abandoned ...lower than the strike price ...ITM and typically exercised If the underlying stock price is... A short put is... ...higher than the strike price ...OTM and typically abandoned ...lower than the strike price ...ITM and typically assigned The guidelines in the table assume a position is held all the way through expiration. Of course, you typically don't need to do that. And in many cases, the usual strategy is to close out a position ahead of the expiration date. We'll revisit the close-or-hold decision in the next section and look at ways to do that. But assuming you do carry the options position until the end, there are a few things you need to consider: Know your specs. Each standard equity options contract controls 100 shares of the underlying stock. That's pretty straightforward. Non-standard options may have different deliverables. Non-standard options can represent a different number of shares, shares of more than one company stock, or underlying shares and cash. Other products—such as index options or options on futures—have different contract specs. Stock and options positions will match and close. Suppose you're long 300 shares of XYZ and short one ITM call that's assigned. Because the call is deliverable into 100 shares, you'll be left with 200 shares of XYZ if the option is assigned, plus the cash from selling 100 shares at the strike price. It's automatic, for the most part. If an option is ITM by as little as $0.01 at expiration, it will automatically be exercised for the buyer and assigned to a seller. However, there's something called a do not exercise (DNE) request that a long option holder can submit if they want to abandon an option. In such a case, it's possible that a short ITM position might not be assigned. For more, see the note below on pin risk7? You'd better have enough cash. If an option on XYZ is exercised or assigned and you are "uncovered" (you don't have an existing long or short position in the underlying security), a long or short position in the underlying stock will replace the options. A long call or short put will result in a long position in XYZ; a short call or long put will result in a short position in XYZ. For long stock positions, you need to have enough cash to cover the purchase or else you'll be issued a margin8 call, which you must meet by adding funds to your account. But that timeline may be short, and the broker, at its discretion, has the right to liquidate positions in your account to meet a margin call9. If exercise or assignment involves taking a short stock position, you need a margin account and sufficient funds in the account to cover the margin requirement. Short equity positions are risky business. An uncovered short call or long put, if assigned or exercised, will result in a short stock position. If you're short a stock, you have potentially unlimited risk because there's theoretically no limit to the potential price increase of the underlying stock. There's also no guarantee the brokerage firm can continue to maintain that short position for an unlimited time period. So, if you're a newbie, it's generally inadvisable to carry an options position into expiration if there's a chance you might end up with a short stock position. A note on pin risk: It's not common, but occasionally a stock settles right on a strike price at expiration. So, if you were short the 105-strike calls and XYZ settled at exactly $105, there would be no automatic assignment, but depending on the actions taken by the option holder, you may or may not be assigned—and you may not be able to trade out of any unwanted positions until the next business day. But it goes beyond the exact price issue. What if an option is ITM as of the market close, but news comes out after the close (but before the exercise decision deadline) that sends the stock price up or down through the strike price? Remember: The owner of the option could submit a DNE request. The uncertainty and potential exposure when a stock price and the strike price are the same at expiration is called pin risk. The best way to avoid it is to close the position before expiration. The decision tree: How to approach expiration As expiration approaches, you have three choices. Depending on the circumstances—and your objectives and risk tolerance—any of these might be the best decision for you. 1. Let the chips fall where they may. Some positions may not require as much maintenance. An options position that's deeply OTM will likely go away on its own, but occasionally an option that's been left for dead springs back to life. If it's a long option, the unexpected turn of events might feel like a windfall; if it's a short option that could've been closed out for a penny or two, you might be kicking yourself for not doing so. 2. Close it out. If you've met your objectives for a trade, then it might be time to close it out. Otherwise, you might be exposed to risks that aren't commensurate with any added return potential (like the short option that could've been closed out for next to nothing, then suddenly came back into play). Keep in mind, there is no guarantee that there will be an active market for an options contract, so it is possible to end up stuck and unable to close an options position.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> I want to sell put credit spreads on Apple to start making passive income but I don't want to own the stock. Based on this article, explain in 500 words if this strategy would truly have defined risk and prevented me from being assigned shares. <TEXT> In the money or out of the money? The buyer ("owner") of an option has the right, but not the obligation, to exercise the option on or before expiration. A call option5 gives the owner the right to buy the underlying security; a put option6 gives the owner the right to sell the underlying security. Conversely, when you sell an option, you may be assigned—at any time regardless of the ITM amount—if the option owner chooses to exercise. The option seller has no control over assignment and no certainty as to when it could happen. Once the assignment notice is delivered, it's too late to close the position and the option seller must fulfill the terms of the options contract: A long call exercise results in buying the underlying stock at the strike price. A short call assignment results in selling the underlying stock at the strike price. A long put exercise results in selling the underlying stock at the strike price. A short put assignment results in buying the underlying stock at the strike price. An option will likely be exercised if it's in the option owner's best interest to do so, meaning it's optimal to take or to close a position in the underlying security at the strike price rather than at the current market price. After the market close on expiration day, ITM options may be automatically exercised, whereas OTM options are not and typically expire worthless (often referred to as being "abandoned"). The table below spells it out. If the underlying stock price is... ...higher than the strike price ...lower than the strike price If the underlying stock price is... A long call is... ...higher than the strike price ...ITM and typically exercised ...lower than the strike price ...OTM and typically abandoned If the underlying stock price is... A short call is... ...higher than the strike price ...ITM and typically assigned ...lower than the strike price ...OTM and typically abandoned If the underlying stock price is... A long put is... ...higher than the strike price ...OTM and typically abandoned ...lower than the strike price ...ITM and typically exercised If the underlying stock price is... A short put is... ...higher than the strike price ...OTM and typically abandoned ...lower than the strike price ...ITM and typically assigned The guidelines in the table assume a position is held all the way through expiration. Of course, you typically don't need to do that. And in many cases, the usual strategy is to close out a position ahead of the expiration date. We'll revisit the close-or-hold decision in the next section and look at ways to do that. But assuming you do carry the options position until the end, there are a few things you need to consider: Know your specs. Each standard equity options contract controls 100 shares of the underlying stock. That's pretty straightforward. Non-standard options may have different deliverables. Non-standard options can represent a different number of shares, shares of more than one company stock, or underlying shares and cash. Other products—such as index options or options on futures—have different contract specs. Stock and options positions will match and close. Suppose you're long 300 shares of XYZ and short one ITM call that's assigned. Because the call is deliverable into 100 shares, you'll be left with 200 shares of XYZ if the option is assigned, plus the cash from selling 100 shares at the strike price. It's automatic, for the most part. If an option is ITM by as little as $0.01 at expiration, it will automatically be exercised for the buyer and assigned to a seller. However, there's something called a do not exercise (DNE) request that a long option holder can submit if they want to abandon an option. In such a case, it's possible that a short ITM position might not be assigned. For more, see the note below on pin risk7? You'd better have enough cash. If an option on XYZ is exercised or assigned and you are "uncovered" (you don't have an existing long or short position in the underlying security), a long or short position in the underlying stock will replace the options. A long call or short put will result in a long position in XYZ; a short call or long put will result in a short position in XYZ. For long stock positions, you need to have enough cash to cover the purchase or else you'll be issued a margin8 call, which you must meet by adding funds to your account. But that timeline may be short, and the broker, at its discretion, has the right to liquidate positions in your account to meet a margin call9. If exercise or assignment involves taking a short stock position, you need a margin account and sufficient funds in the account to cover the margin requirement. Short equity positions are risky business. An uncovered short call or long put, if assigned or exercised, will result in a short stock position. If you're short a stock, you have potentially unlimited risk because there's theoretically no limit to the potential price increase of the underlying stock. There's also no guarantee the brokerage firm can continue to maintain that short position for an unlimited time period. So, if you're a newbie, it's generally inadvisable to carry an options position into expiration if there's a chance you might end up with a short stock position. A note on pin risk: It's not common, but occasionally a stock settles right on a strike price at expiration. So, if you were short the 105-strike calls and XYZ settled at exactly $105, there would be no automatic assignment, but depending on the actions taken by the option holder, you may or may not be assigned—and you may not be able to trade out of any unwanted positions until the next business day. But it goes beyond the exact price issue. What if an option is ITM as of the market close, but news comes out after the close (but before the exercise decision deadline) that sends the stock price up or down through the strike price? Remember: The owner of the option could submit a DNE request. The uncertainty and potential exposure when a stock price and the strike price are the same at expiration is called pin risk. The best way to avoid it is to close the position before expiration. The decision tree: How to approach expiration As expiration approaches, you have three choices. Depending on the circumstances—and your objectives and risk tolerance—any of these might be the best decision for you. 1. Let the chips fall where they may. Some positions may not require as much maintenance. An options position that's deeply OTM will likely go away on its own, but occasionally an option that's been left for dead springs back to life. If it's a long option, the unexpected turn of events might feel like a windfall; if it's a short option that could've been closed out for a penny or two, you might be kicking yourself for not doing so. 2. Close it out. If you've met your objectives for a trade, then it might be time to close it out. Otherwise, you might be exposed to risks that aren't commensurate with any added return potential (like the short option that could've been closed out for next to nothing, then suddenly came back into play). Keep in mind, there is no guarantee that there will be an active market for an options contract, so it is possible to end up stuck and unable to close an options position. https://www.schwab.com/learn/story/options-exercise-assignment-and-more-beginners-guide

Only use information in the text here when responding.

treatments for types of arthritis?

Types of Arthritis • Peripheral Arthritis. Peripheral arthritis usually affects the large joints of the arms and legs, including the elbows, wrists, knees, and ankles. The discomfort may be “migratory,” moving from one joint to another. If left untreated, the pain may last from a few days to several weeks. Peripheral arthritis tends to be more common among people who have ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease of the colon. The level of inflammation in the joints generally mirrors the extent of inflammation in the colon. Although no specific test can make an absolute diagnosis, various diagnostic methods—including analysis of joint fluid, blood tests, and X-rays—are used to rule out other causes of joint pain. Fortunately, IBD-related peripheral arthritis usually does not cause any lasting damage and treatment of the underlying IBD typically results in improvement in the joint discomfort. • Axial Arthritis. Also known as spondylitis or spondyloarthropathy, axial arthritis produces pain and stiffness in the lower spine and sacroiliac joints (at the bottom of the back). Interestingly, and especially in young people, these symptoms may come on months or even years before the symptoms of IBD appear. Unlike peripheral arthritis, axial arthritis may cause permanent damage if the bones of the vertebral column fuse together—thereby creating decreased range of motion in the back. In some cases, a restriction in rib motion may make it difficult for people to take deep breaths. Active spondylitis generally subsides by age 40. Therapy for people with axial arthritis often includes the use of biologic therapies. Non-medical therapies are geared toward improving range of motion in the back. Stretching exercises are recommended, as is the application of moist heat to the back. Treatment of the underlying IBD is helpful, but generally less effective than in patients with peripheral arthritis. • Ankylosing Spondylitis. A more severe form of spinal arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a rare complication, affecting between 2% and 3% of people with IBD. It is seen more often in Crohn’s disease than in ulcerative colitis. In addition to causing arthritis of the spine and sacroiliac joints, ankylosing spondylitis can cause inflammation of the eyes, lungs, and heart valves. The cause of AS is not known, but most affected individuals share a common genetic marker. In some cases, the disease occurs in genetically susceptible people after exposure to bowel or urinary tract infections. Occasionally, AS foretells the development of IBD. AS typically strikes people under the age of 30, mainly adolescents and young adult males, appearing first as a dramatic loss of flexibility in the lower spine. Rehabilitation therapy is essential to help maintain joint flexibility. But even with optimal therapy, some people will develop a stiff or “ankylosed” spine. Symptoms of AS may continue to worsen even after surgical removal of the colon. It is important to see a rheumatologist when this disease is suspected, as biologic treatments often help reduce complications and joint damage. Diagnosis It is not always easy to determine if the arthritis is linked to the intestinal condition. In general, the arthritis that complicates IBD is not as severe as rheumatoid arthritis. The joints do not ordinarily undergo destructive changes, and joint involvement is not symmetric (affecting the same joints on both sides of the body). Except for ankylosing spondylitis, arthritis associated with IBD usually improves as intestinal symptoms improve. Treatment In the general population, people with peripheral arthritis may use nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain and swelling of the joints. However, as a rule, these medications—which include aspirin and ibuprofen—are not a good option for everyone with IBD because they can irritate the intestinal lining and increase the inflammation. (It should be noted, though, that some people with IBD can tolerate NSAIDs and find these medications helpful in relieving symptoms of arthritis. It is important to discuss medication usage with your doctor.) Corticosteroids also may be used to treat the arthritis symptoms as well as IBD. In most cases, doctors manage the symptoms of peripheral arthritis by controlling the inflammation within the colon. Only axial arthritis seems not to improve as the intestinal inflammation resolves. Once inflammation has decreased, possibly after a course of a medication such as prednisone or sulfasalazine (or other 5-aminosalicylates), joint pain generally disappears. Because they take months to work, the immunomodulators azathioprine and/or 6-mercaptopurine are not used specifically to control joint inflammation. However, the immunomodulator methotrexate can be an effective treatment for IBD-associated joint pain. Similarly, the newer biologic agents such as infliximab (Remicade®), adalimumab (Humira®), and certolizumab (Cimzia®) have all been shown to be very effective in reducing joint inflammation and swelling. Infliximab and adalimumab have even shown good results as a primary treatment for ankylosing spondylitis, preventing joint damage and destruction. In addition to medication, doctors may recommend resting the affected joint, occasional use of moist heat, or range of motion exercises, as demonstrated by a physical therapist.

treatments for types of arthritis? Only use information in the text here when responding. Types of Arthritis • Peripheral Arthritis. Peripheral arthritis usually affects the large joints of the arms and legs, including the elbows, wrists, knees, and ankles. The discomfort may be “migratory,” moving from one joint to another. If left untreated, the pain may last from a few days to several weeks. Peripheral arthritis tends to be more common among people who have ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease of the colon. The level of inflammation in the joints generally mirrors the extent of inflammation in the colon. Although no specific test can make an absolute diagnosis, various diagnostic methods—including analysis of joint fluid, blood tests, and X-rays—are used to rule out other causes of joint pain. Fortunately, IBD-related peripheral arthritis usually does not cause any lasting damage and treatment of the underlying IBD typically results in improvement in the joint discomfort. • Axial Arthritis. Also known as spondylitis or spondyloarthropathy, axial arthritis produces pain and stiffness in the lower spine and sacroiliac joints (at the bottom of the back). Interestingly, and especially in young people, these symptoms may come on months or even years before the symptoms of IBD appear. Unlike peripheral arthritis, axial arthritis may cause permanent damage if the bones of the vertebral column fuse together—thereby creating decreased range of motion in the back. In some cases, a restriction in rib motion may make it difficult for people to take deep breaths. Active spondylitis generally subsides by age 40. Therapy for people with axial arthritis often includes the use of biologic therapies. Non-medical therapies are geared toward improving range of motion in the back. Stretching exercises are recommended, as is the application of moist heat to the back. Treatment of the underlying IBD is helpful, but generally less effective than in patients with peripheral arthritis. • Ankylosing Spondylitis. A more severe form of spinal arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a rare complication, affecting between 2% and 3% of people with IBD. It is seen more often in Crohn’s disease than in ulcerative colitis. In addition to causing arthritis of the spine and sacroiliac joints, ankylosing spondylitis can cause inflammation of the eyes, lungs, and heart valves. The cause of AS is not known, but most affected individuals share a common genetic marker. In some cases, the disease occurs in genetically susceptible people after exposure to bowel or urinary tract infections. Occasionally, AS foretells the development of IBD. AS typically strikes people under the age of 30, mainly adolescents and young adult males, appearing first as a dramatic loss of flexibility in the lower spine. Rehabilitation therapy is essential to help maintain joint flexibility. But even with optimal therapy, some people will develop a stiff or “ankylosed” spine. Symptoms of AS may continue to worsen even after surgical removal of the colon. It is important to see a rheumatologist when this disease is suspected, as biologic treatments often help reduce complications and joint damage. Diagnosis It is not always easy to determine if the arthritis is linked to the intestinal condition. In general, the arthritis that complicates IBD is not as severe as rheumatoid arthritis. The joints do not ordinarily undergo destructive changes, and joint involvement is not symmetric (affecting the same joints on both sides of the body). Except for ankylosing spondylitis, arthritis associated with IBD usually improves as intestinal symptoms improve. Treatment In the general population, people with peripheral arthritis may use nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain and swelling of the joints. However, as a rule, these medications—which include aspirin and ibuprofen—are not a good option for everyone with IBD because they can irritate the intestinal lining and increase the inflammation. (It should be noted, though, that some people with IBD can tolerate NSAIDs and find these medications helpful in relieving symptoms of arthritis. It is important to discuss medication usage with your doctor.) Corticosteroids also may be used to treat the arthritis symptoms as well as IBD. In most cases, doctors manage the symptoms of peripheral arthritis by controlling the inflammation within the colon. Only axial arthritis seems not to improve as the intestinal inflammation resolves. Once inflammation has decreased, possibly after a course of a medication such as prednisone or sulfasalazine (or other 5-aminosalicylates), joint pain generally disappears. Because they take months to work, the immunomodulators azathioprine and/or 6-mercaptopurine are not used specifically to control joint inflammation. However, the immunomodulator methotrexate can be an effective treatment for IBD-associated joint pain. Similarly, the newer biologic agents such as infliximab (Remicade®), adalimumab (Humira®), and certolizumab (Cimzia®) have all been shown to be very effective in reducing joint inflammation and swelling. Infliximab and adalimumab have even shown good results as a primary treatment for ankylosing spondylitis, preventing joint damage and destruction. In addition to medication, doctors may recommend resting the affected joint, occasional use of moist heat, or range of motion exercises, as demonstrated by a physical therapist.

Answer in a full sentence, no less than 50 words, and cite the part of the text that supports your statement.

According to this article, what are the advantages of a Balloon Loan?

**Balloon Payment: What It Is, How It Works** A balloon payment is the final amount due on a loan that is structured as a series of small monthly payments followed by a single much larger sum at the end of the loan period. The early payments may be all or almost all payments of interest owed on the loan, with the balloon payment being the principal of the loan. This type of loan is known as a balloon loan. The balloon home mortgage loan became common in the years before the 2007-2008 financial crisis. It allowed people eager to buy a home to obtain a mortgage payment that they could afford, at least in the early years. The balloon loan did not disappear with the financial crisis but is now more often used for business loans. A project can be financed with a loan that allows for minimal payments early on, with the balloon payment due only when the project is earning a return on the investment. A balloon payment is a type of loan structured so that the last payment is far larger than prior payments. Balloon payments are an option for home mortgages, auto loans, and business loans. Borrowers have lower initial monthly payments under a balloon loan. The interest rate is usually higher for a balloon loan, and only borrowers with high creditworthiness are considered. The balloon payment may be a weighted payment amount or, under an interest-only payment plan, be the full balance of the principal due. Understanding Balloon Payments As the term "balloon" suggests, the final payment on this type of loan is significantly large. In recent years, balloon payments have been more common in commercial lending than in consumer lending. It allows a commercial lender to keep short-term costs lower and take care of the balloon payment with future earnings. The same logic is used by individual homebuyers, but the risks are greater. Homebuyers are keeping their short-term costs low while assuming that their incomes will be far greater when the balloon payment comes due, that they will be able to refinance their mortgage before it is due, or that they can sell the house and pay off the entire mortgage before the balloon payment comes due. That strategy failed in the 2008-2009 financial crisis, when homeowners who financed their purchases with balloon mortgages found it impossible to sell their homes at a price high enough to pay off the amount they had borrowed. Balloon payments are often packaged into two-step mortgages. In this financing structure, a borrower receives an introductory and often lower interest rate at the start of their loan. Then, the loan shifts to a higher interest rate after an initial borrowing period. Balloon Payment Examples A balloon debt structure can be implemented for any type of debt. It's most commonly used in mortgages, auto loans, and business loans. Mortgage The balloon mortgage is rarely used for traditional 15-year or 30-year mortgages since lenders don't want to wait that long to get their money back. For balloon mortgages, lenders prefer a five-year to ten-year term. Interest-only balloon mortgages are available primarily to high-net-worth individuals who can afford large down payments. They are often taken with the intention of refinancing before the balloon payment is due. Balloon Loan vs. ARM A balloon loan is sometimes confused with an adjustable-rate mortgage (ARM). With an ARM, the borrower receives an introductory rate for a set amount of time, usually for one to five years. The interest rate resets at that point and might continue to reset periodically until the loan has been fully repaid. The incentive is a very low-interest rate at the beginning, compared to the fixed-rate mortgage rate. The downside is the potential for a substantially higher rate down the road. Business Loan It is usually easier for a business to secure a balloon loan if the business has a proven financial history and favorable credit record. An established business can be in a better position than an individual wage-earner to raise sufficient money to pay off the balloon payment. For this reason, lenders often consider businesses less risky than individual consumers for business loans. Balloon payments can be strategically used by a business to finance short-term needs. The business may draw on a balloon loan with no intention of holding the debt to the end of the term. Instead, the company can use the money to repay the loan in full before the end of the loan term. Options for Avoiding a Balloon Payment A borrower has a couple of ways to get rid of a looming payment. In addition to extinguishing the debt by paying off the balloon payment, a borrower can: Refinance the loan. A lender may be willing to work with a borrower to repurpose the debt into a different loan vehicle or modify the terms of the original agreement. Sell the underlying asset. If the balloon payment is due to the purchase of an asset, a borrower may be forced to liquidate the holding to avoid defaulting on the loan. Pay principal upfront. Though not required, a borrower may be able to pay a portion of the debt early. Any payment made more than the interest assessment will be applied to the principal balance. Check with your lender to ensure there are no prepayment penalties or fees. Negotiate an extension. Similar to refinancing, an extension changes the terms of the prior loan. However, instead of receiving a new deal, an extension will simply push out the timing of the balloon payment. You'll likely have the same payment terms as before but with different obligation dates. Balloon loans usually require collateral. For home or car loans, the lender may require a lien on the property being purchased. Should you default on your loan and not be able to satisfy the balloon payment, the lender has a legal claim to seize the property. Advantages of Balloon Payments The obvious advantage of balloon payments is the low initial payment requirement. The monthly balloon payment amount during the fixed period is generally less than the payment amount of a fully amortized loan. The timing of the payment size may mesh well with the borrower's income expectations. As the borrower's salary increases due to career progression, the debt obligation will rise as well. A balloon note or loan often has a shorter underwriting process compared to other loans. For this reason, there may be lower administrative or transaction fees in securing the loan. A borrower may also not be required to show as much documentation for this type of loan, as balloon mortgages often do not require a home appraisal as part of loan closing. A balloon payment structure is strategically advantageous for some borrowers. For example, people who flip houses can secure lower upfront monthly payments. The borrower has time to remodel the house and sell it before the balloon payment is due. This allows borrowers to preserve future cash flow for other purposes. Disadvantages of Balloon Payments Balloon payments can be a big problem in a falling housing market. As home prices decline, homeowners may be unable to sell their homes for enough to cover the balloon payment, and they might be unable to sell at any price. For home flippers, this means getting stuck with a high-interest rate loan should sales stall. Borrowers often have no choice but to default on their loans and enter foreclosure, regardless of their household incomes, when faced with a balloon payment they cannot afford. This results in the loss of the borrower's home. Some will be able to take out another loan to cover the upcoming balloon mortgage payment, but this puts a tremendous strain on a family's finances. Balloon mortgages and auto loans may be difficult to refinance depending on the amount of equity that has been paid off. The loans may only pay interest early on. In this case, the owner may have little-to-no equity in the property despite making consistent payments for years. These types of loans can be harder to qualify for. Because principal payments are deferred, lenders often prefer borrowers with a high credit score or high down payment. In addition, to compensate for the flexibility of the principal obligation and increased risk for the lender, lenders usually charge higher interest rates for balloon debt compared to other types of loans. What Is a Balloon Payment? A balloon payment is a lump sum principal balance that is due at the end of a loan term. The borrower pays much smaller monthly payments until the balloon payment is due. These payments may be entirely or almost entirely interest on the loan rather than principal. Borrowers are assuming that they can refinance the mortgage or sell the home at a profit before the balloon payment falls due. If the housing market takes an unexpected downturn and their home loses value, that strategy may fail.

[Instructions] ======= Answer in a full sentence, no less than 50 words, and cite the part of the text that supports your statement. [Query] ======= According to this article, what are the advantages of a Balloon Loan? [Context] ======= **Balloon Payment: What It Is, How It Works** A balloon payment is the final amount due on a loan that is structured as a series of small monthly payments followed by a single much larger sum at the end of the loan period. The early payments may be all or almost all payments of interest owed on the loan, with the balloon payment being the principal of the loan. This type of loan is known as a balloon loan. The balloon home mortgage loan became common in the years before the 2007-2008 financial crisis. It allowed people eager to buy a home to obtain a mortgage payment that they could afford, at least in the early years. The balloon loan did not disappear with the financial crisis but is now more often used for business loans. A project can be financed with a loan that allows for minimal payments early on, with the balloon payment due only when the project is earning a return on the investment. A balloon payment is a type of loan structured so that the last payment is far larger than prior payments. Balloon payments are an option for home mortgages, auto loans, and business loans. Borrowers have lower initial monthly payments under a balloon loan. The interest rate is usually higher for a balloon loan, and only borrowers with high creditworthiness are considered. The balloon payment may be a weighted payment amount or, under an interest-only payment plan, be the full balance of the principal due. Understanding Balloon Payments As the term "balloon" suggests, the final payment on this type of loan is significantly large. In recent years, balloon payments have been more common in commercial lending than in consumer lending. It allows a commercial lender to keep short-term costs lower and take care of the balloon payment with future earnings. The same logic is used by individual homebuyers, but the risks are greater. Homebuyers are keeping their short-term costs low while assuming that their incomes will be far greater when the balloon payment comes due, that they will be able to refinance their mortgage before it is due, or that they can sell the house and pay off the entire mortgage before the balloon payment comes due. That strategy failed in the 2008-2009 financial crisis, when homeowners who financed their purchases with balloon mortgages found it impossible to sell their homes at a price high enough to pay off the amount they had borrowed. Balloon payments are often packaged into two-step mortgages. In this financing structure, a borrower receives an introductory and often lower interest rate at the start of their loan. Then, the loan shifts to a higher interest rate after an initial borrowing period. Balloon Payment Examples A balloon debt structure can be implemented for any type of debt. It's most commonly used in mortgages, auto loans, and business loans. Mortgage The balloon mortgage is rarely used for traditional 15-year or 30-year mortgages since lenders don't want to wait that long to get their money back. For balloon mortgages, lenders prefer a five-year to ten-year term. Interest-only balloon mortgages are available primarily to high-net-worth individuals who can afford large down payments. They are often taken with the intention of refinancing before the balloon payment is due. Balloon Loan vs. ARM A balloon loan is sometimes confused with an adjustable-rate mortgage (ARM). With an ARM, the borrower receives an introductory rate for a set amount of time, usually for one to five years. The interest rate resets at that point and might continue to reset periodically until the loan has been fully repaid. The incentive is a very low-interest rate at the beginning, compared to the fixed-rate mortgage rate. The downside is the potential for a substantially higher rate down the road. Business Loan It is usually easier for a business to secure a balloon loan if the business has a proven financial history and favorable credit record. An established business can be in a better position than an individual wage-earner to raise sufficient money to pay off the balloon payment. For this reason, lenders often consider businesses less risky than individual consumers for business loans. Balloon payments can be strategically used by a business to finance short-term needs. The business may draw on a balloon loan with no intention of holding the debt to the end of the term. Instead, the company can use the money to repay the loan in full before the end of the loan term. Options for Avoiding a Balloon Payment A borrower has a couple of ways to get rid of a looming payment. In addition to extinguishing the debt by paying off the balloon payment, a borrower can: Refinance the loan. A lender may be willing to work with a borrower to repurpose the debt into a different loan vehicle or modify the terms of the original agreement. Sell the underlying asset. If the balloon payment is due to the purchase of an asset, a borrower may be forced to liquidate the holding to avoid defaulting on the loan. Pay principal upfront. Though not required, a borrower may be able to pay a portion of the debt early. Any payment made more than the interest assessment will be applied to the principal balance. Check with your lender to ensure there are no prepayment penalties or fees. Negotiate an extension. Similar to refinancing, an extension changes the terms of the prior loan. However, instead of receiving a new deal, an extension will simply push out the timing of the balloon payment. You'll likely have the same payment terms as before but with different obligation dates. Balloon loans usually require collateral. For home or car loans, the lender may require a lien on the property being purchased. Should you default on your loan and not be able to satisfy the balloon payment, the lender has a legal claim to seize the property. Advantages of Balloon Payments The obvious advantage of balloon payments is the low initial payment requirement. The monthly balloon payment amount during the fixed period is generally less than the payment amount of a fully amortized loan. The timing of the payment size may mesh well with the borrower's income expectations. As the borrower's salary increases due to career progression, the debt obligation will rise as well. A balloon note or loan often has a shorter underwriting process compared to other loans. For this reason, there may be lower administrative or transaction fees in securing the loan. A borrower may also not be required to show as much documentation for this type of loan, as balloon mortgages often do not require a home appraisal as part of loan closing. A balloon payment structure is strategically advantageous for some borrowers. For example, people who flip houses can secure lower upfront monthly payments. The borrower has time to remodel the house and sell it before the balloon payment is due. This allows borrowers to preserve future cash flow for other purposes. Disadvantages of Balloon Payments Balloon payments can be a big problem in a falling housing market. As home prices decline, homeowners may be unable to sell their homes for enough to cover the balloon payment, and they might be unable to sell at any price. For home flippers, this means getting stuck with a high-interest rate loan should sales stall. Borrowers often have no choice but to default on their loans and enter foreclosure, regardless of their household incomes, when faced with a balloon payment they cannot afford. This results in the loss of the borrower's home. Some will be able to take out another loan to cover the upcoming balloon mortgage payment, but this puts a tremendous strain on a family's finances. Balloon mortgages and auto loans may be difficult to refinance depending on the amount of equity that has been paid off. The loans may only pay interest early on. In this case, the owner may have little-to-no equity in the property despite making consistent payments for years. These types of loans can be harder to qualify for. Because principal payments are deferred, lenders often prefer borrowers with a high credit score or high down payment. In addition, to compensate for the flexibility of the principal obligation and increased risk for the lender, lenders usually charge higher interest rates for balloon debt compared to other types of loans. What Is a Balloon Payment? A balloon payment is a lump sum principal balance that is due at the end of a loan term. The borrower pays much smaller monthly payments until the balloon payment is due. These payments may be entirely or almost entirely interest on the loan rather than principal. Borrowers are assuming that they can refinance the mortgage or sell the home at a profit before the balloon payment falls due. If the housing market takes an unexpected downturn and their home loses value, that strategy may fail.

You must respond using only information contained in the prompt and provided provided text. Answer with a header followed by bullet points.

What are some exercises for initial strengthening during latarjet recovery?

P a g e 1 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. PHYSICAL THERAPY PROTOCOL AFTER LATARJET PROCEDURE: The intent of this protocol is to provide the clinician with a guideline of the postoperative rehabilitation course of a patient that has undergone an open Latarjet procedure. It is no means intended to be a substitute for one’s clinical decision making regarding the progression of a patient’s post-operative course based on their physical exam/findings, individual progress, and/or the presence of postoperative complications. If a clinician requires assistance in the progression of a postoperative patient, they should consult with the referring Surgeon. Depending on the intraoperatively determined bone quality of the bone block, the surgeon defines in the operative report when pendulum exercises, passive range of motion (PROM), active range of motion (AROM) may be started. Accordingly, the postoperative protocol is defined individually for each patient by the surgeon and recorded in the operation report. P a g e 2 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. Phase I – Immediate Post-Surgical Phase (Week 1-4): Goals: • Protect the integrity of the surgical repair • Achieve gradual restoration of passive range of motion (PROM) • Enhance/ensure adequate scapular function Precautions: • No active range of motion (AROM) of Shoulder • Maintain arm in sling, remove only for exercise for elbow, wrist and fingers, only removing for showering. Shower with arm held at side • No lifting of objects • No shoulder motion behind back • No excessive stretching or sudden movements • No supporting of body weight by hands • Keep incision clean and dry • Patient education regarding limited use of upper extremity despite the potential lack of or minimal pain or other symptoms DAY 1 TO 6: • Abduction brace or pillow / sling except when performing distal upper extremity exercises. Begin restoring AROM of elbow/wrist/hand of operative extremity • Sleep in brace or pillow / sling • Scapular clock exercises progressed to scapular isometric exercises • Ball squeezes • Cryotherapy for pain and inflammation -Day 1-2: as much as possible -Day 3-6: post activity, or for pain, or for comfort (IMPORTANT: USE TOWEL TO PROTECT SKIN AND PAUSE CRYOTHERAPY AT LEAST FOR 20 MIN/HOUR TO PREVENT FROSTBITES) P a g e 3 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. DAY 7 TO 28: • Continue use of brace/ pillow / sling • Continue Elbow, wrist, and finger AROM / resisted • Begin shoulder PROM (do not force any painful motion) in first two weeks or as directed by surgeon • Forward flexion and elevation to tolerance • Abduction in the plane of the scapula to tolerance • Internal rotation (IR) to 45 degrees at 30 degrees of abduction • External rotation (ER) in the plane of the scapula from 0-25 degrees or as directed by surgeon; begin at 30- 40 degrees of abduction; respect anterior capsule tissue integrity with ER range of motion; seek guidance from intraoperative measurements of external rotation ROM • Active and manual scapula strengthening exercises: Exercises: shoulder shrug and roll • Pendulum Exercises: (start of pendulum exercises is defined by the surgeon in the OR report. Do not start pendulum exercises if the operation report states that pendulum exercises should be started from the 6th or 8th postoperative week.). pendulum exercises • Start passive ROM (PROM): The PROM exercises should be supervised by the physiotherapist during the first session. In addition, the PROM home exercises should be trained by the physiotherapist. (start of passive ROM is defined by the surgeon in the OR report. Do not start PROM exercises if the operation report states that PROM exercises should be started from the 6th or 8th postoperative week). P a g e 4 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. Phase II – Intermediate Phase (Week 5-8): Goals: • Do not overstress healing tissue • Discontinue brace / sling at end of week 6 • Gradually start active range of motion • Initiate active assisted range of motion (AAROM) under guidance of physical therapy: • Begin light waist level activities Precautions: • No active movement of shoulder till adequate PROM with good mechanics • No lifting with affected upper extremity • No excessive external rotation ROM / stretching. seek guidance from intraoperative measurements of external rotation ROM) • Do not perform activities or strengthening exercises that place an excessive load on the anterior capsule of the shoulder joint (i.e. no pushups, pec fly, etc..) • Do not perform scaption with internal rotation (empty can) during any stage of rehabilitation due to the possibility of impingement • Continued patient education: posture, joint protection, positioning, hygiene, etc. Exercises: 1. flexion in supine position 2. sitting assisted forward reach (elevation) 3. standing wall-assisted forward flexion 4. Cane-Assisted External Rotation at 20 degrees, 45 degrees abduction 5. Doorway Standing External Rotation 6. Scapular plane Abduction to Tolerance 7. Active Range of Motion Forward Flexion in the Scapular Plane 8. Active Range Of Motion External Rotation in Multiple Positions: Side-Lying or Sitting P a g e 5 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. Phase III – strengthening phase (week 9-12): Goal: • Maintain Full AROM and Maintain Full PROM • Gradual restoration of shoulder strength, power, and endurance (Elastic bands) •Gradual return to functional activities Precautions: • No heavy lifting of objects (no heavier than 5 lbs.) • No sudden lifting or pushing activities • No sudden jerking motions • No heavy lifting of objects (no heavier than 5 lbs.) • No sudden lifting or pushing activities • No sudden jerking motions Start of strengthening with elastic bands and light weights is defined by the surgeon in the OR report. Do not start strengthening if the operation report states that strengthening should be started later. In patients with poor bone quality, strengthening is occasionally started later. Exercises: 1. Active Range of Motion External Rotation with Band Strengthening 2. Active Range of Motion Internal Rotation with Band Strengthening 3. Row with Resistance Band 4. Towel/Hand-assisted Internal Rotation Stretch 5. Side lying Internal Rotation Stretch at 70 and 90 Degrees 6. Cross-Body Stretch 7. Water (pool) therapy Standing in water with float under arm, lower body into water to help stretch into flexion 8. Standing in water with float under arm, lower body to side to help with external rotation P a g e 6 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. Phase IV Advanced strengthening phase (week 13- 22): About 12 weeks postoperatively, a CT scan is performed to determine whether the bone block has healed. Depending on the findings, the surgeon will decide whether to move on to phase IV. Goals: • Maintain full non-painful active ROM • Advance conditioning exercises for Enhanced functional use of UE • Improve muscular strength, power, and endurance (light weights) • Gradual return to full functional activities • Continue to perform ROM stretching, if motion is not complete Exercises: • Side-lying External Rotation with Towel • Full Can in the Scapular Plane • Prone Scaption • Diagonal • Dynamic Hug • Internal Rotation at 90 Degrees Abduction • Forward Band Punch • Sitting Supported External Rotation at 90 Degrees • Standing Unsupported External Rotation at 90 Degrees • Biceps Curl Phase V – Return to activity phase (week 23): Goals: • Gradual return to strenuous work activities • Gradual return to recreational activities • Gradual return to sport activities • Continue strengthening and stretching • Continue stretching, if motion is tight • May initiate interval sport program

What are some exercises for initial strengthening during latarjet recovery? You must respond using only information contained in the prompt and provided provided text. Answer with a header followed by bullet points. P a g e 1 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. PHYSICAL THERAPY PROTOCOL AFTER LATARJET PROCEDURE: The intent of this protocol is to provide the clinician with a guideline of the postoperative rehabilitation course of a patient that has undergone an open Latarjet procedure. It is no means intended to be a substitute for one’s clinical decision making regarding the progression of a patient’s post-operative course based on their physical exam/findings, individual progress, and/or the presence of postoperative complications. If a clinician requires assistance in the progression of a postoperative patient, they should consult with the referring Surgeon. Depending on the intraoperatively determined bone quality of the bone block, the surgeon defines in the operative report when pendulum exercises, passive range of motion (PROM), active range of motion (AROM) may be started. Accordingly, the postoperative protocol is defined individually for each patient by the surgeon and recorded in the operation report. P a g e 2 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. Phase I – Immediate Post-Surgical Phase (Week 1-4): Goals: • Protect the integrity of the surgical repair • Achieve gradual restoration of passive range of motion (PROM) • Enhance/ensure adequate scapular function Precautions: • No active range of motion (AROM) of Shoulder • Maintain arm in sling, remove only for exercise for elbow, wrist and fingers, only removing for showering. Shower with arm held at side • No lifting of objects • No shoulder motion behind back • No excessive stretching or sudden movements • No supporting of body weight by hands • Keep incision clean and dry • Patient education regarding limited use of upper extremity despite the potential lack of or minimal pain or other symptoms DAY 1 TO 6: • Abduction brace or pillow / sling except when performing distal upper extremity exercises. Begin restoring AROM of elbow/wrist/hand of operative extremity • Sleep in brace or pillow / sling • Scapular clock exercises progressed to scapular isometric exercises • Ball squeezes • Cryotherapy for pain and inflammation -Day 1-2: as much as possible -Day 3-6: post activity, or for pain, or for comfort (IMPORTANT: USE TOWEL TO PROTECT SKIN AND PAUSE CRYOTHERAPY AT LEAST FOR 20 MIN/HOUR TO PREVENT FROSTBITES) P a g e 3 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. DAY 7 TO 28: • Continue use of brace/ pillow / sling • Continue Elbow, wrist, and finger AROM / resisted • Begin shoulder PROM (do not force any painful motion) in first two weeks or as directed by surgeon • Forward flexion and elevation to tolerance • Abduction in the plane of the scapula to tolerance • Internal rotation (IR) to 45 degrees at 30 degrees of abduction • External rotation (ER) in the plane of the scapula from 0-25 degrees or as directed by surgeon; begin at 30- 40 degrees of abduction; respect anterior capsule tissue integrity with ER range of motion; seek guidance from intraoperative measurements of external rotation ROM • Active and manual scapula strengthening exercises: Exercises: shoulder shrug and roll • Pendulum Exercises: (start of pendulum exercises is defined by the surgeon in the OR report. Do not start pendulum exercises if the operation report states that pendulum exercises should be started from the 6th or 8th postoperative week.). pendulum exercises • Start passive ROM (PROM): The PROM exercises should be supervised by the physiotherapist during the first session. In addition, the PROM home exercises should be trained by the physiotherapist. (start of passive ROM is defined by the surgeon in the OR report. Do not start PROM exercises if the operation report states that PROM exercises should be started from the 6th or 8th postoperative week). P a g e 4 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. Phase II – Intermediate Phase (Week 5-8): Goals: • Do not overstress healing tissue • Discontinue brace / sling at end of week 6 • Gradually start active range of motion • Initiate active assisted range of motion (AAROM) under guidance of physical therapy: • Begin light waist level activities Precautions: • No active movement of shoulder till adequate PROM with good mechanics • No lifting with affected upper extremity • No excessive external rotation ROM / stretching. seek guidance from intraoperative measurements of external rotation ROM) • Do not perform activities or strengthening exercises that place an excessive load on the anterior capsule of the shoulder joint (i.e. no pushups, pec fly, etc..) • Do not perform scaption with internal rotation (empty can) during any stage of rehabilitation due to the possibility of impingement • Continued patient education: posture, joint protection, positioning, hygiene, etc. Exercises: 1. flexion in supine position 2. sitting assisted forward reach (elevation) 3. standing wall-assisted forward flexion 4. Cane-Assisted External Rotation at 20 degrees, 45 degrees abduction 5. Doorway Standing External Rotation 6. Scapular plane Abduction to Tolerance 7. Active Range of Motion Forward Flexion in the Scapular Plane 8. Active Range Of Motion External Rotation in Multiple Positions: Side-Lying or Sitting P a g e 5 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. Phase III – strengthening phase (week 9-12): Goal: • Maintain Full AROM and Maintain Full PROM • Gradual restoration of shoulder strength, power, and endurance (Elastic bands) •Gradual return to functional activities Precautions: • No heavy lifting of objects (no heavier than 5 lbs.) • No sudden lifting or pushing activities • No sudden jerking motions • No heavy lifting of objects (no heavier than 5 lbs.) • No sudden lifting or pushing activities • No sudden jerking motions Start of strengthening with elastic bands and light weights is defined by the surgeon in the OR report. Do not start strengthening if the operation report states that strengthening should be started later. In patients with poor bone quality, strengthening is occasionally started later. Exercises: 1. Active Range of Motion External Rotation with Band Strengthening 2. Active Range of Motion Internal Rotation with Band Strengthening 3. Row with Resistance Band 4. Towel/Hand-assisted Internal Rotation Stretch 5. Side lying Internal Rotation Stretch at 70 and 90 Degrees 6. Cross-Body Stretch 7. Water (pool) therapy Standing in water with float under arm, lower body into water to help stretch into flexion 8. Standing in water with float under arm, lower body to side to help with external rotation P a g e 6 | 6 Rehabilitation Protocol after Latarjet: Copyright © 2020 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Shoulder Institute, all rights reserved. Phase IV Advanced strengthening phase (week 13- 22): About 12 weeks postoperatively, a CT scan is performed to determine whether the bone block has healed. Depending on the findings, the surgeon will decide whether to move on to phase IV. Goals: • Maintain full non-painful active ROM • Advance conditioning exercises for Enhanced functional use of UE • Improve muscular strength, power, and endurance (light weights) • Gradual return to full functional activities • Continue to perform ROM stretching, if motion is not complete Exercises: • Side-lying External Rotation with Towel • Full Can in the Scapular Plane • Prone Scaption • Diagonal • Dynamic Hug • Internal Rotation at 90 Degrees Abduction • Forward Band Punch • Sitting Supported External Rotation at 90 Degrees • Standing Unsupported External Rotation at 90 Degrees • Biceps Curl Phase V – Return to activity phase (week 23): Goals: • Gradual return to strenuous work activities • Gradual return to recreational activities • Gradual return to sport activities • Continue strengthening and stretching • Continue stretching, if motion is tight • May initiate interval sport program

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> [user request] <TEXT> [context document]

According to the reference text, how does the criteria for a DUI change when the offending party is a minor? Using only the reference text, what is the criteria for a felony DUI versus a misdemeanor?

First DUI Offense A first offense DUI in California is a misdemeanor typically punished by: ‍Penalties & Fee's: $390.00+‍ License Suspension: 6 - 16 months‍ Jail: Up to 6 Months‍ Alcohol Treatment: 3 Months Confronting a first DUI offense in Los Angeles can be a daunting experience, one that necessitates a nuanced understanding of specific DUI laws. The stakes are notably high; a conviction carries ramifications that can ripple through your personal and professional life. It's crucial to seek the guidance of a seasoned Los Angeles DUI attorney, versed in the intricacies of DUI defense. At The H Law, our legal acumen is geared towards mitigating the penalties that come with a DUI. These penalties often include fines, license suspension, mandatory DUI education programs, and, in some cases, incarceration. Our strategic approach in DUI defense frames a robust representation, crafted to protect your rights and challenge the prosecution's case. In Los Angeles, the law doesn't take DUI lightly, and neither should you. Securing expert legal defense early can significantly alter the outcome of a first Los Angeles DUI offense. Second DUI Offense When convicted of a 2nd DUI in California, the penalties typically imposed by the court are as follows: Penalties & Fee's: $2,000‍ License Suspension: Two years‍ Jail: Minimum of 96 hours‍ Alcohol Treatment: 18-30 months Facing a second DUI charge in Los Angeles can be a profoundly unsettling experience, with the potential for more severe consequences compared to a first offense. The stakes are undeniably higher, as Los Angeles DUI laws prescribe harsher penalties that may include longer jail time, increased fines, mandatory attendance at DUI school, and extended driver's license suspension. Additionally, the imposition of an ignition interlock device (IID) on your vehicle may become a requisite. Here at The H Law, we understand the gravity of a second DUI and the impact it holds over your freedom and future. With our expert DUI attorneys by your side, you can navigate the complex legal landscapes of DUI charges and work tirelessly towards a favorable outcome. Third DUI Offense When convicted of a 3rd Offense DUI in California, the penalties typically imposed by the court are as follows: Penalties & Fee's: $2,500 to $3,000‍ License Suspension: 3-year Revocation‍ Jail: Minimum of 120 days to One year‍ Alcohol Treatment: 30 Months+ Addressing a third DUI offense in Los Angeles carries severe consequences, warranting the astute legal counsel provided by The H Law. With penalties escalating sharply from the first and second offenses, it is paramount to understand the gravity of a third Los Angeles DUI charge. Under California law, a third DUI conviction within a 10-year period can result in significantly increased jail time, stringent probation conditions, and mandatory alcohol programs. Moreover, the financial implications are profound, encompassing steep fines and surcharges, which underscore the necessity of a determined defense strategy. The expertise of The H Law in defending against DUI charges is pivotal; our approach is tailored to navigate the intricacies of DUI laws, ensuring the most favorable outcome possible. Underage DUI Offense When dealing with an underage DUI in Los Angeles, it's crucial to understand the unique aspects of California DUI laws that apply. The state imposes a zero-tolerance policy for drivers under 21, meaning any detectable amount of alcohol can result in a DUI charge. At The H Law, we're well-versed in the nuances of Los Angeles DUI cases, including those impacting lives of younger drivers. With stricter penalties and potential long-term consequences on educational and employment opportunities, an underage DUI can be particularly damaging. It's essential to have a knowledgeable Los Angeles drunk driving attorney who can navigate the complexities of these offenses. Our expertise in California DUI law enables us to provide a robust defense for those facing underage DUI allegations, aiming to minimize the impact on their future. Choose The H Law to ensure your rights are fervently protected in the face of these significant legal challenges. Felony DUI Offense The consequences of a Felony DUI vary greatly. However, a few penalties could be: Penalties & Fee's: $1015-5000, plus restitution License Suspension: up to 5 years‍ Jail: 16 months to 16 years‍ Alcohol Treatment: 18 or 30 months When facing a felony DUI charge in Los Angeles, it's imperative to understand the gravity of the situation. Unlike misdemeanor DUI charges, a felony DUI can carry severe consequences, including significant jail time, hefty fines, and a lasting impact on one's civil liberties and future opportunities. If you've been charged with a felony DUI, swift and strategic legal intervention is crucial. The enhanced penalties are direct outcomes of either prior DUI convictions, inflicting bodily harm, or other aggravating factors. Such charges demand a highly qualified Los Angeles DUI attorney to meticulously analyze the details of your case to protect your rights. With the right defense, even serious DUI charges can be challenged, potentially mitigating the severe repercussions of a felony DUI conviction.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> According to the reference text, how does the criteria for a DUI change when the offending party is a minor? Using only the reference text, what is the criteria for a felony DUI versus a misdemeanor? <TEXT> First DUI Offense A first offense DUI in California is a misdemeanor typically punished by: ‍Penalties & Fee's: $390.00+‍ License Suspension: 6 - 16 months‍ Jail: Up to 6 Months‍ Alcohol Treatment: 3 Months Confronting a first DUI offense in Los Angeles can be a daunting experience, one that necessitates a nuanced understanding of specific DUI laws. The stakes are notably high; a conviction carries ramifications that can ripple through your personal and professional life. It's crucial to seek the guidance of a seasoned Los Angeles DUI attorney, versed in the intricacies of DUI defense. At The H Law, our legal acumen is geared towards mitigating the penalties that come with a DUI. These penalties often include fines, license suspension, mandatory DUI education programs, and, in some cases, incarceration. Our strategic approach in DUI defense frames a robust representation, crafted to protect your rights and challenge the prosecution's case. In Los Angeles, the law doesn't take DUI lightly, and neither should you. Securing expert legal defense early can significantly alter the outcome of a first Los Angeles DUI offense. Second DUI Offense When convicted of a 2nd DUI in California, the penalties typically imposed by the court are as follows: Penalties & Fee's: $2,000‍ License Suspension: Two years‍ Jail: Minimum of 96 hours‍ Alcohol Treatment: 18-30 months Facing a second DUI charge in Los Angeles can be a profoundly unsettling experience, with the potential for more severe consequences compared to a first offense. The stakes are undeniably higher, as Los Angeles DUI laws prescribe harsher penalties that may include longer jail time, increased fines, mandatory attendance at DUI school, and extended driver's license suspension. Additionally, the imposition of an ignition interlock device (IID) on your vehicle may become a requisite. Here at The H Law, we understand the gravity of a second DUI and the impact it holds over your freedom and future. With our expert DUI attorneys by your side, you can navigate the complex legal landscapes of DUI charges and work tirelessly towards a favorable outcome. Third DUI Offense When convicted of a 3rd Offense DUI in California, the penalties typically imposed by the court are as follows: Penalties & Fee's: $2,500 to $3,000‍ License Suspension: 3-year Revocation‍ Jail: Minimum of 120 days to One year‍ Alcohol Treatment: 30 Months+ Addressing a third DUI offense in Los Angeles carries severe consequences, warranting the astute legal counsel provided by The H Law. With penalties escalating sharply from the first and second offenses, it is paramount to understand the gravity of a third Los Angeles DUI charge. Under California law, a third DUI conviction within a 10-year period can result in significantly increased jail time, stringent probation conditions, and mandatory alcohol programs. Moreover, the financial implications are profound, encompassing steep fines and surcharges, which underscore the necessity of a determined defense strategy. The expertise of The H Law in defending against DUI charges is pivotal; our approach is tailored to navigate the intricacies of DUI laws, ensuring the most favorable outcome possible. Underage DUI Offense When dealing with an underage DUI in Los Angeles, it's crucial to understand the unique aspects of California DUI laws that apply. The state imposes a zero-tolerance policy for drivers under 21, meaning any detectable amount of alcohol can result in a DUI charge. At The H Law, we're well-versed in the nuances of Los Angeles DUI cases, including those impacting lives of younger drivers. With stricter penalties and potential long-term consequences on educational and employment opportunities, an underage DUI can be particularly damaging. It's essential to have a knowledgeable Los Angeles drunk driving attorney who can navigate the complexities of these offenses. Our expertise in California DUI law enables us to provide a robust defense for those facing underage DUI allegations, aiming to minimize the impact on their future. Choose The H Law to ensure your rights are fervently protected in the face of these significant legal challenges. Felony DUI Offense The consequences of a Felony DUI vary greatly. However, a few penalties could be: Penalties & Fee's: $1015-5000, plus restitution License Suspension: up to 5 years‍ Jail: 16 months to 16 years‍ Alcohol Treatment: 18 or 30 months When facing a felony DUI charge in Los Angeles, it's imperative to understand the gravity of the situation. Unlike misdemeanor DUI charges, a felony DUI can carry severe consequences, including significant jail time, hefty fines, and a lasting impact on one's civil liberties and future opportunities. If you've been charged with a felony DUI, swift and strategic legal intervention is crucial. The enhanced penalties are direct outcomes of either prior DUI convictions, inflicting bodily harm, or other aggravating factors. Such charges demand a highly qualified Los Angeles DUI attorney to meticulously analyze the details of your case to protect your rights. With the right defense, even serious DUI charges can be challenged, potentially mitigating the severe repercussions of a felony DUI conviction. https://www.thehfirm.com/california/los-angeles-dui-laws-charges-penalty-guides-and-attorneys

Do not use any outside sources. Only use the provided text to answer. Do not use any prior knowledge. Omit all filler.

Does this apply to me if I have ground-mounted solar panels in a field at my house that I use to sell back extra energy to the grid?

HB 2281 Initials EB Page 1 Natural Resources, Energy & Water ARIZONA HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES Fifty-sixth Legislature Second Regular Session HB 2281: solar royalties fund; county residents Sponsor: Representative Biasiucci, LD 30 Committee on Natural Resources, Energy & Water Overview Requires each county Board of Supervisors (BOS) to establish a County Resident Solar Royalties Fund (Fund). History Counties are required to adopt the standards for issuing permits for the use of certain solar energy devices. Various specifications must be met depending on if the solar energy device is used for: 1) construction with solar photovoltaic systems that are intended to connect to a utility system; or 2) solar water heating systems (A.R.S. § 11-323). Provisions 1. Requires the BOS of each county to establish a Fund to be administered by the county treasurer. (Sec. 1) 2. States that the Fund will be funded by each owner or operator of a solar panel in that county whose solar panel: a) is located in the relevant county; and b) is not: i. owned by a public service corporation that is regulated by the Arizona Corporation Commission (ACC) or by a public power entity that has service territory in Arizona; and ii. subject wholly to an exclusive power purchase agreement with either a public service corporation regulated by the ACC or a public power entity that has service territory in Arizona. (Sec. 1) 3. Requires the private owner or operator of a solar panel not owned by a public service corporation to pay the county where the solar panel is located 12.5% of every $1 that is received in revenues from the sale of kilowatt-hours from the solar panel. (Sec. 1) 4. Specifies these monies must be deposited in the Fund. (Sec. 1) 5. Requires the county treasurer to: a) determine the total amount of monies in the Fund and the total number of qualified individuals who live in the county; b) use monies in the Fund for administrative costs that do not exceed 10% of the monies in the Fund; c) pay, by check, each qualified resident of the county an equal distribution of the total amount of monies available in the Fund, after administrative costs are paid. (Sec. 1) ☐ Prop 105 (45 votes) ☐ Prop 108 (40 votes) ☐ Emergency (40 votes) ☐ Fiscal Note HB 2281 Initials EB Page 2 Natural Resources, Energy & Water 6. States that the requirements of the Fund do not apply to solar panels that: a) produce power for only on-site use by a commercial or industrial user; b) does not export power to the grid; or c) is a rooftop solar power system, regardless of whether the system exports power to the grid. (Sec. 1)

System Instructions: Do not use any outside sources. Only use the provided text to answer. Do not use any prior knowledge. Omit all filler. Question: Does this apply to me if I have ground-mounted solar panels in a field at my house that I use to sell back extra energy to the grid? Context: HB 2281 Initials EB Page 1 Natural Resources, Energy & Water ARIZONA HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES Fifty-sixth Legislature Second Regular Session HB 2281: solar royalties fund; county residents Sponsor: Representative Biasiucci, LD 30 Committee on Natural Resources, Energy & Water Overview Requires each county Board of Supervisors (BOS) to establish a County Resident Solar Royalties Fund (Fund). History Counties are required to adopt the standards for issuing permits for the use of certain solar energy devices. Various specifications must be met depending on if the solar energy device is used for: 1) construction with solar photovoltaic systems that are intended to connect to a utility system; or 2) solar water heating systems (A.R.S. § 11-323). Provisions 1. Requires the BOS of each county to establish a Fund to be administered by the county treasurer. (Sec. 1) 2. States that the Fund will be funded by each owner or operator of a solar panel in that county whose solar panel: a) is located in the relevant county; and b) is not: i. owned by a public service corporation that is regulated by the Arizona Corporation Commission (ACC) or by a public power entity that has service territory in Arizona; and ii. subject wholly to an exclusive power purchase agreement with either a public service corporation regulated by the ACC or a public power entity that has service territory in Arizona. (Sec. 1) 3. Requires the private owner or operator of a solar panel not owned by a public service corporation to pay the county where the solar panel is located 12.5% of every $1 that is received in revenues from the sale of kilowatt-hours from the solar panel. (Sec. 1) 4. Specifies these monies must be deposited in the Fund. (Sec. 1) 5. Requires the county treasurer to: a) determine the total amount of monies in the Fund and the total number of qualified individuals who live in the county; b) use monies in the Fund for administrative costs that do not exceed 10% of the monies in the Fund; c) pay, by check, each qualified resident of the county an equal distribution of the total amount of monies available in the Fund, after administrative costs are paid. (Sec. 1) ☐ Prop 105 (45 votes) ☐ Prop 108 (40 votes) ☐ Emergency (40 votes) ☐ Fiscal Note HB 2281 Initials EB Page 2 Natural Resources, Energy & Water 6. States that the requirements of the Fund do not apply to solar panels that: a) produce power for only on-site use by a commercial or industrial user; b) does not export power to the grid; or c) is a rooftop solar power system, regardless of whether the system exports power to the grid. (Sec. 1)

Refer only to the provided text and do not use any outside information.

What motivated congress to approve two competing bills?

House-passed H.R. 8070 H.R. 8070, known as the Servicemember Quality of Life Improvement and National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2025, would authorize $883.7 billion, as requested, according to the accompanying committee report, H.Rept. 118-529. Together with amounts for certain defense-related programs not within the legislation’s purview or requiring additional authorization, the discretionary budget authority implication of the bill would total $895.2 billion—consistent with the defense discretionary spending cap for FY2025 established in the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023 (P.L. 118-5). During an April 30, 2024, hearing on the FY2025 DOD budget request, Representative Mike Rogers, chair of the House Armed Services Committee (HASC), described the department’s request as inadequate to restore deterrence. “But this is the hand dealt to us by the Fiscal Responsibility Act that we all have responsibility for enacting,” he said. “As we move to mark up the FY2025 NDAA, we will play that hand that was dealt to us.” In preparation for House consideration of the legislation, Representative Barbara Lee submitted an amendment that would have reduced the amount authorized by the bill by $100 billion, excluding accounts related to the Defense Health Program, military personnel, and pay and benefits. The amendment was not considered for floor debate. A bipartisan amendment adopted as Section 1005 of the bill would reduce funding for a military department or defense agency by 0.5% upon failure to submit financial statements or achieve an independent audit opinion. While the overall level of funding authorizations in H.R. 8070 would match the President’s request, amounts authorized for certain types of accounts would differ from the request. For example, in terms of DOD titles, the legislation would authorize $3.8 billion (2.1%) more than requested for military personnel (MILPERS) appropriations, largely to support a 19.5% pay raise for certain junior enlisted service members and an expanded housing allowance benefit as part of a package of “quality of life” initiatives. The legislation would authorize $2.8 billion (1.7%) less than requested for procurement Congressional Research Service 3 appropriations, including the Shipbuilding and Conversion, Navy account—with no funding authorized for the Navy to procure the seventh Constellation-class (FFG) frigate, a type of small surface combatant. In a Statement of Administration Policy on H.R. 8070, the Biden Administration “strongly” opposed changing the basic pay schedule before the completion of the Fourteenth Quadrennial Review of Military Compensation (QRMC) and expressed disappointment at the level of shipbuilding funding, among other areas of disagreement. SASC-reported S. 4638 S. 4638 would authorize $908.4 billion, $25.1 billion more than requested for DOD to “accelerate equipment recapitalization, increase military construction, address the highest-priority unfunded requirements of the military services and combatant commanders, decrease the Department’s facility maintenance backlog, and strengthen the defense industrial base.” During debate of the bill in a closed session, the Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) voted 16-9 on a motion “to include a provision that would increase the topline by $25.0 billion.” Senator Roger Wicker, Ranking Member of SASC, filed the motion following the release of a plan calling for a “generational investment” in the U.S. military—with proposed funding increases of $55 billion in FY2025 and additional amounts to reach 5% of Gross Domestic Product in the future—to prevent conflict, recapitalize U.S. military equipment, and safeguard national security innovation. Senator Jack Reed, chair of SASC, said he voted against reporting the bill to the Senate because it included “a funding increase that cannot be appropriated without breaking lawful spending caps and causing unintended harm to our military. I appreciate the need for greater defense spending to ensure our national security, but I cannot support this approach.” S. 4638 would authorize $25.1 billion more funding than requested for DOD, across each appropriation title, with $10.0 billion more than requested for procurement accounts; $2.9 billion more for research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) accounts; and $3.1 billion more for military construction (MILCON) accounts.

Refer only to the provided text and do not use any outside information. What motivated congress to approve two competing bills? House-passed H.R. 8070 H.R. 8070, known as the Servicemember Quality of Life Improvement and National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2025, would authorize $883.7 billion, as requested, according to the accompanying committee report, H.Rept. 118-529. Together with amounts for certain defense-related programs not within the legislation’s purview or requiring additional authorization, the discretionary budget authority implication of the bill would total $895.2 billion—consistent with the defense discretionary spending cap for FY2025 established in the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023 (P.L. 118-5). During an April 30, 2024, hearing on the FY2025 DOD budget request, Representative Mike Rogers, chair of the House Armed Services Committee (HASC), described the department’s request as inadequate to restore deterrence. “But this is the hand dealt to us by the Fiscal Responsibility Act that we all have responsibility for enacting,” he said. “As we move to mark up the FY2025 NDAA, we will play that hand that was dealt to us.” In preparation for House consideration of the legislation, Representative Barbara Lee submitted an amendment that would have reduced the amount authorized by the bill by $100 billion, excluding accounts related to the Defense Health Program, military personnel, and pay and benefits. The amendment was not considered for floor debate. A bipartisan amendment adopted as Section 1005 of the bill would reduce funding for a military department or defense agency by 0.5% upon failure to submit financial statements or achieve an independent audit opinion. While the overall level of funding authorizations in H.R. 8070 would match the President’s request, amounts authorized for certain types of accounts would differ from the request. For example, in terms of DOD titles, the legislation would authorize $3.8 billion (2.1%) more than requested for military personnel (MILPERS) appropriations, largely to support a 19.5% pay raise for certain junior enlisted servicemembers and an expanded housing allowance benefit as part of a package of “quality of life” initiatives. The legislation would authorize $2.8 billion (1.7%) less than requested for procurement Congressional Research Service 3 appropriations, including the Shipbuilding and Conversion, Navy account—with no funding authorized for the Navy to procure the seventh Constellation-class (FFG) frigate, a type of small surface combatant. In a Statement of Administration Policy on H.R. 8070, the Biden Administration “strongly” opposed changing the basic pay schedule before the completion of the Fourteenth Quadrennial Review of Military Compensation (QRMC) and expressed disappointment at the level of shipbuilding funding, among other areas of disagreement. SASC-reported S. 4638 S. 4638 would authorize $908.4 billion, $25.1 billion more than requested for DOD to “accelerate equipment recapitalization, increase military construction, address the highest-priority unfunded requirements of the military services and combatant commanders, decrease the Department’s facility maintenance backlog, and strengthen the defense industrial base.” During debate of the bill in a closed session, the Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) voted 16-9 on a motion “to include a provision that would increase the topline by $25.0 billion.” Senator Roger Wicker, Ranking Member of SASC, filed the motion following the release of a plan calling for a “generational investment” in the U.S. military—with proposed funding increases of $55 billion in FY2025 and additional amounts to reach 5% of Gross Domestic Product in the future—to prevent conflict, recapitalize U.S. military equipment, and safeguard national security innovation. Senator Jack Reed, chair of SASC, said he voted against reporting the bill to the Senate because it included “a funding increase that cannot be appropriated without breaking lawful spending caps and causing unintended harm to our military. I appreciate the need for greater defense spending to ensure our national security, but I cannot support this approach.” S. 4638 would authorize $25.1 billion more funding than requested for DOD, across each appropriation title, with $10.0 billion more than requested for procurement accounts; $2.9 billion more for research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) accounts; and $3.1 billion more for military construction (MILCON) accounts.

Only provide commentary from the context included.

Summarize the STRATEGIC Financial PRIORITIES 2004-07 for Alberta.

207FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Finance ACCOUNTABILITY STATEMENT The Business Plan for the three years commencing April 1, 2004 was prepared under my direction in accordance with the Government Accountability Act and the government's accounting policies. All of the government's policy decisions as of February 27, 2004 with material economic or fiscal implications of which I am aware have been considered in preparing the Business Plan. The Ministry's priorities outlined in the Business Plan were developed in the context of the government's business and fiscal plans. I am committed to achieving the planned results laid out in this Business Plan. [original signed] Patricia L. Nelson, Minister of Finance March 4, 2004 THE MINISTRY The Ministry of Finance includes the Department of Finance, Alberta Capital Finance Authority, Alberta Pensions Administration Corporation, ATB Financial, Alberta Insurance Council, Credit Union Deposit Guarantee Corporation and their subsidiaries. The Ministry of Finance also includes the activities of a number of companies in wind-up. The Department of Finance has four main areas: Office of Budget and Management; Pensions, Insurance and Financial Institutions; Treasury Management; and Corporate Support. The Finance Business Plan incorporates all the entities reporting to the Minister into an integrated strategic plan that focuses on the key priorities for the Ministry. The following plan does not include the day-to-day activities of the Ministry. BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 208 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 VISION A province that is innovative and globally competitive with a fiscally sustainable and accountable government. LINK TO THE GOVERNMENT STRATEGIC BUSINESS PLAN This plan supports the 3-Year Government of Alberta (GOA) Business Plan to have a prosperous economy (Goal 7), which is aligned with the 20-Year Government of Alberta Strategic Business Plan of competing in a global marketplace (Opportunity 3). The Finance plan provides support by keeping taxes competitive and the regulatory system effective. The plan also supports the 3-Year GOA Business Plan of having a financially stable, open and accountable government (Goal 8). This is aligned with the 20-Year Strategic Plan of making Alberta the best place to live, work and visit (Opportunity 4). Support is provided through the ministry's efforts to smooth out fluctuations in resource revenue, eliminate debt on schedule, keep spending affordable, ensure future sustainability of revenue to meet needs, monitor performance and assist with capital planning and financing for infrastructure. Finally, the Ministry Plan supports the 3-Year GOA Business Plan to have an effective, responsive and well-managed local government (Goal 6), which is aligned with the 20-Year Strategic Plan to make Alberta the best place to live, work and visit (Opportunity 4). The ministry provides support through the Alberta Capital Finance Authority. SIGNIFICANT OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES Maintaining a strong and sustainable financial position poses challenges. Changing world economic conditions, exchange rates and energy prices impact Alberta's economy and fiscal plan. The decline of high royalty rate conventional energy revenues is an issue that is being addressed. Disasters and emergencies, such as BSE and severe weather conditions, are unpredictable events that can have budget consequences. Volatile capital markets can affect pension plans and endowment funds like the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund, especially if markets are weak for extended periods. The Sustainability Fund will help manage risks from energy and other revenues, as well as disasters and emergencies. An aging population and early retirements will also impact pension plans. Recognizing pressures on pension plans will enable stakeholders to work together to review pension plan governance and establish stabilizing strategies. MISSION Develop and implement the government's fiscal framework and financial policies. CORE BUSINESSES Core Business 1: Fiscal Planning and Financial Management Goal 1 - A financially strong, sustainable and accountable government Goal 2 - A fair and competitive provincial tax system Goal 3 - Effective management of financial assets, liabilities and risk Core Business 2: Regulation of Provincial Financial Institutions Goal 4 - Reliable and competitive financial and insurance products and services Core Business 3: Pensions Policy, Regulation and Administration Goal 5 - Pensions that deliver on promises Core Business 4: Financial Services Goal 6 - Quality and competitive financial services accessible to Albertans and local authorities 209FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 The government's new fiscal framework is designed to provide predictability, sustainability and continued discipline to prepare Alberta for the challenges that lie ahead, while maintaining a competitive tax environment. Finance will work with other ministries to maintain a balanced approach in fiscal planning. In addition, Finance will implement the accepted Financial Management Commission (FMC) recommendations, including the risk analysis, three-year capital plans, alternative mechanisms for capital project financing, capitalization and amortization of assets, and continued refinements to the government reporting entity. Public-private partnerships (P3s) have been identified as one option to deliver capital projects, where appropriate. Finance provides financial expertise to other ministries on financing government and government-funded capital projects, ranging from construction to information technology. Finance also determines the appropriate accounting treatment and the impact on the Province's financial position and fiscal plan. Finance will assess the costs and risks of alternate financing vehicles, including P3s, and make recommendations to mitigate provincial financial risk and achieve optimal value for money. The Alberta government faces risks from a variety of sources. The concept of enterprise risk management is to identify the sources of risk to all major components of the Province's revenues and expenses and to use the collective strength of the enterprise to manage those risks with a comprehensive cost-effective strategy. In cooperation with other departments, Finance will develop an enterprise risk management framework and provide recommendations for government consideration. The Government is committed to ensuring Albertans have access to affordable automobile insurance. Finance will work to implement recommendations from the government's review of automobile insurance, including issues respecting automobile injury claims and related premium increases. Finance, in consultation with public sector boards and stakeholders, will review current governance arrangements for public pension plans (in the context of recent proposals for independence) with the objective of making recommendations to improve accountability to plan members and taxpayers. STRATEGIC PRIORITIES 2004-07 Through the Ministry’s review of external and internal challenges, the strategic priorities described below have been identified. These are in addition to the important ongoing core activities of the Ministry. 1. Maintaining Alberta's Fiscal Framework Linkage: Goal 1 2. Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) Linkage: Goals 1 and 3 3. Enterprise-Wide Risk Management Linkage: Goal 3 4. Automobile Insurance Linkage: Goal 4 5. Public Pension Plans Governance Linkage: Goal 5 210 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Strategies • Assess the financial costs and risks to the government of proposed P3s and make recommendations to reduce provincial financial risk and optimize value for money. • Continue overseeing cross-government implementation of the accepted Financial Management Commission (FMC) recommendations. Finance will concentrate on supporting further development of the capital plan. In response to the Public Sector Accounting Board's recommendations, Finance will also work with other ministries to determine what entities should be consolidated in the government's reporting entity, with planned implementation for fiscal years beginning with Budget 2006 at the earliest. • Continue to repay accumulated debt in accordance with the legislated plan. Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Alberta's credit rating AAA AAA AAA AAA Accumulated debt less cash set aside for debt repayment $4.7 billion $3.0 billion $2.7 billion $2.7 billion Number of accepted FMC recommendations 1 11 of 22 (2003-04) 15 of 22 19 of 22 22 of 22 implemented as scheduled (accumulated) (accumulated) (accumulated) (accumulated) Percentage of Albertans who think they get enough information on the government's financial performance 63% 70% 70% 70% 1 http://www.finance.gov.ab.ca/whatsnew/newsrel/2002/n020926_fmc_response.pdf 1 A financially strong, sustainable and accountable government Maintaining Alberta's strong financial position means keeping the budget balanced and sustainable. Strategic fiscal planning and prudent economic forecasting are required to meet today's priorities and sustain essential programs and services over the longer term. The Alberta Sustainability Fund has been established to cushion ongoing operating spending plans from volatile energy revenues and the costs of emergencies and disasters. The new Fiscal Framework includes a three-year capital plan, with some funding of capital from the capital account and alternative financing arrangements. The government will continue to balance the budget every year in accordance with the fiscal framework and to reduce the province's existing debt as scheduled. The government will also continue to fulfill its legislated commitment to be accountable to Albertans by publishing three-year consolidated fiscal plans, quarterly fiscal updates and annual performance reports, including audited financial statements, as required by the Government Accountability Act. In executing its leadership role for these initiatives, Finance will continue to assess the economic impact associated with issues of concern to Albertans, including the implementation of the Climate Change Strategy. The department will also take an active role in strategic corporate approaches to information technology investment, governance and accountability. GOAL ONE What it means CORE BUSINESSES, GOALS, STRATEGIES AND MEASURES Core Business One: Fiscal Planning and Financial Management 211FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Strategies • As affordable, complete implementation of the Business Tax Plan to reduce the general corporate income tax rate from 11.5% to 8%. Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Provincial tax load for a family of four1 Lowest in Lowest in Lowest in Lowest in Canada Canada Canada Canada Provincial tax load on businesses 1 Third Lowest Lowest in Lowest in Lowest in In Canada Canada Canada Canada 1 Shared measure with Alberta Revenue. 2 A fair and competitive provincial tax system Government policy is a low rate, broad base policy approach to promote efficiency of the tax system. Taxes are necessary to provide the revenue that government needs to fund programs and services. The tax system must be fair and promote self-reliance. Our taxes must also be competitive with those in other provinces and countries with which Alberta competes, in order to attract the investment, jobs and skilled workers necessary to keep our economy performing well. Alberta has a low single rate income tax, the lowest tax on gasoline in the country and no general payroll tax. Alberta is the only province without a capital tax or a general retail sales tax. Finance continues to work with the federal government, other provinces and territories to promote effective tax systems and collection arrangements. GOAL TWO What it means Strategies • Effective investment policies are in place to ensure optimal return. • Develop an enterprise-wide risk management framework for government decisions. • Invest the Sustainability Fund in high quality fixed income assets. 3 Effective management of financial assets, liabilities and risk Finance through the Treasury Management Division has responsibility for the province's ongoing cash management including short-term borrowing and investing, management of banking arrangements and cash forecasting as well as arranging short and long-term financing for the government and provincial corporations. Through prudent management of liabilities and assets, the Ministry endeavors to minimize financing costs and maximize investment returns. The Ministry has assumed a leadership role in developing an enterprise risk management framework so that the Alberta Government can effectively manage the day-to-day financial challenges. GOAL THREE What it means 212 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Return on: • Sustainability Fund New To be determined • Debt Retirement Account compared to 6 basis points higher the cost of the debt on the day the than market cost on Greater Greater Greater investment is made matching debt • Consolidated Cash Investment Under performed Greater by Greater by Greater by Trust Fund compared to ScotiaMcLeod by 10 basis 10 basis 10 basis 91 day Treasury Bill Index 4 basis points1 points 1 points 1 points 1 All in cost of debt issued compared to an issue Cost Lower by of comparable term in the Canadian public $596,500 on Lower Lower Lower debt market $100 million 2 Government decision on enterprise risk Research phase Government Program Program management program completed approval of Implemented Implemented framework 1 Basis point is 1/100 of a percent. 2 Amount raised via private placements during the year. Strategies • Implement recommendations from the government's review of issues respecting automobile insurance, including compensation for automobile injury claims and premium increases. • Work with industry and consumer stakeholders to review the statutory provisions of the Insurance Act respecting insurance contracts. • Ensure a supervisory framework is in place to govern Alberta Treasury Branches (ATB Financial) and that it is appropriate and comparable to that for private sector financial institutions. 4 Reliable and competitive financial and insurance products and services Financial service providers are responsible for ensuring that Albertans receive the services they have purchased. Finance regulates the credit union, insurance, loan and trust industries in Alberta, in the interests of depositors, insurance policy holders, insurance intermediaries, trust beneficiaries and the companies themselves. Finance is working with the automobile insurance industry to implement recommendations from the government's review of automobile insurance, including issues respecting automobile injury claims and related premium increases. In addition, Finance will monitor issues that face the insurance industry and consumers with respect to general property and liability insurance in Alberta. GOAL FOUR What it means Core Business Two: Regulation of Provincial Financial Institutions 213FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Automobile Insurance Review Review Recommendations – – completed implemented implemented and Bill 33 introduced Revision of Insurance Act respecting contracts n/a Review of Insurance Act – Insurance Act revised ATB Financial supervisory framework implemented n/a Implemented – – Strategies • In consultation with public pension boards and stakeholders, facilitate the improvement of pension governance frameworks. • Review funding requirements for public pension plans. • Review investment rules and returns for private pension plan assets. Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Percentage of APA client members and 95% of 95% of 95% of 95% of employers satisfied or very satisfied with clients and clients and clients and clients and products and services employers 1 employers 1 employers 1 employers 1 Improved pension governance frameworks In progress Developed and implemented – – Percentage of private sector plans that meet minimum funding requirements New 98% 98% 98% 1 Average of client and employer satisfaction. 5 Pensions that deliver on promises Pension plan members need to be assured that their benefits are secure. Employers and other plan sponsors need to know that pension regulation is fair and even-handed. Finance assesses private sector pension plan compliance with legislative standards and ensures that action is taken and 'at risk ' plans comply with regulations. Finance will also continue to monitor funding of private sector pension plans. The Department provides advice to the Minister of Finance on the financial soundness and governance of the public pension plans. Alberta Pensions Administration Corporation (APA) provides administrative services. Finance works with the federal government and the other provinces to maintain the sustainability of the Canada Pension Plan and explores alternatives to allow Albertans to secure their retirement income. The Department provides support and information for government initiatives on public pension issues. In addition, Finance works with stakeholders and other jurisdictions across Canada to harmonize and streamline private pension legislation and regulatory processes. GOAL FIVE What it means Core Business Three: Pensions Policy, Regulations and Administration 214 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Strategies • ATB Financial continues to operate on sound financial institution and business principles with the objective of earning a fair return. • ACFA will continue to provide local authorities within the province with flexible funding for capital projects at the lowest possible cost, consistent with the viability of ACFA. Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Local authorities' cost of borrowing from ACFA relative to borrowing costs of other Canadian municipalities within the viability of the Corporation Lowest1 Lowest Lowest Lowest ATB Financial • Loan loss provisions as a percentage of average total loans (0.39%) 0.30% 0.30% 0.35% • Expenses to operating revenue 66.99% 66.15% 66.30% 66.11% • Return on average assets (before tax) 1.55% 0.97% 1.06% 1.16% 1 Lowest at short and long-term maturities, but slightly higher than the lowest rate in Canada for mid-term (i.e., 5 and 10 years) rates. 6 Quality and competitive financial services accessible to Albertans and local authorities Alberta's dynamic economy and entrepreneurial spirit requires readily accessible and technologically advanced financial services and products. Alberta Treasury Branches (ATB Financial) and the Alberta Capital Finance Authority (ACFA) are public sector components of the financial services sector. ATB Financial is a full-service financial institution, with the largest branch network in the province. It provides services to individuals, small businesses and the agri-industry in 240 communities across Alberta. ACFA provides financing to a variety of local authorities including municipalities, towns, counties, hospitals, schools and post-secondary institutions throughout the province for capital projects. GOAL SIX What it means Core Business Four: Financial Services 215FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 MINISTRY STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS (thousands of dollars) Comparable Comparable Comparable 2002-03 2003-04 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Actual Budget Forecast Estimates Target Target REVENUE Internal Government Transfers 280,243 95,679 115,886 84,365 105,995 93,858 Other Taxes 1,702 600 1,700 750 750 750 Transfers from Government of Canada 4,055 4,030 4,055 4,055 4,055 4,055 Investment Income 528,710 504,311 539,500 504,259 468,993 445,267 Premiums, Fees and Licences 19,406 26,582 15,039 20,341 21,800 23,352 Net Income from Commercial Operations 224,899 156,660 165,563 155,837 151,344 164,220 Other Revenue 126,144 28,313 26,830 27,593 26,783 26,618 MINISTRY REVENUE 1,185,159 816,175 868,573 797,200 779,720 758,120 EXPENSE Program Fiscal Planning and Accountability 7,735 9,338 8,727 9,270 9,218 9,018 Treasury Management 72,211 71,887 74,529 77,838 78,918 81,057 Financial Sector Operations 4,477 4,881 6,513 5,650 6,037 6,143 Public Sector Pension Policy and Administration 23,264 27,068 26,163 26,210 25,967 25,827 Financing to Local Authorities 331,263 315,518 322,172 313,595 292,526 274,236 Ministry Support Services 5,272 5,074 5,306 5,165 5,108 5,164 Valuation Adjustments and Other Provisions (345) 300 200 - - - Total Program Expense* 443,877 434,066 443,610 437,728 417,774 401,445 Debt Servicing Costs Department Voted 70,675 61,503 61,503 53,020 45,246 38,046 Department Statutory 397,429 396,000 211,000 302,000 275,800 262,300 Ministry Debt Servicing Costs 468,104 457,503 272,503 355,020 321,046 300,346 MINISTRY EXPENSE 911,981 891,569 716,113 792,748 738,820 701,791 Gain (Loss) on Disposal of Capital Assets - - - - - - NET OPERATING RESULT 273,178 (75,394) 152,460 4,452 40,900 56,329 * Subject to the Fiscal Responsibility Act . Program expense includes the province's cash payments towards the unfunded pension liability (which will be eliminated under a separate legislated plan). Program expense does not include the annual change in the unfunded pension obligations, which is a non-cash expense that does not affect borrowing requirements. The annual increases (decreases) in the Ministry of Finance's unfunded pension obligations are: 81,349 (6,000) (9,000) (13,000) (16,000) (17,000) Comparable Comparable Comparable 2002-03 2003-04 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Actual Budget Forecast Estimates Target Target Fiscal Planning and Financial Management 550,923 542,246 359,342 445,247 412,264 393,519 Regulation of Provincial Institutions 4,521 4,928 5,942 5,652 6,046 6,174 Pension Policy, Regulation and Administration 24,834 28,430 27,822 27,792 27,537 27,407 Financial Services 331,703 315,965 323,007 314,057 292,973 274,691 MINISTRY EXPENSE 911,981 891,569 716,113 792,748 738,820 701,791 EXPENSE BY CORE BUSINESS (thousands of dollars) 216 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 CONSOLIDATED NET OPERATING RESULT (thousands of dollars) Comparable Comparable Comparable 2002-03 2003-04 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Actual Budget Forecast Estimates Target Target Ministry Revenue 1,185,159 816,175 868,573 797,200 779,720 758,120 Inter-ministry consolidation adjustments (350,139) (174,274) (185,762) (158,297) (185,887) (177,352) Consolidated Revenue 835,020 641,901 682,811 638,903 593,833 580,768 Ministry Program Expense 443,877 434,066 443,610 437,728 417,774 401,445 Inter-ministry consolidation adjustments (175) (196) (164) (194) (194) (194) Consolidated Program Expense 443,702 433,870 443,446 437,534 417,580 401,251 Ministry Debt Servicing Costs 468,104 457,503 272,503 355,020 321,046 300,346 Inter-ministry consolidation adjustments (87,575) (95,394) (86,708) (89,726) (94,503) (96,716) Consolidated Debt Servicing Costs 380,529 362,109 185,795 265,294 226,543 203,630 Consolidated Expense 824,231 795,979 629,241 702,828 644,123 604,881 Gain (Loss) on Disposal of Capital Assets - - - - - - CONSOLIDATED NET OPERATING RESULT 10,789 (154,078) 53,570 (63,925) (50,290) (24,113)

Only provide commentary from the context included. Summarize the STRATEGIC Financial PRIORITIES 2004-07 for Alberta. 207FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Finance ACCOUNTABILITY STATEMENT The Business Plan for the three years commencing April 1, 2004 was prepared under my direction in accordance with the Government Accountability Act and the government's accounting policies. All of the government's policy decisions as of February 27, 2004 with material economic or fiscal implications of which I am aware have been considered in preparing the Business Plan. The Ministry's priorities outlined in the Business Plan were developed in the context of the government's business and fiscal plans. I am committed to achieving the planned results laid out in this Business Plan. [original signed] Patricia L. Nelson, Minister of Finance March 4, 2004 THE MINISTRY The Ministry of Finance includes the Department of Finance, Alberta Capital Finance Authority, Alberta Pensions Administration Corporation, ATB Financial, Alberta Insurance Council, Credit Union Deposit Guarantee Corporation and their subsidiaries. The Ministry of Finance also includes the activities of a number of companies in wind-up. The Department of Finance has four main areas: Office of Budget and Management; Pensions, Insurance and Financial Institutions; Treasury Management; and Corporate Support. The Finance Business Plan incorporates all the entities reporting to the Minister into an integrated strategic plan that focuses on the key priorities for the Ministry. The following plan does not include the day-to-day activities of the Ministry. BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 208 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 VISION A province that is innovative and globally competitive with a fiscally sustainable and accountable government. LINK TO THE GOVERNMENT STRATEGIC BUSINESS PLAN This plan supports the 3-Year Government of Alberta (GOA) Business Plan to have a prosperous economy (Goal 7), which is aligned with the 20-Year Government of Alberta Strategic Business Plan of competing in a global marketplace (Opportunity 3). The Finance plan provides support by keeping taxes competitive and the regulatory system effective. The plan also supports the 3-Year GOA Business Plan of having a financially stable, open and accountable government (Goal 8). This is aligned with the 20-Year Strategic Plan of making Alberta the best place to live, work and visit (Opportunity 4). Support is provided through the ministry's efforts to smooth out fluctuations in resource revenue, eliminate debt on schedule, keep spending affordable, ensure future sustainability of revenue to meet needs, monitor performance and assist with capital planning and financing for infrastructure. Finally, the Ministry Plan supports the 3-Year GOA Business Plan to have an effective, responsive and well-managed local government (Goal 6), which is aligned with the 20-Year Strategic Plan to make Alberta the best place to live, work and visit (Opportunity 4). The ministry provides support through the Alberta Capital Finance Authority. SIGNIFICANT OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES Maintaining a strong and sustainable financial position poses challenges. Changing world economic conditions, exchange rates and energy prices impact Alberta's economy and fiscal plan. The decline of high royalty rate conventional energy revenues is an issue that is being addressed. Disasters and emergencies, such as BSE and severe weather conditions, are unpredictable events that can have budget consequences. Volatile capital markets can affect pension plans and endowment funds like the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund, especially if markets are weak for extended periods. The Sustainability Fund will help manage risks from energy and other revenues, as well as disasters and emergencies. An aging population and early retirements will also impact pension plans. Recognizing pressures on pension plans will enable stakeholders to work together to review pension plan governance and establish stabilizing strategies. MISSION Develop and implement the government's fiscal framework and financial policies. CORE BUSINESSES Core Business 1: Fiscal Planning and Financial Management Goal 1 - A financially strong, sustainable and accountable government Goal 2 - A fair and competitive provincial tax system Goal 3 - Effective management of financial assets, liabilities and risk Core Business 2: Regulation of Provincial Financial Institutions Goal 4 - Reliable and competitive financial and insurance products and services Core Business 3: Pensions Policy, Regulation and Administration Goal 5 - Pensions that deliver on promises Core Business 4: Financial Services Goal 6 - Quality and competitive financial services accessible to Albertans and local authorities 209FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 The government's new fiscal framework is designed to provide predictability, sustainability and continued discipline to prepare Alberta for the challenges that lie ahead, while maintaining a competitive tax environment. Finance will work with other ministries to maintain a balanced approach in fiscal planning. In addition, Finance will implement the accepted Financial Management Commission (FMC) recommendations, including the risk analysis, three-year capital plans, alternative mechanisms for capital project financing, capitalization and amortization of assets, and continued refinements to the government reporting entity. Public-private partnerships (P3s) have been identified as one option to deliver capital projects, where appropriate. Finance provides financial expertise to other ministries on financing government and government-funded capital projects, ranging from construction to information technology. Finance also determines the appropriate accounting treatment and the impact on the Province's financial position and fiscal plan. Finance will assess the costs and risks of alternate financing vehicles, including P3s, and make recommendations to mitigate provincial financial risk and achieve optimal value for money. The Alberta government faces risks from a variety of sources. The concept of enterprise risk management is to identify the sources of risk to all major components of the Province's revenues and expenses and to use the collective strength of the enterprise to manage those risks with a comprehensive cost-effective strategy. In cooperation with other departments, Finance will develop an enterprise risk management framework and provide recommendations for government consideration. The Government is committed to ensuring Albertans have access to affordable automobile insurance. Finance will work to implement recommendations from the government's review of automobile insurance, including issues respecting automobile injury claims and related premium increases. Finance, in consultation with public sector boards and stakeholders, will review current governance arrangements for public pension plans (in the context of recent proposals for independence) with the objective of making recommendations to improve accountability to plan members and taxpayers. STRATEGIC PRIORITIES 2004-07 Through the Ministry’s review of external and internal challenges, the strategic priorities described below have been identified. These are in addition to the important ongoing core activities of the Ministry. 1. Maintaining Alberta's Fiscal Framework Linkage: Goal 1 2. Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) Linkage: Goals 1 and 3 3. Enterprise-Wide Risk Management Linkage: Goal 3 4. Automobile Insurance Linkage: Goal 4 5. Public Pension Plans Governance Linkage: Goal 5 210 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Strategies • Assess the financial costs and risks to the government of proposed P3s and make recommendations to reduce provincial financial risk and optimize value for money. • Continue overseeing cross-government implementation of the accepted Financial Management Commission (FMC) recommendations. Finance will concentrate on supporting further development of the capital plan. In response to the Public Sector Accounting Board's recommendations, Finance will also work with other ministries to determine what entities should be consolidated in the government's reporting entity, with planned implementation for fiscal years beginning with Budget 2006 at the earliest. • Continue to repay accumulated debt in accordance with the legislated plan. Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Alberta's credit rating AAA AAA AAA AAA Accumulated debt less cash set aside for debt repayment $4.7 billion $3.0 billion $2.7 billion $2.7 billion Number of accepted FMC recommendations 1 11 of 22 (2003-04) 15 of 22 19 of 22 22 of 22 implemented as scheduled (accumulated) (accumulated) (accumulated) (accumulated) Percentage of Albertans who think they get enough information on the government's financial performance 63% 70% 70% 70% 1 http://www.finance.gov.ab.ca/whatsnew/newsrel/2002/n020926_fmc_response.pdf 1 A financially strong, sustainable and accountable government Maintaining Alberta's strong financial position means keeping the budget balanced and sustainable. Strategic fiscal planning and prudent economic forecasting are required to meet today's priorities and sustain essential programs and services over the longer term. The Alberta Sustainability Fund has been established to cushion ongoing operating spending plans from volatile energy revenues and the costs of emergencies and disasters. The new Fiscal Framework includes a three-year capital plan, with some funding of capital from the capital account and alternative financing arrangements. The government will continue to balance the budget every year in accordance with the fiscal framework and to reduce the province's existing debt as scheduled. The government will also continue to fulfill its legislated commitment to be accountable to Albertans by publishing three-year consolidated fiscal plans, quarterly fiscal updates and annual performance reports, including audited financial statements, as required by the Government Accountability Act. In executing its leadership role for these initiatives, Finance will continue to assess the economic impact associated with issues of concern to Albertans, including the implementation of the Climate Change Strategy. The department will also take an active role in strategic corporate approaches to information technology investment, governance and accountability. GOAL ONE What it means CORE BUSINESSES, GOALS, STRATEGIES AND MEASURES Core Business One: Fiscal Planning and Financial Management 211FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Strategies • As affordable, complete implementation of the Business Tax Plan to reduce the general corporate income tax rate from 11.5% to 8%. Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Provincial tax load for a family of four1 Lowest in Lowest in Lowest in Lowest in Canada Canada Canada Canada Provincial tax load on businesses 1 Third Lowest Lowest in Lowest in Lowest in In Canada Canada Canada Canada 1 Shared measure with Alberta Revenue. 2 A fair and competitive provincial tax system Government policy is a low rate, broad base policy approach to promote efficiency of the tax system. Taxes are necessary to provide the revenue that government needs to fund programs and services. The tax system must be fair and promote self-reliance. Our taxes must also be competitive with those in other provinces and countries with which Alberta competes, in order to attract the investment, jobs and skilled workers necessary to keep our economy performing well. Alberta has a low single rate income tax, the lowest tax on gasoline in the country and no general payroll tax. Alberta is the only province without a capital tax or a general retail sales tax. Finance continues to work with the federal government, other provinces and territories to promote effective tax systems and collection arrangements. GOAL TWO What it means Strategies • Effective investment policies are in place to ensure optimal return. • Develop an enterprise-wide risk management framework for government decisions. • Invest the Sustainability Fund in high quality fixed income assets. 3 Effective management of financial assets, liabilities and risk Finance through the Treasury Management Division has responsibility for the province's ongoing cash management including short-term borrowing and investing, management of banking arrangements and cash forecasting as well as arranging short and long-term financing for the government and provincial corporations. Through prudent management of liabilities and assets, the Ministry endeavors to minimize financing costs and maximize investment returns. The Ministry has assumed a leadership role in developing an enterprise risk management framework so that the Alberta Government can effectively manage the day-to-day financial challenges. GOAL THREE What it means 212 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Return on: • Sustainability Fund New To be determined • Debt Retirement Account compared to 6 basis points higher the cost of the debt on the day the than market cost on Greater Greater Greater investment is made matching debt • Consolidated Cash Investment Under performed Greater by Greater by Greater by Trust Fund compared to ScotiaMcLeod by 10 basis 10 basis 10 basis 91 day Treasury Bill Index 4 basis points1 points 1 points 1 points 1 All in cost of debt issued compared to an issue Cost Lower by of comparable term in the Canadian public $596,500 on Lower Lower Lower debt market $100 million 2 Government decision on enterprise risk Research phase Government Program Program management program completed approval of Implemented Implemented framework 1 Basis point is 1/100 of a percent. 2 Amount raised via private placements during the year. Strategies • Implement recommendations from the government's review of issues respecting automobile insurance, including compensation for automobile injury claims and premium increases. • Work with industry and consumer stakeholders to review the statutory provisions of the Insurance Act respecting insurance contracts. • Ensure a supervisory framework is in place to govern Alberta Treasury Branches (ATB Financial) and that it is appropriate and comparable to that for private sector financial institutions. 4 Reliable and competitive financial and insurance products and services Financial service providers are responsible for ensuring that Albertans receive the services they have purchased. Finance regulates the credit union, insurance, loan and trust industries in Alberta, in the interests of depositors, insurance policy holders, insurance intermediaries, trust beneficiaries and the companies themselves. Finance is working with the automobile insurance industry to implement recommendations from the government's review of automobile insurance, including issues respecting automobile injury claims and related premium increases. In addition, Finance will monitor issues that face the insurance industry and consumers with respect to general property and liability insurance in Alberta. GOAL FOUR What it means Core Business Two: Regulation of Provincial Financial Institutions 213FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Automobile Insurance Review Review Recommendations – – completed implemented implemented and Bill 33 introduced Revision of Insurance Act respecting contracts n/a Review of Insurance Act – Insurance Act revised ATB Financial supervisory framework implemented n/a Implemented – – Strategies • In consultation with public pension boards and stakeholders, facilitate the improvement of pension governance frameworks. • Review funding requirements for public pension plans. • Review investment rules and returns for private pension plan assets. Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Percentage of APA client members and 95% of 95% of 95% of 95% of employers satisfied or very satisfied with clients and clients and clients and clients and products and services employers 1 employers 1 employers 1 employers 1 Improved pension governance frameworks In progress Developed and implemented – – Percentage of private sector plans that meet minimum funding requirements New 98% 98% 98% 1 Average of client and employer satisfaction. 5 Pensions that deliver on promises Pension plan members need to be assured that their benefits are secure. Employers and other plan sponsors need to know that pension regulation is fair and even-handed. Finance assesses private sector pension plan compliance with legislative standards and ensures that action is taken and 'at risk ' plans comply with regulations. Finance will also continue to monitor funding of private sector pension plans. The Department provides advice to the Minister of Finance on the financial soundness and governance of the public pension plans. Alberta Pensions Administration Corporation (APA) provides administrative services. Finance works with the federal government and the other provinces to maintain the sustainability of the Canada Pension Plan and explores alternatives to allow Albertans to secure their retirement income. The Department provides support and information for government initiatives on public pension issues. In addition, Finance works with stakeholders and other jurisdictions across Canada to harmonize and streamline private pension legislation and regulatory processes. GOAL FIVE What it means Core Business Three: Pensions Policy, Regulations and Administration 214 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 Strategies • ATB Financial continues to operate on sound financial institution and business principles with the objective of earning a fair return. • ACFA will continue to provide local authorities within the province with flexible funding for capital projects at the lowest possible cost, consistent with the viability of ACFA. Performance Measures Last Actual Target Target Target (2002-03) 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Local authorities' cost of borrowing from ACFA relative to borrowing costs of other Canadian municipalities within the viability of the Corporation Lowest1 Lowest Lowest Lowest ATB Financial • Loan loss provisions as a percentage of average total loans (0.39%) 0.30% 0.30% 0.35% • Expenses to operating revenue 66.99% 66.15% 66.30% 66.11% • Return on average assets (before tax) 1.55% 0.97% 1.06% 1.16% 1 Lowest at short and long-term maturities, but slightly higher than the lowest rate in Canada for mid-term (i.e., 5 and 10 years) rates. 6 Quality and competitive financial services accessible to Albertans and local authorities Alberta's dynamic economy and entrepreneurial spirit requires readily accessible and technologically advanced financial services and products. Alberta Treasury Branches (ATB Financial) and the Alberta Capital Finance Authority (ACFA) are public sector components of the financial services sector. ATB Financial is a full-service financial institution, with the largest branch network in the province. It provides services to individuals, small businesses and the agri-industry in 240 communities across Alberta. ACFA provides financing to a variety of local authorities including municipalities, towns, counties, hospitals, schools and post-secondary institutions throughout the province for capital projects. GOAL SIX What it means Core Business Four: Financial Services 215FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 MINISTRY STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS (thousands of dollars) Comparable Comparable Comparable 2002-03 2003-04 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Actual Budget Forecast Estimates Target Target REVENUE Internal Government Transfers 280,243 95,679 115,886 84,365 105,995 93,858 Other Taxes 1,702 600 1,700 750 750 750 Transfers from Government of Canada 4,055 4,030 4,055 4,055 4,055 4,055 Investment Income 528,710 504,311 539,500 504,259 468,993 445,267 Premiums, Fees and Licences 19,406 26,582 15,039 20,341 21,800 23,352 Net Income from Commercial Operations 224,899 156,660 165,563 155,837 151,344 164,220 Other Revenue 126,144 28,313 26,830 27,593 26,783 26,618 MINISTRY REVENUE 1,185,159 816,175 868,573 797,200 779,720 758,120 EXPENSE Program Fiscal Planning and Accountability 7,735 9,338 8,727 9,270 9,218 9,018 Treasury Management 72,211 71,887 74,529 77,838 78,918 81,057 Financial Sector Operations 4,477 4,881 6,513 5,650 6,037 6,143 Public Sector Pension Policy and Administration 23,264 27,068 26,163 26,210 25,967 25,827 Financing to Local Authorities 331,263 315,518 322,172 313,595 292,526 274,236 Ministry Support Services 5,272 5,074 5,306 5,165 5,108 5,164 Valuation Adjustments and Other Provisions (345) 300 200 - - - Total Program Expense* 443,877 434,066 443,610 437,728 417,774 401,445 Debt Servicing Costs Department Voted 70,675 61,503 61,503 53,020 45,246 38,046 Department Statutory 397,429 396,000 211,000 302,000 275,800 262,300 Ministry Debt Servicing Costs 468,104 457,503 272,503 355,020 321,046 300,346 MINISTRY EXPENSE 911,981 891,569 716,113 792,748 738,820 701,791 Gain (Loss) on Disposal of Capital Assets - - - - - - NET OPERATING RESULT 273,178 (75,394) 152,460 4,452 40,900 56,329 * Subject to the Fiscal Responsibility Act . Program expense includes the province's cash payments towards the unfunded pension liability (which will be eliminated under a separate legislated plan). Program expense does not include the annual change in the unfunded pension obligations, which is a non-cash expense that does not affect borrowing requirements. The annual increases (decreases) in the Ministry of Finance's unfunded pension obligations are: 81,349 (6,000) (9,000) (13,000) (16,000) (17,000) Comparable Comparable Comparable 2002-03 2003-04 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Actual Budget Forecast Estimates Target Target Fiscal Planning and Financial Management 550,923 542,246 359,342 445,247 412,264 393,519 Regulation of Provincial Institutions 4,521 4,928 5,942 5,652 6,046 6,174 Pension Policy, Regulation and Administration 24,834 28,430 27,822 27,792 27,537 27,407 Financial Services 331,703 315,965 323,007 314,057 292,973 274,691 MINISTRY EXPENSE 911,981 891,569 716,113 792,748 738,820 701,791 EXPENSE BY CORE BUSINESS (thousands of dollars) 216 FINANCE BUSINESS PLAN 2004-07 CONSOLIDATED NET OPERATING RESULT (thousands of dollars) Comparable Comparable Comparable 2002-03 2003-04 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Actual Budget Forecast Estimates Target Target Ministry Revenue 1,185,159 816,175 868,573 797,200 779,720 758,120 Inter-ministry consolidation adjustments (350,139) (174,274) (185,762) (158,297) (185,887) (177,352) Consolidated Revenue 835,020 641,901 682,811 638,903 593,833 580,768 Ministry Program Expense 443,877 434,066 443,610 437,728 417,774 401,445 Inter-ministry consolidation adjustments (175) (196) (164) (194) (194) (194) Consolidated Program Expense 443,702 433,870 443,446 437,534 417,580 401,251 Ministry Debt Servicing Costs 468,104 457,503 272,503 355,020 321,046 300,346 Inter-ministry consolidation adjustments (87,575) (95,394) (86,708) (89,726) (94,503) (96,716) Consolidated Debt Servicing Costs 380,529 362,109 185,795 265,294 226,543 203,630 Consolidated Expense 824,231 795,979 629,241 702,828 644,123 604,881 Gain (Loss) on Disposal of Capital Assets - - - - - - CONSOLIDATED NET OPERATING RESULT 10,789 (154,078) 53,570 (63,925) (50,290) (24,113)

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> [user request] <TEXT> [context document]

I keep hearing about cryptocurrencies, and I would like to own some. I'm a customer at a local bank, and I was wondering how cryptocurrencies will change the future of banks. I would like my bank and cryptocurrency to be intertwined, as that gives me a sense of security.

Although the world of cryptocurrency is steadily expanding and gaining popularity, traditional banks are hesitant to adopt the use of these digital assets—believing that their inherent risks outweigh their potential benefits. However, regulatory agencies such as the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) are working to change banks’ perception of digital currencies, believing that these assets could positively drive financial institutions to a new era of innovation and efficiency. Recently, the OCC issued several interpretive letters detailing how traditional financial institutions can enter into transactions (or develop services) involving digital currencies. This effort coincides with the OCC’s hope that additional regulatory guidance will help banks become more comfortable with these digital assets. In early January, the OCC announced that national banks and federal savings associations can now use public blockchains and stablecoins to perform payment activities. This opens the door for banks to have the ability to process payments much quicker and without the need of a third-party agency. Essentially, this clarifying letter puts blockchain networks in the same category as SWIFT, ACH, and FedWire, paving the way for these networks to be part of the larger banking ecosystem. Banks may be wary of cryptocurrency, thinking that transactions involving these assets present heightened risk and require lengthy and expensive due diligence. But digital currencies can offer many benefits to financial institutions and their customers, they just need to take the leap. Why Banks are Cautious of Cryptocurrencies According to a study conducted by the Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (ACAMS) and the U.K.’s Royal United Services Institute, nearly 63% of respondents who work in the banking industry perceive cryptocurrency as a risk rather than an opportunity. Decentralized Nature Crypto assets were created as an alternative to traditional banking infrastructure that don’t need an intermediary and aren’t tethered to the capacity of a centralized government, bank, or agency. Instead of relying on centralized intermediaries in these transactions, the trust is placed in the blockchain code and the distributed nature of the blockchain. A cryptocurrency that’s managed by a central bank diminishes the appeal of the asset in the first place, so some banks don’t believe that they’ll be able to enter this space successfully. The decentralized nature of the currency is seen to undermine the authority of central banks, leaving some to believe that they won’t be needed anymore, or they’ll be unable to control the money supply. AML/KYC Concerns Cryptocurrencies allow for peer-to-peer transactions without a regulated intermediary, giving the user the ability to easily transfer funds quickly without having to pay transaction fees. Instead of identifying the transaction by an individual bank account through a financial institution, transactions are simply linked to the transaction ID on the blockchain. This type of pseudonymity worries many banks who are concerned about the lack of anti-money laundering (AML) and know your customer (KYC) regulations surrounding digital currency transactions. Oftentimes, banks are under the impression that cryptocurrency transactions can’t be tracked for AML and KYC considerations, which could lead to illegal activity and scams on the network. Volatility The price of cryptocurrencies (bitcoin specifically) have generally been volatile over their short life. There are many reasons for this including market size, liquidity, and the number of market participants. Banks see this as a risk because historically, the price hasn’t been stable, so they believe the currency might not remain a stable investment vehicle over time. How Banks Can Get Involved in the Cryptocurrency Industry To avoid being left behind, banks need to find a way to embrace this technology and treat it as a friend rather than an enemy. Cryptocurrency adoption could streamline, enhance, and upgrade financial services, and there are plenty of recent industry advancements that can ease banks’ concerns around the risks and instead let them recognize the potential benefits. Custody Services In July, the OCC stated that banks and savings associations could provide crypto custody services for customers, including holding unique cryptographic keys associated with accessing private wallets. This means that the OCC believes that banks could safely and effectively hold either the cryptocurrency itself, or the key to access crypto on a personal digital wallet for its customers. Easy Onboarding & Expert Assistance Banks could help bring new, less experienced individual investors into the space by developing tools that would facilitate the adoption of crypto by their customers. For example, inexperienced cryptocurrency investors may not have the capabilities to set up their own wallet to custody their own cryptocurrency. Rather than leaving their cryptocurrency “off exchange” or at an unregulated third party, they may find it easier and more secure to hold it within a trusted financial institution. Banks could offer interest-bearing crypto accounts, where customers could invest the crypto on the back end or through other financial tools. Banks might relieve some of the stress of investors that aren’t experts in the nuances of crypto by acting as a trusted third party that’s well-respected in the finance industry and can keep investors’ assets protected. AML/KYC Regulations Administered In 2019, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network’s (FinCEN) determined that any cryptocurrency transactions and custody services conducted through crypto entities that are considered money service businesses must still abide by AML/KYC regulations. This will help avoid malicious transactions, illegal activity, or scams using these platforms. These regulations could help banks and larger financial institutions conduct due diligence on customers involved in crypto transactions, further diminishing their anxieties about the risks that these transactions pose. There’s even a possibility that blockchain technology could automate AML and KYC verifications. Blockchain could potentially allow for a streamlined view of shared data on individuals between banks, loan officers, and other institutions. In other words, there could eventually be one blockchain that stores all customer data. This blockchain data could then be utilized by all financial institutions, allowing for fast reviews of customers to quickly identify any red flags insinuating nefarious or illegal activity. Security Concerns Banks can help mitigate the security concerns of cryptocurrency holders. Hacking of personal wallets and exchanges is a concern for many holders. Well-established banks could help secure digital currencies from theft or hacks, putting clients’ minds at ease. Bringing cryptocurrency under bank supervision could help diminish criminal activity or the appearance to outsiders that cryptocurrency transactions aren’t secure. Payments As indicated in the most recent OCC letter, banks can utilize public blockchains, including stablecoins, to speed up their payment processes. Blockchain technology provides a faster and less expensive alternative to clearing houses when processing transactions. The clearing and settlements could occur at a much faster rate if banks utilized blockchain technology. Smart Contracts When entering into an agreement through a smart contract, there’s a reduced level of trust needed among parties because the success of the transaction relies on computer code instead of an individual’s behavior. Banks could reinforce that trust by becoming a reliable third party that utilizes these smart contracts for mortgages, commercial loans, letters of credit, or other transactions. Guidance and regulation surrounding digital assets is sparse, leaving many financial institutions wary of adoption. Concerns surrounding the security and stability of cryptocurrency also hold banks back from entering this space—but instead of fearing the risks of this technology, banks should be looking ahead to its potential benefits. Financial institutions should also shift from thinking of crypto as a competitor to that of a partner. Banks can actually play a significant role in the crypto industry, adding some much needed assurance and security to the largely unregulated environment. Adopting cryptocurrencies and blockchain technology overall can streamline processes and take banking into the next generation of efficiency and innovation.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> I keep hearing about cryptocurrencies, and I would like to own some. I'm a customer at a local bank, and I was wondering how cryptocurrencies will change the future of banks. I would like my bank and cryptocurrency to be intertwined, as that gives me a sense of security. <TEXT> Although the world of cryptocurrency is steadily expanding and gaining popularity, traditional banks are hesitant to adopt the use of these digital assets—believing that their inherent risks outweigh their potential benefits. However, regulatory agencies such as the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) are working to change banks’ perception of digital currencies, believing that these assets could positively drive financial institutions to a new era of innovation and efficiency. Recently, the OCC issued several interpretive letters detailing how traditional financial institutions can enter into transactions (or develop services) involving digital currencies. This effort coincides with the OCC’s hope that additional regulatory guidance will help banks become more comfortable with these digital assets. In early January, the OCC announced that national banks and federal savings associations can now use public blockchains and stablecoins to perform payment activities. This opens the door for banks to have the ability to process payments much quicker and without the need of a third-party agency. Essentially, this clarifying letter puts blockchain networks in the same category as SWIFT, ACH, and FedWire, paving the way for these networks to be part of the larger banking ecosystem. Banks may be wary of cryptocurrency, thinking that transactions involving these assets present heightened risk and require lengthy and expensive due diligence. But digital currencies can offer many benefits to financial institutions and their customers, they just need to take the leap. Why Banks are Cautious of Cryptocurrencies According to a study conducted by the Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (ACAMS) and the U.K.’s Royal United Services Institute, nearly 63% of respondents who work in the banking industry perceive cryptocurrency as a risk rather than an opportunity. Decentralized Nature Crypto assets were created as an alternative to traditional banking infrastructure that don’t need an intermediary and aren’t tethered to the capacity of a centralized government, bank, or agency. Instead of relying on centralized intermediaries in these transactions, the trust is placed in the blockchain code and the distributed nature of the blockchain. A cryptocurrency that’s managed by a central bank diminishes the appeal of the asset in the first place, so some banks don’t believe that they’ll be able to enter this space successfully. The decentralized nature of the currency is seen to undermine the authority of central banks, leaving some to believe that they won’t be needed anymore, or they’ll be unable to control the money supply. AML/KYC Concerns Cryptocurrencies allow for peer-to-peer transactions without a regulated intermediary, giving the user the ability to easily transfer funds quickly without having to pay transaction fees. Instead of identifying the transaction by an individual bank account through a financial institution, transactions are simply linked to the transaction ID on the blockchain. This type of pseudonymity worries many banks who are concerned about the lack of anti-money laundering (AML) and know your customer (KYC) regulations surrounding digital currency transactions. Oftentimes, banks are under the impression that cryptocurrency transactions can’t be tracked for AML and KYC considerations, which could lead to illegal activity and scams on the network. Volatility The price of cryptocurrencies (bitcoin specifically) have generally been volatile over their short life. There are many reasons for this including market size, liquidity, and the number of market participants. Banks see this as a risk because historically, the price hasn’t been stable, so they believe the currency might not remain a stable investment vehicle over time. How Banks Can Get Involved in the Cryptocurrency Industry To avoid being left behind, banks need to find a way to embrace this technology and treat it as a friend rather than an enemy. Cryptocurrency adoption could streamline, enhance, and upgrade financial services, and there are plenty of recent industry advancements that can ease banks’ concerns around the risks and instead let them recognize the potential benefits. Custody Services In July, the OCC stated that banks and savings associations could provide crypto custody services for customers, including holding unique cryptographic keys associated with accessing private wallets. This means that the OCC believes that banks could safely and effectively hold either the cryptocurrency itself, or the key to access crypto on a personal digital wallet for its customers. Easy Onboarding & Expert Assistance Banks could help bring new, less experienced individual investors into the space by developing tools that would facilitate the adoption of crypto by their customers. For example, inexperienced cryptocurrency investors may not have the capabilities to set up their own wallet to custody their own cryptocurrency. Rather than leaving their cryptocurrency “off exchange” or at an unregulated third party, they may find it easier and more secure to hold it within a trusted financial institution. Banks could offer interest-bearing crypto accounts, where customers could invest the crypto on the back end or through other financial tools. Banks might relieve some of the stress of investors that aren’t experts in the nuances of crypto by acting as a trusted third party that’s well-respected in the finance industry and can keep investors’ assets protected. AML/KYC Regulations Administered In 2019, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network’s (FinCEN) determined that any cryptocurrency transactions and custody services conducted through crypto entities that are considered money service businesses must still abide by AML/KYC regulations. This will help avoid malicious transactions, illegal activity, or scams using these platforms. These regulations could help banks and larger financial institutions conduct due diligence on customers involved in crypto transactions, further diminishing their anxieties about the risks that these transactions pose. There’s even a possibility that blockchain technology could automate AML and KYC verifications. Blockchain could potentially allow for a streamlined view of shared data on individuals between banks, loan officers, and other institutions. In other words, there could eventually be one blockchain that stores all customer data. This blockchain data could then be utilized by all financial institutions, allowing for fast reviews of customers to quickly identify any red flags insinuating nefarious or illegal activity. Security Concerns Banks can help mitigate the security concerns of cryptocurrency holders. Hacking of personal wallets and exchanges is a concern for many holders. Well-established banks could help secure digital currencies from theft or hacks, putting clients’ minds at ease. Bringing cryptocurrency under bank supervision could help diminish criminal activity or the appearance to outsiders that cryptocurrency transactions aren’t secure. Payments As indicated in the most recent OCC letter, banks can utilize public blockchains, including stablecoins, to speed up their payment processes. Blockchain technology provides a faster and less expensive alternative to clearing houses when processing transactions. The clearing and settlements could occur at a much faster rate if banks utilized blockchain technology. Smart Contracts When entering into an agreement through a smart contract, there’s a reduced level of trust needed among parties because the success of the transaction relies on computer code instead of an individual’s behavior. Banks could reinforce that trust by becoming a reliable third party that utilizes these smart contracts for mortgages, commercial loans, letters of credit, or other transactions. Guidance and regulation surrounding digital assets is sparse, leaving many financial institutions wary of adoption. Concerns surrounding the security and stability of cryptocurrency also hold banks back from entering this space—but instead of fearing the risks of this technology, banks should be looking ahead to its potential benefits. Financial institutions should also shift from thinking of crypto as a competitor to that of a partner. Banks can actually play a significant role in the crypto industry, adding some much needed assurance and security to the largely unregulated environment. Adopting cryptocurrencies and blockchain technology overall can streamline processes and take banking into the next generation of efficiency and innovation. https://www.wolfandco.com/resources/insights/how-cryptocurrencies-may-impact-the-banking-industry/

Answer in complete sentences, only use the context document, no outside knowledge.

According to the document, how many copies of Mario Kart 8 Deluxe have been sold?

**What's publicly known about "Switch 2"** Nintendo, notoriously secretive, has so far said nothing — or almost nothing — on the record about its next game console. As Nintendo Switch approaches its seventh birthday in March 2024, questions about how much longer it will last are natural: Seven years is a typical lifespan for a console generation, Switch sales are falling fast, and the technology powering the console is showing its age. But Nintendo has flatly refused to engage with those questions. Behind the scenes, however, Nintendo is gearing up for the release of its new machine, briefing its partners, and releasing development kits. Information has started to leak, and a picture of what form the console will take has begun to emerge, as well as when we can expect to hear about it and when we can expect to buy one. It’s no surprise that Nintendo is treading carefully. The Switch has been an enormous success — it’s the third-best-selling console of all time, behind only PlayStation 2 and Nintendo’s own DS handheld — which presents both a big opportunity and a big risk. Historically, Nintendo has struggled to follow its most popular formats: Wii and DS were followed by the flop of Wii U and the relative disappointment (in sales terms) of 3DS. Nintendo’s usual insistence on hardware innovation has proven as likely to alienate its audience as to find a new one. Will Nintendo break with its own tradition and follow the Switch with a more powerful take on the same formula, or will it try something different? Nintendo is targeting a March 2025 release for the successor to Switch, according to a Nikkei report (as spotted and translated by VGC) on Feb. 26. Nikkei corroborates earlier reporting by the specialist press that the console’s release had slipped out of its original late 2024 window. Nikkei has a few new details to add. First is that firm March window, as opposed to “early 2025” — indicating that Nintendo, as expected, still hopes to release Switch 2 in its next financial year. Secondly, Nintendo’s reason for the delay is not just ensuring a strong software lineup, but trying to build up enough inventory of the console itself to avoid the shortages and widespread reselling by scalpers that blighted the PlayStation 5’s launch. Thirdly and most ominously, Nikkei says that Switch 2’s release could slip beyond March if the software isn’t ready and if Nintendo hasn’t manufactured enough units. Elsewhere, Nikkei corroborates earlier reports that Switch 2 will be a hybrid portable device like Switch, and that it will feature a larger screen than the current model. Regarding its name, the answer is that we don’t know. It’s worth noting that Nintendo has never before named its consoles in numerical sequence, even when they were direct follow-ups to a previous generation, such as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo 3DS. Super Nintendo Switch (or Super Switch!) has a certain ring to it, if you ask us. But for now, “Switch 2” is a serviceable shorthand, and what we’ll use in this article. The answer here appears to be yes. Recent reporting by VGC, citing multiple sources after dev kits arrived at partner studios, said that the console “would be able to be used in portable mode, similar to the Nintendo Switch.” This was later corroborated by Nikkei. There’s no word yet on whether the console will feature detachable Joy-Con controllers like the Switch, or whether it will have a handheld-only variant like the Switch Lite. But early signs are that Nintendo is keen to follow closely in the footsteps of the 130-million-plus-selling Switch. It might be a bit bigger, though. A 2024 report from a Japanese analyst suggests the console will have an 8-inch screen, compared to the original Switch’s 6.2 inches and the Switch OLED model’s 7 inches. Nintendo hasn’t officially indicated when the Switch 2 will be released, but we have a few clues. Originally, multiple sources reported that the console was planned to debut in the second half of 2024. However, it now appears that Nintendo is targeting a March 2025 release date. Brazilian games journalist Pedro Henrique Lutti Lippe originally broke the news of the slip to 2025, saying that multiple sources said they were working on games that are set to launch alongside the Switch 2. Both Eurogamer and VGC heard similar claims from their sources. Nikkei then reported Nintendo was targeting March 2025 in an effort to avoid hardware shortages and ensure a strong lineup of games — but noted a slip beyond March was still possible. While this is later than we previously expected, it fits in with an October 2023 interview with Nintendo president Shuntaro Furukawa, who reiterated that the company would remain focused on Switch until the end of Nintendo’s current fiscal year in March 2024, and added that it would continue to support Switch with new titles in the following fiscal year. The shift from “focus” to “support” for the Switch implies that a new console will launch in Nintendo’s next fiscal year — so, between April 2024 and March 2025. This also lines up with what we know about declining Switch sales, the stage Nintendo is at in the development of the console, and the release schedule for Switch games. Nintendo previously ruled out releasing a new console before the end of March 2024, and it now has Switch games scheduled through summer 2024; the latest release on the current schedule is Luigi’s Mansion 2 HD, which has been given a summer 2024 slot. (It’s also worth noting that the recently announced remake of Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door doesn’t have a more precise release date than “2024.”) This does mean the Switch 2 will miss the 2024 holiday season, but it’ll give the company more time to stockpile some first-party titles, according to VGC sources. This is the big question, with many users hoping — or outright expecting — to carry forward their game libraries to Nintendo’s next console, as has become the norm with the latest generations of Xbox and PlayStation consoles. The answer remains unknown, and it’s not easy to predict, either. VGC’s report said that the backward compatibility of the machine “remains unclear.” Some third-party publishers were said to be worried about the potential impact on sales of next-gen titles if the machine is backward-compatible. For its part, Nintendo has (in a rare on-the-record comment) said it hopes to bring Switch users over to the new platform with their Nintendo accounts; if the Nintendo account system persists, that would in theory make it easy for users to access previous purchases. But that’s not the same thing as the console being technically capable of it. Nintendo has a decent, if not flawless, record for supporting backward compatibility. Wii played GameCube games, and Wii U played Wii games; Game Boy Advance was backward-compatible with Game Boy, and 3DS with DS. But the Switch, with its new game cartridge format, enforced a clean break with the past, and Nintendo has made a mint from rereleasing Wii U games on the machine, particularly the 55-million-selling Mario Kart 8 Deluxe. On balance, as long as the machine uses the same format for physical releases (see below), Nintendo’s record suggests that it will make the Switch 2 backward-compatible. However, there remain technical hurdles to implementing backward compatibility, and much will depend on the chip architecture Nintendo has chosen for the Switch 2, which is not currently known. Of all the console manufacturers, Nintendo’s ties to the retail industry are perhaps the strongest — stronger even than Sony’s — so Nintendo is extremely unlikely to go digital-only for the Switch 2, even if this would seem to make sense for a portable machine. Indeed, VGC’s report included the detail that the new console will have a cartridge slot for physical releases. This is as close to a dead cert as we can get with the Switch 2 — and it also happens to support the machine having the same or similar form factor as the Switch, as well as increasing the likelihood of backward compatibility. Thanks to Microsoft’s legal battles over its acquisition of Activision Blizzard, and reports of demos given by Nintendo to partners at Gamescom, we are beginning to get a sense of how capable the Switch 2’s hardware will be. Internal emails released as part of the FTC v. Microsoft case revealed that Activision executives met with Nintendo in December 2022 to discuss the console, and came away with the impression that performance would be close to “Gen8 platforms” — in other words, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. (Activision Blizzard CEO Bobby Kotick later said that he had not seen tech specs for the machine, however.) If anything, the “Gen8” comparison sounds as though it might undersell the Switch 2’s capabilities. According to Eurogamer’s and VGC’s reporting on the behind-closed-doors Gamescom demos, Nintendo showed hardware targeting the specs of the console running The Matrix Awakens’ Unreal Engine 5 tech demo with ray tracing enabled and “visuals comparable to Sony’s and Microsoft’s current-gen consoles.” This doesn’t mean that the Switch 2 will be as powerful as PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X. Instead, Nintendo is likely using clever techniques to reduce the demand on a less powerful graphics processor. VGC reported that the demo ran using Nvidia’s advanced DLSS upscaling technology, which uses AI to upscale the resolution of the image. Still, the mention of Unreal Engine 5 — which is establishing itself as the industry standard engine, targeting current console hardware — along with DLSS and ray tracing suggests that Nintendo is keen to get closer to PS5 and Xbox Series X in terms of performance, and perhaps make it more feasible for developers to port their home console releases on the Switch 2. Reporting by Reuters and Digital Foundry suggests the console will use a custom Nvidia chip that will be capable of both ray-tracing and DLSS. Also at Gamescom, a special, improved version of The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild was shown, running at higher resolution and frame rate than it does on Switch. The Switch 2 will feature one tech downgrade, however: Reportedly, the console will feature an LCD screen, unlike the OLED screen seen in the current top-of-the-range Switch model, as a cost-cutting measure.

<SYSTEM INSTRUCTION> ======= Answer in complete sentences, only use the context document, no outside knowledge. ================ <CONTEXT> ======= **What's publicly known about "Switch 2"** Nintendo, notoriously secretive, has so far said nothing — or almost nothing — on the record about its next game console. As Nintendo Switch approaches its seventh birthday in March 2024, questions about how much longer it will last are natural: Seven years is a typical lifespan for a console generation, Switch sales are falling fast, and the technology powering the console is showing its age. But Nintendo has flatly refused to engage with those questions. Behind the scenes, however, Nintendo is gearing up for the release of its new machine, briefing its partners, and releasing development kits. Information has started to leak, and a picture of what form the console will take has begun to emerge, as well as when we can expect to hear about it and when we can expect to buy one. It’s no surprise that Nintendo is treading carefully. The Switch has been an enormous success — it’s the third-best-selling console of all time, behind only PlayStation 2 and Nintendo’s own DS handheld — which presents both a big opportunity and a big risk. Historically, Nintendo has struggled to follow its most popular formats: Wii and DS were followed by the flop of Wii U and the relative disappointment (in sales terms) of 3DS. Nintendo’s usual insistence on hardware innovation has proven as likely to alienate its audience as to find a new one. Will Nintendo break with its own tradition and follow the Switch with a more powerful take on the same formula, or will it try something different? Nintendo is targeting a March 2025 release for the successor to Switch, according to a Nikkei report (as spotted and translated by VGC) on Feb. 26. Nikkei corroborates earlier reporting by the specialist press that the console’s release had slipped out of its original late 2024 window. Nikkei has a few new details to add. First is that firm March window, as opposed to “early 2025” — indicating that Nintendo, as expected, still hopes to release Switch 2 in its next financial year. Secondly, Nintendo’s reason for the delay is not just ensuring a strong software lineup, but trying to build up enough inventory of the console itself to avoid the shortages and widespread reselling by scalpers that blighted the PlayStation 5’s launch. Thirdly and most ominously, Nikkei says that Switch 2’s release could slip beyond March if the software isn’t ready and if Nintendo hasn’t manufactured enough units. Elsewhere, Nikkei corroborates earlier reports that Switch 2 will be a hybrid portable device like Switch, and that it will feature a larger screen than the current model. Regarding its name, the answer is that we don’t know. It’s worth noting that Nintendo has never before named its consoles in numerical sequence, even when they were direct follow-ups to a previous generation, such as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo 3DS. Super Nintendo Switch (or Super Switch!) has a certain ring to it, if you ask us. But for now, “Switch 2” is a serviceable shorthand, and what we’ll use in this article. The answer here appears to be yes. Recent reporting by VGC, citing multiple sources after dev kits arrived at partner studios, said that the console “would be able to be used in portable mode, similar to the Nintendo Switch.” This was later corroborated by Nikkei. There’s no word yet on whether the console will feature detachable Joy-Con controllers like the Switch, or whether it will have a handheld-only variant like the Switch Lite. But early signs are that Nintendo is keen to follow closely in the footsteps of the 130-million-plus-selling Switch. It might be a bit bigger, though. A 2024 report from a Japanese analyst suggests the console will have an 8-inch screen, compared to the original Switch’s 6.2 inches and the Switch OLED model’s 7 inches. Nintendo hasn’t officially indicated when the Switch 2 will be released, but we have a few clues. Originally, multiple sources reported that the console was planned to debut in the second half of 2024. However, it now appears that Nintendo is targeting a March 2025 release date. Brazilian games journalist Pedro Henrique Lutti Lippe originally broke the news of the slip to 2025, saying that multiple sources said they were working on games that are set to launch alongside the Switch 2. Both Eurogamer and VGC heard similar claims from their sources. Nikkei then reported Nintendo was targeting March 2025 in an effort to avoid hardware shortages and ensure a strong lineup of games — but noted a slip beyond March was still possible. While this is later than we previously expected, it fits in with an October 2023 interview with Nintendo president Shuntaro Furukawa, who reiterated that the company would remain focused on Switch until the end of Nintendo’s current fiscal year in March 2024, and added that it would continue to support Switch with new titles in the following fiscal year. The shift from “focus” to “support” for the Switch implies that a new console will launch in Nintendo’s next fiscal year — so, between April 2024 and March 2025. This also lines up with what we know about declining Switch sales, the stage Nintendo is at in the development of the console, and the release schedule for Switch games. Nintendo previously ruled out releasing a new console before the end of March 2024, and it now has Switch games scheduled through summer 2024; the latest release on the current schedule is Luigi’s Mansion 2 HD, which has been given a summer 2024 slot. (It’s also worth noting that the recently announced remake of Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door doesn’t have a more precise release date than “2024.”) This does mean the Switch 2 will miss the 2024 holiday season, but it’ll give the company more time to stockpile some first-party titles, according to VGC sources. This is the big question, with many users hoping — or outright expecting — to carry forward their game libraries to Nintendo’s next console, as has become the norm with the latest generations of Xbox and PlayStation consoles. The answer remains unknown, and it’s not easy to predict, either. VGC’s report said that the backward compatibility of the machine “remains unclear.” Some third-party publishers were said to be worried about the potential impact on sales of next-gen titles if the machine is backward-compatible. For its part, Nintendo has (in a rare on-the-record comment) said it hopes to bring Switch users over to the new platform with their Nintendo accounts; if the Nintendo account system persists, that would in theory make it easy for users to access previous purchases. But that’s not the same thing as the console being technically capable of it. Nintendo has a decent, if not flawless, record for supporting backward compatibility. Wii played GameCube games, and Wii U played Wii games; Game Boy Advance was backward-compatible with Game Boy, and 3DS with DS. But the Switch, with its new game cartridge format, enforced a clean break with the past, and Nintendo has made a mint from rereleasing Wii U games on the machine, particularly the 55-million-selling Mario Kart 8 Deluxe. On balance, as long as the machine uses the same format for physical releases (see below), Nintendo’s record suggests that it will make the Switch 2 backward-compatible. However, there remain technical hurdles to implementing backward compatibility, and much will depend on the chip architecture Nintendo has chosen for the Switch 2, which is not currently known. Of all the console manufacturers, Nintendo’s ties to the retail industry are perhaps the strongest — stronger even than Sony’s — so Nintendo is extremely unlikely to go digital-only for the Switch 2, even if this would seem to make sense for a portable machine. Indeed, VGC’s report included the detail that the new console will have a cartridge slot for physical releases. This is as close to a dead cert as we can get with the Switch 2 — and it also happens to support the machine having the same or similar form factor as the Switch, as well as increasing the likelihood of backward compatibility. Thanks to Microsoft’s legal battles over its acquisition of Activision Blizzard, and reports of demos given by Nintendo to partners at Gamescom, we are beginning to get a sense of how capable the Switch 2’s hardware will be. Internal emails released as part of the FTC v. Microsoft case revealed that Activision executives met with Nintendo in December 2022 to discuss the console, and came away with the impression that performance would be close to “Gen8 platforms” — in other words, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. (Activision Blizzard CEO Bobby Kotick later said that he had not seen tech specs for the machine, however.) If anything, the “Gen8” comparison sounds as though it might undersell the Switch 2’s capabilities. According to Eurogamer’s and VGC’s reporting on the behind-closed-doors Gamescom demos, Nintendo showed hardware targeting the specs of the console running The Matrix Awakens’ Unreal Engine 5 tech demo with ray tracing enabled and “visuals comparable to Sony’s and Microsoft’s current-gen consoles.” This doesn’t mean that the Switch 2 will be as powerful as PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X. Instead, Nintendo is likely using clever techniques to reduce the demand on a less powerful graphics processor. VGC reported that the demo ran using Nvidia’s advanced DLSS upscaling technology, which uses AI to upscale the resolution of the image. Still, the mention of Unreal Engine 5 — which is establishing itself as the industry standard engine, targeting current console hardware — along with DLSS and ray tracing suggests that Nintendo is keen to get closer to PS5 and Xbox Series X in terms of performance, and perhaps make it more feasible for developers to port their home console releases on the Switch 2. Reporting by Reuters and Digital Foundry suggests the console will use a custom Nvidia chip that will be capable of both ray-tracing and DLSS. Also at Gamescom, a special, improved version of The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild was shown, running at higher resolution and frame rate than it does on Switch. The Switch 2 will feature one tech downgrade, however: Reportedly, the console will feature an LCD screen, unlike the OLED screen seen in the current top-of-the-range Switch model, as a cost-cutting measure. ================ <QUESTION> ======= According to the document, how many copies of Mario Kart 8 Deluxe have been sold?

All your responses are based exclusively in the user-provided text. You do not use any outside information or prior knowledge in your responses.

Explain the differences between gamma ray and infrared telescopes.

How Telescopes Are Like Eyes Telescopes and eyes are both tools for collecting and detecting light. In fact, telescopes can be thought of as bigger, more powerful eyes. Eyes have an opening called the pupil where the light enters; a lens to focus the light; and a retina in the back to detect the light. Telescopes also have an opening to let in light; a lens or mirror to focus the light; and a detector to receive and process the light. In the eye, chemical reactions in the retina convert light into electrical signals, w h i c h are processed by the brain. In telescopes, several different kinds of light detectors are used. Some telescopes contain electronic devices that convert light into electrical signals that can be analyzed and stored by a computer. In other telescopes, the light is focused onto photographic film, where the information is recorded as a photograph. In simple backyard telescopes, the light is focused onto the eye of the person looking through the telescope. In this case, the telescope’s light detector is a human eye. When you look through a telescope, all of the light that enters eventually reaches the back of your eye. Hundreds of times more light enters a small telescope than would n o rmally enter your eye because the telescope’s opening (also known as its “apert u r e ” ) is much bigger than your pupil. The telescope’s lens or mirror focuses all of this light so that it fits through your pupil. This is why telescopes let you see objects that do not give off enough light to see by unaided eye alone. Telescopes have several advantages over eyes, including larger light-collecting areas; collecting light for longer periods of time; and the ability to detect wavelengths of light invisible to humans. Larger Light-Collecting Areas When you move from a bright area into darkness, the pupil in your eye can expand from less than 1/1 6 inch to more than o inch in diameter — becoming sixteen times greater in area —in order to take in more light. Telescopes offer a way to expand the light-collecting area even further, in effect increasing the size of your pupil by hundreds or thousands of times. A simple backyard telescope with a 4-inch-diameter lens can capture 250 times more light than an eye with a o -inch-wide pupil, and the Hubble Space Telescope’s 94.5-inch mirror captures 143,000 times as much light as a o -inch pupil. Telescopes that capture radio waves look nothing like optical telescopes, but the surface area of the collector still determines how powerful the telescope is. Radio telescopes collect light in “dishes” that resemble satellite TV antennas. The wider the dish, the more powerful the telescope, because a wider dish can capture more light. The radio telescope at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico has a dish 1,000 feet wide Collecting Light for Longer Periods of Time The light detectors in telescopes can gather light from a single source over a long period of time. In some cases, light collected over several hours is used to create a single image. This is something the human eye cannot do. The cells in your retina collect light for just a fraction of a second. Then they repeat the process, essentially taking a new picture about twenty times a second. This enables your eye to keep track of moving objects. If your eye did not constantly update its information about where things are, moving objects would become a blur. When collecting light from faint objects such as distant galaxies, however, a twentieth of a second is not enough time for your eye to see anything at all, even if you are looking through a large telescope. Astronomers solve this problem by attaching special detectors to telescopes. This lets them point a telescope at a single object for minutes or even hours and combine all the light the camera receives into a single image. The resulting image reveals much more than a person could see with their eyes, even looking through the same telescope. In the past, telescope detectors used photographic film. Though some still use film, most research telescopes now use electronic cameras that store digital images on a computer. The electronic light detectors used in telescopes are called charged-coupled devices, or CCDs. CCD chips are made of thousands of tiny sensors that convert light into an electrical signal. The amount of electricity that passes through a given spot on the chip reveals how much light struck that point. Computers process the electrical information to make a digital image. The same technology is used in photocopiers, fax machines, video cameras, and bar code readers, all of which convert light signals into electrical signals. The Ability to Detect Wavelengths of Light Invisible to Humans Many telescopes are built to detect wavelengths of light your eyes cannot. Light from space comes in many wavelengths, most of which are invisible to the human eye—including gamma rays, X rays, ultraviolet and infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves. Whether visible or invisible, all light contains information about its source. So astronomers use special telescopes to detect wavelengths of light not visible to humans. The hotter an object is, the shorter the wavelengths of light it gives off. Because stars are so hot, much of the light they emit is in wavelengths too short for your eyes to see. Pictures of the Sun taken in ultraviolet or X-ray light, for instance, show hot, glowing jets of gas arching out of the Sun. These shapes are always there, but they cannot be seen in visible wavelengths. Telescopes sensitive to different wavelengths of light are useful in observing different astronomical phenomena. Gamma Ray Telescopes Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and contain the most energy of any form of light. They are believed to come from highly energetic processes such as collisions between two black holes, collisions between two neutron stars, or the collapse of hyperstars—giant stars even bigger than the ones that cause supernovas. The design of a gamma-ray telescope is unique in that the telescope itself is one big detector without any lenses or mirrors. The wavelengths of gamma rays are so small that they pass easily through conventional lenses or mirrors. X-ray Telescopes X-ray telescopes are used to observe extremely hot sources, such as the gases around black holes. X-ray telescopes cannot focus X-ray light the same way that ordinary telescopes do, because X-rays go right through most mirrors. Some X ray telescopes have special mirrors shaped like long, narrow tubes. As X rays enter the tube, they graze the mirror just enough to reflect gently toward a detector instead of passing through the mirror. Ultraviolet Telescopes Ultraviolet (UV) light has shorter wavelengths than visible light. These waves come from very hot stars. Ultraviolet telescopes can also be used to observe the hot gases surrounding the Sun. UV telescopes appear very similar in design to visible light telescopes except they are equipped with specially designed detectors sensitive to UV light. Visible Light Telescopes Optical telescopes capture the same kind of light your eyes can see. They reveal how distant objects would look if we were closer to them. Most of the cosmic images we see in magazines and newspapers come from visible light telescopes. Visible light is also a good source of information about average-temperature stars like the Sun. Infrared Telescopes Infrared light has fairly long wavelengths that pass through clouds of dust better than light with shorter wavelengths. Infrared telescopes are used to observe objects surrounded by dust, such as young stars being born inside nebulae. Because all warm objects give off infrared light, infrared telescopes are chilled so that they won’t detect their own glow. The lifespan of an infrared telescope is limited by how long the telescope can be kept cool. Microwave Telescopes Microwaves are used to observe the afterglow of the Big Bang, the ancient explosion that created the Universe. Microwave radiation also reveals the presence of many small molecules, such as carbon monoxide. The design of microwave telescopes is most similar to that of radio telescopes: large metallic “dishes” that collect and focus the longer wavelengths of microwave light. Radio Telescopes Radio waves have long wavelengths, from a meter on up to over a kilometer. Extremely large telescope dishes are required to capture these long wavelengths. Radio telescopes can reveal details of distant galaxies and nebulae. Radio telescopes helped astronomers discover “pulsars,” which are collapsed stars that rotate rapidly, emitting pulses of radio waves like the rotating lights on a police car or a lighthouse.

Question: Explain the differences between gamma ray and infrared telescopes. System Instructions: All your responses are based exclusively in the user-provided text. You do not use any outside information or prior knowledge in your responses. Text: The Ability to Detect Wavelengths of Light Invisible to Humans Many telescopes are built to detect wavelengths of light your eyes cannot. Light from space comes in many wavelengths, most of which are invisible to the human eye—including gamma rays, X rays, ultraviolet and infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves. Whether visible or invisible, all light contains information about its source. So astronomers use special telescopes to detect wavelengths of light not visible to humans. The hotter an object is, the shorter the wavelengths of light it gives off. Because stars are so hot, much of the light they emit is in wavelengths too short for your eyes to see. Pictures of the Sun taken in ultraviolet or X-ray light, for instance, show hot, glowing jets of gas arching out of the Sun. These shapes are always there, but they cannot be seen in visible wavelengths. Telescopes sensitive to different wavelengths of light are useful in observing different astronomical phenomena. Gamma Ray Telescopes Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and contain the most energy of any form of light. They are believed to come from highly energetic processes such as collisions between two black holes, collisions between two neutron stars, or the collapse of hyperstars—giant stars even bigger than the ones that cause supernovas. The design of a gamma-ray telescope is unique in that the telescope itself is one big detector without any lenses or mirrors. The wavelengths of gamma rays are so small that they pass easily through conventional lenses or mirrors. X-ray Telescopes X-ray telescopes are used to observe extremely hot sources, such as the gases around black holes. X-ray telescopes cannot focus X-ray light the same way that ordinary telescopes do, because X-rays go right through most mirrors. Some X ray telescopes have special mirrors shaped like long, narrow tubes. As X rays enter the tube, they graze the mirror just enough to reflect gently toward a detector instead of passing through the mirror. Ultraviolet Telescopes Ultraviolet (UV) light has shorter wavelengths than visible light. These waves come from very hot stars. Ultraviolet telescopes can also be used to observe the hot gases surrounding the Sun. UV telescopes appear very similar in design to visible light telescopes except they are equipped with specially designed detectors sensitive to UV light. Visible Light Telescopes Optical telescopes capture the same kind of light your eyes can see. They reveal how distant objects would look if we were closer to them. Most of the cosmic images we see in magazines and newspapers come from visible light telescopes. Visible light is also a good source of information about average-temperature stars like the Sun. Infrared Telescopes Infrared light has fairly long wavelengths that pass through clouds of dust better than light with shorter wavelengths. Infrared telescopes are used to observe objects surrounded by dust, such as young stars being born inside nebulae. Because all warm objects give off infrared light, infrared telescopes are chilled so that they won’t detect their own glow. The lifespan of an infrared telescope is limited by how long the telescope can be kept cool. Microwave Telescopes Microwaves are used to observe the afterglow of the Big Bang, the ancient explosion that created the Universe. Microwave radiation also reveals the presence of many small molecules, such as carbon monoxide. The design of microwave telescopes is most similar to that of radio telescopes: large metallic “dishes” that collect and focus the longer wavelengths of microwave light. Radio Telescopes Radio waves have long wavelengths, from a meter on up to over a kilometer. Extremely large telescope dishes are required to capture these long wavelengths. Radio telescopes can reveal details of distant galaxies and nebulae. Radio telescopes helped astronomers discover “pulsars,” which are collapsed stars that rotate rapidly, emitting pulses of radio waves like the rotating lights on a police car or a lighthouse.

Model must only respond using information contained in the context block. Model should not rely on its own knowledge or outside sources of information when responding.

In which situations will the Accidental Death Policy not pay out?

LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER POLICY SUMMARY. This policy is provided by Legal & General Assurance Society Limited. OVERVIEW. These policies are designed for people who want to help protect against the impact of death or terminal illness or critical illness. The policy could be used to help pay your outstanding mortgage or to help protect your family’s lifestyle and everyday living expenses. This Policy Summary is only a brief guide to the cover and exclusions. You will find full details in the Policy Booklet which will form the basis of our contract with you. WHAT IS COVERED? Life insurance You will be covered if before the end of the policy: • you die. • you are diagnosed as being terminally ill, and in the opinion of your hospital consultant and our medical officer, the illness is expected to lead to death within 12 months. We’ll pay out your amount of cover once. After this happens, the policy will end and you’ll no longer have any cover. Critical illness cover If you choose to add critical illness cover alongside your life insurance as a separate policy, (also referred to as additional or independent critical illness cover) you will be covered if before the end of the policy: • You are diagnosed with or undergo a medical procedure for one of the critical illnesses we cover and you survive for 14 days from diagnosis. We’ll pay out your amount of cover in full once. After this happens, the policy will end and you’ll no longer have any cover. T 2 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER XWHAT IS NOT COVERED? You are not covered if you don’t give us full and honest answers to the questions we ask you before the policy starts. Please don’t assume that we’ll contact your doctor to find out your full medical details. Life insurance We won’t pay out: • If within the first year of the policy, your death is caused by suicide or, intentional and serious self-injury or an event where, in our reasonable opinion, you took your own life. • If some elements of cover are restricted based on the information you give us. If we do this we’ll tell you what we’ve excluded in your policy booklet under ‘What you are not covered for’. • The amount of cover more than once if a joint life policy is chosen. This may be when the first person dies or has a valid claim. We have a replacement cover option which could allow the other person covered to take out a new single life policy, ensuring they still have some protection in place. • If you are diagnosed with a terminal illness which doesn’t meet our definition. Terminal Illness cover can’t be claimed: • after your death • or if the length of the policy is less than two years. Critical illness cover We won’t pay out: • If you are diagnosed with or undergo a medical procedure for one of the critical illnesses we cover which doesn’t meet our definition. • If death occurs within 14 days of diagnosis of one of the critical illnesses we cover. • If you die. • If some elements of cover are restricted based on the information you give us. If we do this we’ll tell you what we’ve excluded in your policy booklet under ‘What you are not covered for’. • The amount of cover more than once if a joint life policy is chosen. This will be when the first person has a valid claim. We have a replacement cover option which could allow the other person covered to take out a new single life policy, ensuring they still have some protection in place. For all policies • Life cover policies have no cash value and we will not pay out if you reach the end of the policy without making a valid claim. • If you stop paying your premiums your cover will end 60 days after the first missed premium. 3 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER ABOUT THE POLICY. YOUR PREMIUMS Your premiums will remain the same during the length of the policy unless you make any changes. AGE LIMITS Product Maximum age for buying a policy Minimum length of the policy Maximum length of the policy Your policy must end before age Life Insurance* 77 1 year 50 years 90 Decreasing Life Insurance* 74 5 years 50 years 90 Critical Illness Cover* 67 2 years 50 years 75 The minimum age to take out a policy is 18. The policy must not end before your 29th birthday. *Guaranteed premiums 4 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER YOUR COVER Level cover If you choose level cover, your amount of cover will stay the same unless you change it. If the policy is to help repay a mortgage, you need to ensure that your amount of cover matches your outstanding mortgage. The policy may not completely pay off your outstanding mortgage, if you change the mortgage you have in any way and you don’t adjust your cover to match your new arrangements. Decreasing cover If you choose decreasing cover it is often used to help protect a repayment mortgage. Therefore the amount of cover reduces roughly in line with the way a repayment mortgage decreases. You need to ensure that your amount of cover matches your outstanding mortgage. The policy may not completely pay off your outstanding mortgage, if: • you change the mortgage you have in any way and you don’t adjust your cover to match your new arrangements. • the interest rate on your mortgage becomes higher than the rate applied to the policy. The rate will be shown in your Personal Quote or the Policy Booklet. 5 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER BENEFITS FOR LIFE INSURANCE. The following benefit(s) may have eligibility criteria and restrictions that apply. ACCIDENTAL DEATH BENEFIT Included at no extra cost. WHAT IS COVERED? We’ll cover you from when we receive your application, for up to 90 days or until we accept, postpone or decline your application. This means that if you die due to an accident during this time, we’ll pay out the amount you’ve asked to be insured for, up to a maximum of £300,000 for all applications. The benefit will be paid out if the person covered, or one of the persons covered, sustains a bodily injury caused by accidental, violent, external and visible means, which solely and independently of any other cause results in death within 90 days of the accident. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? We won’t pay out if death occurs from: • Suicide, intentional and serious self-injury or an event where, in our reasonable opinion, you took your own life. • Taking part or attempting to take part in a dangerous sport or pastime. • Taking part or attempting to take part in any aerial flight other than as a fare paying passenger on a licensed airline. • Committing, attempting or provoking an assault or criminal offence. • War (whether declared or not), riot or civil commotion. • Taking alcohol or drugs (unless these drugs were prescribed by a registered doctor in the United Kingdom). • Accidents that happened before you applied. We don’t provide this benefit: • If we have been told that the application is to replace an existing policy with us while cover is still provided under the existing policy. • From the date you tell us that you no longer want the application to proceed. Your lump sum will be paid only once either under the Accidental Death Benefit, Free Life Cover or the policy itself. T X 6 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER FREE LIFE COVER Included at no extra cost if you are moving home. WHAT IS COVERED? We’ll cover you if you die between exchange of contracts and completion of your property purchase up to a maximum of 90 days, provided you are accepted on standard terms and we have everything we need to start your policy. Your Free Life Cover will end as soon as the policy starts. You’ll be covered for the lower of your proposed amount of cover or the amount of your mortgage, up to a maximum of £300,000. If you live in Scotland, you’ll be covered between completion of missives and your date of entry. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? You won’t be accepted for Free Life Cover if you are 55 years old or over. For joint life policies you both need to be under this age for Free Life Cover to apply. We won’t provide cover if you have another policy with any provider covering the same mortgage. Your amount of cover will be paid only once either under Free Life Cover, Accidental Death Benefit or the policy itself. T X 7 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER CRITICAL ILLNESSES COVERED. If you choose Critical Illness Cover, you will be covered for the illnesses shown below. For a claim to pay out, your illness must meet Legal & General’s definition. It must also be verified by a consultant at a hospital in the UK, who is a specialist in an area of medicine appropriate to the cause of your claim as in some instances cover may be limited. For example: • some types of cancer are not covered • to make a claim for some illnesses, you need to have permanent symptoms. Please check the full definitions found in the Guide to Critical Illness Cover and Policy Booklet to make sure that you understand exactly what is covered. • Aorta graft surgery - requiring surgical replacement. • Aplastic anaemia - with permanent bone marrow failure. • Bacterial meningitis - resulting in permanent symptoms • Benign brain tumour - resulting in either surgical removal or permanent symptoms. • Blindness - permanent and irreversible. • Cancer - excluding less advanced cases. • Cardiac arrest - with insertion of a defibrillator. • Cardiomyopathy - of specified severity. • Coma - with associated permanent symptoms. • Coronary artery by-pass grafts – with surgery to divide the breastbone or thoracotomy. • Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) – resulting in permanent symptoms. • Deafness - permanent and irreversible. • Dementia including Alzheimer’s disease - of specified severity. • Encephalitis - resulting in permanent symptoms. • Heart attack - of specified severity. • Heart valve replacement or repair - with surgery. • Kidney failure - requiring permanent dialysis. • Liver failure - of advanced stage. • Loss of hand or foot – permanent physical severance. • Loss of speech - total permanent and irreversible. • Major organ transplant – from another donor. • Motor neurone disease - resulting in permanent symptoms. • Multiple sclerosis - where there have been symptoms. • Multiple system atrophy – resulting in permanent symptoms. 8 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER • Open heart surgery – with median sternotomy. • Paralysis of limb – total and irreversible. • Parkinson’s disease - resulting in permanent symptoms. • Primary pulmonary hypertension - of specified severity. • Progressive supranuclear palsy – resulting in permanent symptoms. • Removal of an eyeball – due to injury or disease. • Respiratory failure - of advanced stage. • Spinal stroke - resulting in symptoms lasting at least 24 hours. • Stroke - resulting in symptoms lasting at least 24 hours. • Systemic lupus erythematosus - with severe complications. • Third degree burns - covering 20% of the surface area of the body or 20% of the face or head. • Traumatic brain injury – resulting in permanent symptoms. • Total and Permanent Disability – of specified severity. We’ll cover you for the loss of physical or mental ability, due to an illness or injury, to do either your own occupation or at least three of the six Specified Work Tasks (see section headed Specified Work Tasks). The definition that applies to you will be shown in the Policy Booklet and will depend on your occupation, employment status and whether you are paid for your work. Total and Permanent Disability will end when the oldest person covered reaches the policy end date, or 70th birthday, whichever is earlier. SPECIFIED WORK TASKS Walking – The ability to walk more than 200 metres on a level surface. Climbing – The ability to climb up a flight of 12 stairs and down again, using the handrail if needed. Lifting – The ability to pick up an object weighing 2kg at table height and hold for 60 seconds before replacing the object on the table. Bending – The ability to bend or kneel to touch the floor and straighten up again. Getting in and out of a car – The ability to get into a standard saloon car, and out again. Writing – The manual dexterity to write legibly using a pen or pencil, or type using a desktop personal computer keyboard. 9 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER ADDITIONAL COVER IF CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER IS CHOSEN. • Carcinoma in situ of the breast - treated by surgery. • Low grade prostate cancer - requiring treatment. WHAT IS COVERED? Unless specifically excluded in the Policy Booklet under the heading ‘What you are not covered for’: We’ll pay out 25% of your amount of cover up to a maximum of £25,000. Your amount of cover and premiums will not be affected if we make an additional payment to you and we’ll still pay out the amount you are covered for under the main policy in case of a terminal illness or critical illness or death. We’ll only pay out once for each definition shown above. If joint life cover is chosen both lives insured will be able to claim. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? Please check the full definitions found in the Guide to Critical Illness Cover and Policy Booklet to make sure you understand exactly what is not covered. T X 10 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER EXTRA BENEFITS INCLUDED IF CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER IS CHOSEN. ACCIDENT HOSPITALISATION BENEFIT WHAT IS COVERED? We’ll pay £5,000 if you are in hospital with physical injuries for a minimum of 28 consecutive days, immediately following an accident. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? This benefit will not be payable if a valid claim has been made for Critical Illness Cover. We’ll only pay one claim for each person covered T X 11 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER CHILDREN'S CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER WHAT IS COVERED? We’ll cover a relevant child* or any children you have in the future if, before the end of your policy, they’re diagnosed with one of the critical illnesses we cover, including Additional Cover (except for Total and Permanent Disability). They are covered from when they’re 30 days old to their 18th birthday (or 21st birthday if they’re in full time education). We’ll pay out 50% of your original amount of cover up to a maximum of £25,000 for a valid claim. Your amount of cover and premiums will not be affected if we make an additional payment to you. We’ll pay out one claim per relevant child* under the policy. Once two claims in total have been made, children’s cover will end. If the same relevant child* is covered by more than one policy issued by us, we’ll pay out a maximum of £50,000 for that relevant child*. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? Your children will not be covered: • For Total and Permanent Disability. • For Terminal Illness Cover. • For any condition that was present at birth. • Where the symptoms arose before the relevant child* was covered. • If death occurs within 14 days of diagnosis of one of the critical illnesses we cover. T X 12 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER ADDITIONAL BENEFITS INCLUDED FOR CHILDREN'S CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER Your amount of cover and premiums will not be affected if we make an additional benefit payment to you. For further details, please read your Policy Booklet. Child Accident Hospitalisation Benefit - pays £5,000 if a relevant child* is admitted to hospital with physical injuries for a minimum of 28 consecutive days immediately following an accident. Child Funeral Benefit - contributes £4,000 towards the funeral of a relevant child*. Childcare Benefit - if we have paid a claim for a critical illness under this policy, and you have a natural child, legally adopted child or stepchild under 5 years old, we’ll pay up to £1,000 towards childcare with a registered childminder. Family Accommodation Benefit - pays £100 for every night a relevant child* spends in hospital, in the three months immediately following diagnosis of one of the critical illnesses covered (up to a maximum of £1,000). *Relevant child - a natural child, legally adopted child or stepchild of the person covered, who is at least 30 days old and younger than 18 (21 years old if in full-time education). 13 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER FURTHER INFORMATION. CAN I INCREASE MY COVER? You can apply to increase your cover at anytime. Usually, changes to your amount of cover will be assessed at the time. However, if the ‘Changing your policy’ section is shown in your Policy Booklet then you can increase your cover, for certain life events, without the need to provide us with further medical information. Please see your Policy Booklet for further information. Eligibility criteria apply. CAN I MAKE CHANGES? You can make changes to the policy. Please talk to us and we’ll consider your request and let you know if what you’re asking for is possible and what your new premium will be. If you make any changes to the policy then a new policy may be set up and different terms and conditions could apply. WHAT HAPPENS IF I MOVE ABROAD? If you move abroad during the length of the policy, please check the Policy Booklet, as your policy may be affected. ARE PAY OUTS TAXED? For life insurance Any pay outs we make should be free from UK Income Tax and Capital Gains Tax. The Government may change this tax position at any time. If the policy is written under a suitable trust, the amount of cover payable on death should not form part of the estate for Inheritance Tax purposes. If the policy is not written in trust, the amount of cover payable will normally go into the estate and Inheritance Tax may apply. For critical illness cover Any pay outs that we make should be free from UK Income Tax and Capital Gains Tax. The Government may change this tax position at any time. If you are diagnosed with or undergo a medical procedure for one of the specified critical illnesses we cover and you survive 10 days from diagnosis then the policy may pay out after you die in which case the amount of cover will be payable to your estate and may be subject to Inheritance Tax. If the policy is absolutely assigned, the amount of cover payable should not form part of the estate for Inheritance Tax purposes. The policy cannot be issued or assigned into a trust. 14 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER WHAT IF I WANT TO CANCEL OR CLAIM? You can cancel the policy at any time. When you first take out the policy you will have the opportunity to cancel. If you cancel within 30 days, we’ll refund any premiums you’ve paid. If you cancel the policy at a later stage, you will not get any money back if you pay your premiums monthly. If you pay annually you will receive a proportionate refund of your annual premium. To cancel or claim you can write to us at: Claims or Cancellations Department, Legal & General Assurance Society Limited, City Park, The Droveway, Hove, East Sussex BN3 7PY. Or call or email us: • For Life claims: 0800 137 101* [email protected] • For critical illness claims: 0800 068 0789* [email protected] • For Cancellations: 0370 010 4080* HOW DO I COMPLAIN? If you have a complaint about our service or would like a copy of our internal complaint handling procedure, please contact us at: Legal & General Assurance Society Limited, Four Central Square, Cardiff CF10 1FS 0370 010 4080* Making a complaint doesn’t affect your legal rights. If you’re not happy with the way we handle your complaint, you can talk to the Financial Ombudsman Service at: Exchange Tower, London E14 9SR 0800 023 4567 0300 123 9123 [email protected] www.financial-ombudsman.org.uk * Calls may be recorded and monitored. Call charges may vary. 15 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER M www.legalandgeneral.com Legal & General Assurance Society Limited Registered in England and Wales No. 00166055 Registered office: One Coleman Street, London EC2R5AA We are authorised by the Prudential Regulation Authority and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority and the Prudential Regulation Authority. 02/2024 QGI16569 THE FINANCIAL SERVICES COMPENSATION SCHEME (FSCS) We are covered by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme (FSCS). You may be entitled to compensation from the scheme if we cannot meet our obligations. Whether or not you are able to claim and how much you may be entitled to will depend on the specific circumstances at the time. For further information about the scheme please contact the FSCS at: www.fscs.org.uk or call them on: 0800 678 1100. Alternative formats If you would like a copy of this in large print, braille, PDF or in an audio format, call us on 0370 010 4080. We may record and monitor calls. Call charges will vary.

Model must only respond using information contained in the context block. Model should not rely on its own knowledge or outside sources of information when responding. In which situations will the Accidental Death Policy not pay out? LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER POLICY SUMMARY. This policy is provided by Legal & General Assurance Society Limited. OVERVIEW. These policies are designed for people who want to help protect against the impact of death or terminal illness or critical illness. The policy could be used to help pay your outstanding mortgage or to help protect your family’s lifestyle and everyday living expenses. This Policy Summary is only a brief guide to the cover and exclusions. You will find full details in the Policy Booklet which will form the basis of our contract with you. WHAT IS COVERED? Life insurance You will be covered if before the end of the policy: • you die. • you are diagnosed as being terminally ill, and in the opinion of your hospital consultant and our medical officer, the illness is expected to lead to death within 12 months. We’ll pay out your amount of cover once. After this happens, the policy will end and you’ll no longer have any cover. Critical illness cover If you choose to add critical illness cover alongside your life insurance as a separate policy, (also referred to as additional or independent critical illness cover) you will be covered if before the end of the policy: • You are diagnosed with or undergo a medical procedure for one of the critical illnesses we cover and you survive for 14 days from diagnosis. We’ll pay out your amount of cover in full once. After this happens, the policy will end and you’ll no longer have any cover. T 2 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER XWHAT IS NOT COVERED? You are not covered if you don’t give us full and honest answers to the questions we ask you before the policy starts. Please don’t assume that we’ll contact your doctor to find out your full medical details. Life insurance We won’t pay out: • If within the first year of the policy, your death is caused by suicide or, intentional and serious self-injury or an event where, in our reasonable opinion, you took your own life. • If some elements of cover are restricted based on the information you give us. If we do this we’ll tell you what we’ve excluded in your policy booklet under ‘What you are not covered for’. • The amount of cover more than once if a joint life policy is chosen. This may be when the first person dies or has a valid claim. We have a replacement cover option which could allow the other person covered to take out a new single life policy, ensuring they still have some protection in place. • If you are diagnosed with a terminal illness which doesn’t meet our definition. Terminal Illness cover can’t be claimed: • after your death • or if the length of the policy is less than two years. Critical illness cover We won’t pay out: • If you are diagnosed with or undergo a medical procedure for one of the critical illnesses we cover which doesn’t meet our definition. • If death occurs within 14 days of diagnosis of one of the critical illnesses we cover. • If you die. • If some elements of cover are restricted based on the information you give us. If we do this we’ll tell you what we’ve excluded in your policy booklet under ‘What you are not covered for’. • The amount of cover more than once if a joint life policy is chosen. This will be when the first person has a valid claim. We have a replacement cover option which could allow the other person covered to take out a new single life policy, ensuring they still have some protection in place. For all policies • Life cover policies have no cash value and we will not pay out if you reach the end of the policy without making a valid claim. • If you stop paying your premiums your cover will end 60 days after the first missed premium. 3 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER ABOUT THE POLICY. YOUR PREMIUMS Your premiums will remain the same during the length of the policy unless you make any changes. AGE LIMITS Product Maximum age for buying a policy Minimum length of the policy Maximum length of the policy Your policy must end before age Life Insurance* 77 1 year 50 years 90 Decreasing Life Insurance* 74 5 years 50 years 90 Critical Illness Cover* 67 2 years 50 years 75 The minimum age to take out a policy is 18. The policy must not end before your 29th birthday. *Guaranteed premiums 4 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER YOUR COVER Level cover If you choose level cover, your amount of cover will stay the same unless you change it. If the policy is to help repay a mortgage, you need to ensure that your amount of cover matches your outstanding mortgage. The policy may not completely pay off your outstanding mortgage, if you change the mortgage you have in any way and you don’t adjust your cover to match your new arrangements. Decreasing cover If you choose decreasing cover it is often used to help protect a repayment mortgage. Therefore the amount of cover reduces roughly in line with the way a repayment mortgage decreases. You need to ensure that your amount of cover matches your outstanding mortgage. The policy may not completely pay off your outstanding mortgage, if: • you change the mortgage you have in any way and you don’t adjust your cover to match your new arrangements. • the interest rate on your mortgage becomes higher than the rate applied to the policy. The rate will be shown in your Personal Quote or the Policy Booklet. 5 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER BENEFITS FOR LIFE INSURANCE. The following benefit(s) may have eligibility criteria and restrictions that apply. ACCIDENTAL DEATH BENEFIT Included at no extra cost. WHAT IS COVERED? We’ll cover you from when we receive your application, for up to 90 days or until we accept, postpone or decline your application. This means that if you die due to an accident during this time, we’ll pay out the amount you’ve asked to be insured for, up to a maximum of £300,000 for all applications. The benefit will be paid out if the person covered, or one of the persons covered, sustains a bodily injury caused by accidental, violent, external and visible means, which solely and independently of any other cause results in death within 90 days of the accident. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? We won’t pay out if death occurs from: • Suicide, intentional and serious self-injury or an event where, in our reasonable opinion, you took your own life. • Taking part or attempting to take part in a dangerous sport or pastime. • Taking part or attempting to take part in any aerial flight other than as a fare paying passenger on a licensed airline. • Committing, attempting or provoking an assault or criminal offence. • War (whether declared or not), riot or civil commotion. • Taking alcohol or drugs (unless these drugs were prescribed by a registered doctor in the United Kingdom). • Accidents that happened before you applied. We don’t provide this benefit: • If we have been told that the application is to replace an existing policy with us while cover is still provided under the existing policy. • From the date you tell us that you no longer want the application to proceed. Your lump sum will be paid only once either under the Accidental Death Benefit, Free Life Cover or the policy itself. T X 6 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER FREE LIFE COVER Included at no extra cost if you are moving home. WHAT IS COVERED? We’ll cover you if you die between exchange of contracts and completion of your property purchase up to a maximum of 90 days, provided you are accepted on standard terms and we have everything we need to start your policy. Your Free Life Cover will end as soon as the policy starts. You’ll be covered for the lower of your proposed amount of cover or the amount of your mortgage, up to a maximum of £300,000. If you live in Scotland, you’ll be covered between completion of missives and your date of entry. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? You won’t be accepted for Free Life Cover if you are 55 years old or over. For joint life policies you both need to be under this age for Free Life Cover to apply. We won’t provide cover if you have another policy with any provider covering the same mortgage. Your amount of cover will be paid only once either under Free Life Cover, Accidental Death Benefit or the policy itself. T X 7 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER CRITICAL ILLNESSES COVERED. If you choose Critical Illness Cover, you will be covered for the illnesses shown below. For a claim to pay out, your illness must meet Legal & General’s definition. It must also be verified by a consultant at a hospital in the UK, who is a specialist in an area of medicine appropriate to the cause of your claim as in some instances cover may be limited. For example: • some types of cancer are not covered • to make a claim for some illnesses, you need to have permanent symptoms. Please check the full definitions found in the Guide to Critical Illness Cover and Policy Booklet to make sure that you understand exactly what is covered. • Aorta graft surgery - requiring surgical replacement. • Aplastic anaemia - with permanent bone marrow failure. • Bacterial meningitis - resulting in permanent symptoms • Benign brain tumour - resulting in either surgical removal or permanent symptoms. • Blindness - permanent and irreversible. • Cancer - excluding less advanced cases. • Cardiac arrest - with insertion of a defibrillator. • Cardiomyopathy - of specified severity. • Coma - with associated permanent symptoms. • Coronary artery by-pass grafts – with surgery to divide the breastbone or thoracotomy. • Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) – resulting in permanent symptoms. • Deafness - permanent and irreversible. • Dementia including Alzheimer’s disease - of specified severity. • Encephalitis - resulting in permanent symptoms. • Heart attack - of specified severity. • Heart valve replacement or repair - with surgery. • Kidney failure - requiring permanent dialysis. • Liver failure - of advanced stage. • Loss of hand or foot – permanent physical severance. • Loss of speech - total permanent and irreversible. • Major organ transplant – from another donor. • Motor neurone disease - resulting in permanent symptoms. • Multiple sclerosis - where there have been symptoms. • Multiple system atrophy – resulting in permanent symptoms. 8 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER • Open heart surgery – with median sternotomy. • Paralysis of limb – total and irreversible. • Parkinson’s disease - resulting in permanent symptoms. • Primary pulmonary hypertension - of specified severity. • Progressive supranuclear palsy – resulting in permanent symptoms. • Removal of an eyeball – due to injury or disease. • Respiratory failure - of advanced stage. • Spinal stroke - resulting in symptoms lasting at least 24 hours. • Stroke - resulting in symptoms lasting at least 24 hours. • Systemic lupus erythematosus - with severe complications. • Third degree burns - covering 20% of the surface area of the body or 20% of the face or head. • Traumatic brain injury – resulting in permanent symptoms. • Total and Permanent Disability – of specified severity. We’ll cover you for the loss of physical or mental ability, due to an illness or injury, to do either your own occupation or at least three of the six Specified Work Tasks (see section headed Specified Work Tasks). The definition that applies to you will be shown in the Policy Booklet and will depend on your occupation, employment status and whether you are paid for your work. Total and Permanent Disability will end when the oldest person covered reaches the policy end date, or 70th birthday, whichever is earlier. SPECIFIED WORK TASKS Walking – The ability to walk more than 200 metres on a level surface. Climbing – The ability to climb up a flight of 12 stairs and down again, using the handrail if needed. Lifting – The ability to pick up an object weighing 2kg at table height and hold for 60 seconds before replacing the object on the table. Bending – The ability to bend or kneel to touch the floor and straighten up again. Getting in and out of a car – The ability to get into a standard saloon car, and out again. Writing – The manual dexterity to write legibly using a pen or pencil, or type using a desktop personal computer keyboard. 9 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER ADDITIONAL COVER IF CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER IS CHOSEN. • Carcinoma in situ of the breast - treated by surgery. • Low grade prostate cancer - requiring treatment. WHAT IS COVERED? Unless specifically excluded in the Policy Booklet under the heading ‘What you are not covered for’: We’ll pay out 25% of your amount of cover up to a maximum of £25,000. Your amount of cover and premiums will not be affected if we make an additional payment to you and we’ll still pay out the amount you are covered for under the main policy in case of a terminal illness or critical illness or death. We’ll only pay out once for each definition shown above. If joint life cover is chosen both lives insured will be able to claim. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? Please check the full definitions found in the Guide to Critical Illness Cover and Policy Booklet to make sure you understand exactly what is not covered. T X 10 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER EXTRA BENEFITS INCLUDED IF CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER IS CHOSEN. ACCIDENT HOSPITALISATION BENEFIT WHAT IS COVERED? We’ll pay £5,000 if you are in hospital with physical injuries for a minimum of 28 consecutive days, immediately following an accident. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? This benefit will not be payable if a valid claim has been made for Critical Illness Cover. We’ll only pay one claim for each person covered T X 11 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER CHILDREN'S CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER WHAT IS COVERED? We’ll cover a relevant child* or any children you have in the future if, before the end of your policy, they’re diagnosed with one of the critical illnesses we cover, including Additional Cover (except for Total and Permanent Disability). They are covered from when they’re 30 days old to their 18th birthday (or 21st birthday if they’re in full time education). We’ll pay out 50% of your original amount of cover up to a maximum of £25,000 for a valid claim. Your amount of cover and premiums will not be affected if we make an additional payment to you. We’ll pay out one claim per relevant child* under the policy. Once two claims in total have been made, children’s cover will end. If the same relevant child* is covered by more than one policy issued by us, we’ll pay out a maximum of £50,000 for that relevant child*. WHAT IS NOT COVERED? Your children will not be covered: • For Total and Permanent Disability. • For Terminal Illness Cover. • For any condition that was present at birth. • Where the symptoms arose before the relevant child* was covered. • If death occurs within 14 days of diagnosis of one of the critical illnesses we cover. T X 12 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER ADDITIONAL BENEFITS INCLUDED FOR CHILDREN'S CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER Your amount of cover and premiums will not be affected if we make an additional benefit payment to you. For further details, please read your Policy Booklet. Child Accident Hospitalisation Benefit - pays £5,000 if a relevant child* is admitted to hospital with physical injuries for a minimum of 28 consecutive days immediately following an accident. Child Funeral Benefit - contributes £4,000 towards the funeral of a relevant child*. Childcare Benefit - if we have paid a claim for a critical illness under this policy, and you have a natural child, legally adopted child or stepchild under 5 years old, we’ll pay up to £1,000 towards childcare with a registered childminder. Family Accommodation Benefit - pays £100 for every night a relevant child* spends in hospital, in the three months immediately following diagnosis of one of the critical illnesses covered (up to a maximum of £1,000). *Relevant child - a natural child, legally adopted child or stepchild of the person covered, who is at least 30 days old and younger than 18 (21 years old if in full-time education). 13 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER FURTHER INFORMATION. CAN I INCREASE MY COVER? You can apply to increase your cover at anytime. Usually, changes to your amount of cover will be assessed at the time. However, if the ‘Changing your policy’ section is shown in your Policy Booklet then you can increase your cover, for certain life events, without the need to provide us with further medical information. Please see your Policy Booklet for further information. Eligibility criteria apply. CAN I MAKE CHANGES? You can make changes to the policy. Please talk to us and we’ll consider your request and let you know if what you’re asking for is possible and what your new premium will be. If you make any changes to the policy then a new policy may be set up and different terms and conditions could apply. WHAT HAPPENS IF I MOVE ABROAD? If you move abroad during the length of the policy, please check the Policy Booklet, as your policy may be affected. ARE PAY OUTS TAXED? For life insurance Any pay outs we make should be free from UK Income Tax and Capital Gains Tax. The Government may change this tax position at any time. If the policy is written under a suitable trust, the amount of cover payable on death should not form part of the estate for Inheritance Tax purposes. If the policy is not written in trust, the amount of cover payable will normally go into the estate and Inheritance Tax may apply. For critical illness cover Any pay outs that we make should be free from UK Income Tax and Capital Gains Tax. The Government may change this tax position at any time. If you are diagnosed with or undergo a medical procedure for one of the specified critical illnesses we cover and you survive 10 days from diagnosis then the policy may pay out after you die in which case the amount of cover will be payable to your estate and may be subject to Inheritance Tax. If the policy is absolutely assigned, the amount of cover payable should not form part of the estate for Inheritance Tax purposes. The policy cannot be issued or assigned into a trust. 14 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER WHAT IF I WANT TO CANCEL OR CLAIM? You can cancel the policy at any time. When you first take out the policy you will have the opportunity to cancel. If you cancel within 30 days, we’ll refund any premiums you’ve paid. If you cancel the policy at a later stage, you will not get any money back if you pay your premiums monthly. If you pay annually you will receive a proportionate refund of your annual premium. To cancel or claim you can write to us at: Claims or Cancellations Department, Legal & General Assurance Society Limited, City Park, The Droveway, Hove, East Sussex BN3 7PY. Or call or email us: • For Life claims: 0800 137 101* [email protected] • For critical illness claims: 0800 068 0789* [email protected] • For Cancellations: 0370 010 4080* HOW DO I COMPLAIN? If you have a complaint about our service or would like a copy of our internal complaint handling procedure, please contact us at: Legal & General Assurance Society Limited, Four Central Square, Cardiff CF10 1FS 0370 010 4080* Making a complaint doesn’t affect your legal rights. If you’re not happy with the way we handle your complaint, you can talk to the Financial Ombudsman Service at: Exchange Tower, London E14 9SR 0800 023 4567 0300 123 9123 [email protected] www.financial-ombudsman.org.uk * Calls may be recorded and monitored. Call charges may vary. 15 LIFE INSURANCE AND CRITICAL ILLNESS COVER M www.legalandgeneral.com Legal & General Assurance Society Limited Registered in England and Wales No. 00166055 Registered office: One Coleman Street, London EC2R5AA We are authorised by the Prudential Regulation Authority and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority and the Prudential Regulation Authority. 02/2024 QGI16569 THE FINANCIAL SERVICES COMPENSATION SCHEME (FSCS) We are covered by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme (FSCS). You may be entitled to compensation from the scheme if we cannot meet our obligations. Whether or not you are able to claim and how much you may be entitled to will depend on the specific circumstances at the time. For further information about the scheme please contact the FSCS at: www.fscs.org.uk or call them on: 0800 678 1100. Alternative formats If you would like a copy of this in large print, braille, PDF or in an audio format, call us on 0370 010 4080. We may record and monitor calls. Call charges will vary.

[question] [user request] ===================== [text] [context document] ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

I was reading this article about Coca-cola's earnings in Q4 2022, but I need a summary. Did the earnings per share performance have an impact on the data mentioned regarding cash flow? Please explain why or why not, and make it 300-350 words

ATLANTA, Feb. 14, 2023 – The Coca-Cola Company today reported strong fourth quarter and full-year 2022 results. “While 2022 brought many challenges, we are proud of our overall results in a dynamic operating environment,” said James Quincey, Chairman and CEO of The Coca-Cola Company. “As we begin 2023, we continue to invest in our capabilities and strengthen alignment with our bottling partners to maintain flexibility. We are keeping consumers at the center of our innovation and marketing investments, while also leveraging our expertise in revenue growth management and execution. Our growth culture is leading to new approaches, more experimentation, and improved agility to drive growth and value for our stakeholders.” Highlights Quarterly / Full-Year Performance • Revenues: For the quarter, net revenues were strong, growing 7% to $10.1 billion. Organic revenues (non-GAAP) grew 15%. Organic revenue (non-GAAP) performance was strong across operating segments and included 12% growth in price/mix and 2% growth in concentrate sales. The quarter included one additional day, which resulted in a 1-point tailwind to revenue growth. The quarter also benefited from the timing of concentrate shipments. For the full year, net revenues grew 11% to $43.0 billion, and organic revenues (non-GAAP) grew 16%. This performance was driven by 11% growth in price/mix and 5% growth in concentrate sales. • Operating margin: For the quarter, operating margin, which included items impacting comparability, was 20.5% versus 17.7% in the prior year, while comparable operating margin (non-GAAP) was 22.7% versus 22.1% in the 1 prior year. For the full year, operating margin, which included items impacting comparability, was 25.4% versus 26.7% in the prior year, while comparable operating margin (non-GAAP) was 28.7% in both the current year and the prior year. For both the quarter and the full year, operating margin benefited from strong topline growth but was unfavorably impacted by the BODYARMOR acquisition, higher operating costs, an increase in marketing investments versus the prior year, currency headwinds and items impacting comparability. • Earnings per share: For the quarter, EPS declined 16% to $0.47, and comparable EPS (non-GAAP) was even at $0.45. EPS performance included the impact of a 12-point currency headwind, while comparable EPS (non-GAAP) performance included the impact of an 11-point currency headwind. For the full year, EPS declined 3% to $2.19, and comparable EPS (non-GAAP) grew 7% to $2.48. EPS performance included the impact of an 11-point currency headwind, while comparable EPS (non-GAAP) performance included the impact of a 10-point currency headwind. • Market share: For both the quarter and the full year, the company gained value share in total nonalcoholic readyto-drink (“NARTD”) beverages, which included share gains in both at-home and away-from-home channels. • Cash flow: Cash flow from operations was $11.0 billion for the full year, a decline of $1.6 billion versus the prior year, as strong business performance was more than offset by the deliberate buildup of inventory in the face of a volatile commodity environment, cycling working capital benefits from the prior year, and higher tax payments and annual incentive payments in 2022. Free cash flow (non-GAAP) was $9.5 billion, a decline of $1.7 billion versus the prior year. Company Updates • Evolving company leadership to fuel growth: The company continues to focus on having the right leaders and organizational structure to deliver on its growth strategy, while also developing talent for the future. Through recent leadership appointments, the company continued to optimize its organizational design, connecting functions endto-end while identifying key opportunities to drive meaningful growth over the long term. During the quarter, John Murphy began an expanded role as President and Chief Financial Officer, and added oversight of Global Ventures, Bottling Investments, Platform Services, customer and commercial leadership, and online-to-offline digital transformation. The company also named Henrique Braun to the newly created role of President, International Development to oversee seven of the company’s nine operating units. Braun will steward growth of the consumer base across developing and emerging markets as well as developed markets. Braun will partner with Nikos Koumettis, President of the Europe operating unit, and Jennifer Mann, President of the North America operating unit, on global operational strategy in order to scale best practices and help ensure the company captures growth opportunities across all of its markets.

[question] I was reading this article about Coca-cola's earnings in Q4 2022, but I need a summary. Did the earnings per share performance have an impact on the data mentioned regarding cash flow? Please explain why or why not, and make it 300-350 words ===================== [text] ATLANTA, Feb. 14, 2023 – The Coca-Cola Company today reported strong fourth quarter and full-year 2022 results. “While 2022 brought many challenges, we are proud of our overall results in a dynamic operating environment,” said James Quincey, Chairman and CEO of The Coca-Cola Company. “As we begin 2023, we continue to invest in our capabilities and strengthen alignment with our bottling partners to maintain flexibility. We are keeping consumers at the center of our innovation and marketing investments, while also leveraging our expertise in revenue growth management and execution. Our growth culture is leading to new approaches, more experimentation, and improved agility to drive growth and value for our stakeholders.” Highlights Quarterly / Full-Year Performance • Revenues: For the quarter, net revenues were strong, growing 7% to $10.1 billion. Organic revenues (non-GAAP) grew 15%. Organic revenue (non-GAAP) performance was strong across operating segments and included 12% growth in price/mix and 2% growth in concentrate sales. The quarter included one additional day, which resulted in a 1-point tailwind to revenue growth. The quarter also benefited from the timing of concentrate shipments. For the full year, net revenues grew 11% to $43.0 billion, and organic revenues (non-GAAP) grew 16%. This performance was driven by 11% growth in price/mix and 5% growth in concentrate sales. • Operating margin: For the quarter, operating margin, which included items impacting comparability, was 20.5% versus 17.7% in the prior year, while comparable operating margin (non-GAAP) was 22.7% versus 22.1% in the 1 prior year. For the full year, operating margin, which included items impacting comparability, was 25.4% versus 26.7% in the prior year, while comparable operating margin (non-GAAP) was 28.7% in both the current year and the prior year. For both the quarter and the full year, operating margin benefited from strong topline growth but was unfavorably impacted by the BODYARMOR acquisition, higher operating costs, an increase in marketing investments versus the prior year, currency headwinds and items impacting comparability. • Earnings per share: For the quarter, EPS declined 16% to $0.47, and comparable EPS (non-GAAP) was even at $0.45. EPS performance included the impact of a 12-point currency headwind, while comparable EPS (non-GAAP) performance included the impact of an 11-point currency headwind. For the full year, EPS declined 3% to $2.19, and comparable EPS (non-GAAP) grew 7% to $2.48. EPS performance included the impact of an 11-point currency headwind, while comparable EPS (non-GAAP) performance included the impact of a 10-point currency headwind. • Market share: For both the quarter and the full year, the company gained value share in total nonalcoholic readyto-drink (“NARTD”) beverages, which included share gains in both at-home and away-from-home channels. • Cash flow: Cash flow from operations was $11.0 billion for the full year, a decline of $1.6 billion versus the prior year, as strong business performance was more than offset by the deliberate buildup of inventory in the face of a volatile commodity environment, cycling working capital benefits from the prior year, and higher tax payments and annual incentive payments in 2022. Free cash flow (non-GAAP) was $9.5 billion, a decline of $1.7 billion versus the prior year. Company Updates • Evolving company leadership to fuel growth: The company continues to focus on having the right leaders and organizational structure to deliver on its growth strategy, while also developing talent for the future. Through recent leadership appointments, the company continued to optimize its organizational design, connecting functions endto-end while identifying key opportunities to drive meaningful growth over the long term. During the quarter, John Murphy began an expanded role as President and Chief Financial Officer, and added oversight of Global Ventures, Bottling Investments, Platform Services, customer and commercial leadership, and online-to-offline digital transformation. The company also named Henrique Braun to the newly created role of President, International Development to oversee seven of the company’s nine operating units. Braun will steward growth of the consumer base across developing and emerging markets as well as developed markets. Braun will partner with Nikos Koumettis, President of the Europe operating unit, and Jennifer Mann, President of the North America operating unit, on global operational strategy in order to scale best practices and help ensure the company captures growth opportunities across all of its markets. https://d1io3yog0oux5.cloudfront.net/_e75f7be04b2b22ee66e5d86d26087f1e/cocacolacompany/db/734/7960/earnings_release/Coca-Cola+fourth+quarter+and+full+year+2022+full+earnings+release-2.14.23+FINAL.pdf ===================== [instruction] Answer the question using only the information provided in the context. Do not rely on external knowledge or sources.

System Instructions: [Only use the provided context to respond. You cannot use any other sources or prior knowledge. Omit all filler.]

Question: [If GM partners with my insurance company, can they give them information about how much I am driving?]

Context: [INFORMATION COLLECTED AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION As you interact with GM or our products, programs, and services, there may be opportunities for you to provide us with your information. Additionally, we may collect certain information about you or your vehicle as further described below. You may provide us with information about you or your vehicle through a number of sources: GM websites, applications, services, product and related events, surveys, social media platforms, sweepstakes entries and through our customer call centers. We may also collect information that is publicly available. For example, we may collect publicly available information you submit to a blog, a chat room, or a social media platform, and we may use your information for the purposes set out in this Privacy Statement. GM engages with consumers on multiple social media platforms and if you contact us on one of our social media pages, request assistance via social media or otherwise direct us to communicate with you via social media, we may contact you via direct message or use other social media tools to interact with you. In these instances, your interactions with us are governed by this Privacy Statement as well as the privacy policy of the social media platform you use. We also receive information about you through vehicle sales records provided by your dealer and we may obtain, with your consent, data obtained from your vehicle’s Event Data Recorder (“EDR”). For additional information about EDR data, please see your owner’s manual. We also may obtain information about you and your vehicle from GM affiliates, dealers, GM licensees for consumer merchandise, GM partners (for example, credit card bank partners) and other sources such as companies that provide lists of potential vehicle purchasers and current owners, if such companies are permitted to share your information with us pursuant to their privacy statements. We may combine information that we receive from the various sources described in this Privacy Statement, including third-party sources, with information you provide and use or share it for the purposes identified below. The types of information that GM collects about you, your vehicle, or your connected devices (such as your mobile phone, computer, or tablet) may include, but are not limited to: 3  identifiers (such as name, postal address, email address, screen name, account ID, customer number, and telephone number; in limited circumstances, GM may collect a Social Security Number, for example if you win a sweepstakes or receive compensation that must be reported for government tax purposes)  payment information (such as your credit card number, CVV code and expiration date)  information about your vehicle (such as license plate number, vehicle identification number (VIN), geolocation data, make, model, model year, selling dealer, servicing dealer, date of purchase or lease, the lease/financing term, service history, mileage, oil/battery status, fuel history, battery charging and discharging history, electrical system function, gear status, and diagnostic trouble codes)  information about your connected devices and how you interact with our products, services, apps and websites (such as IP address, browser type, unique device identifier, cookie data, and associated identifying and usage information)  demographic or protected classification information (such as gender, date of birth, marital status, household composition, or veteran or military status)  commercial information (such as when you plan to purchase or lease the vehicle in which you're interested)  audio or video information (such as information collected by sensors or cameras in the vehicle, recordings of when you speak with our customer call centers, or photographs and videos such as those that you may submit for contests, sweepstakes, and social sharing)  physiological or biological characteristics, such as medical information collected to provide OnStar emergency services that you have requested  biometric information (such as voiceprints, as described in the Biometric Technology Section below)  information about your home energy usage (such as your charging and discharging of electric vehicles and stationary storage, charging preferences, use of home energy products and services, and rate plans)  relationships you have with GM in addition to the purchase and servicing of your vehicle (such as through a My GM Rewards account, a GM Rewards Card or OnStar, etc.)  relationships you have with third parties in connection with your use of GM products and services (such as GM dealers, energy providers, companies offering or operating in-vehicle applications, and other companies we help you connect with)  information related to My GM Rewards and the My GM Rewards Card Program (“GM Card”), including rewards points, account type, tier status, enrollment, redemption  investor and stockholder services information (such as name, address, phone number, email address, and account information) USE The information GM collects about you, your vehicle, or your connected devices may be used:  to provide products and services, programs, and maintain customer relationshipsw  to improve the quality, safety, and security of our products and services 4  to administer your account(s) and process your payments for products and services  to operate our websites and applications, including online registration processes  to facilitate and support GM dealer and supplier diversity programs and GM grant programs  to autofill data fields on our websites to improve your online experience  to develop new products and services, including connected, autonomous and car-sharing products and services  to provide customer and vehicle support and service (such as recall information)  for warranty administration and validation  to provide information and product updates  to evaluate vehicle performance and safety  for research, evaluation of use, and troubleshooting purposes  to verify eligibility for vehicle purchase or incentive programs  to verify eligibility for GM card and to provide GM card account management services  for marketing and analytics purposes  to support the electronic signature and delivery process between you and your dealer  to customize and improve communication content  to evaluate or conduct a merger, divestiture, acquisition, restructuring, reorganization, dissolution, or other sale or transfer of some or all of our assets  to comply with legal, regulatory or contractual requirements  to protect our rights, or to detect, investigate and prevent fraud or other illegal activity Communications with you in connection with these uses may be via mail, telephone, e-mail, text message, social media, and other electronic messages, through the in-vehicle infotainment or OnStar system or via our websites and applications. Texting with GM is subject to the GM Consolidated Texting Policy (“Texting Policy,” available at gm.com/texting-policy). See “Choices” below to learn how to manage your communication preferences. You may choose to forward information from one of our websites or emails to another person through our Forward to a Friend or similar program. Email addresses submitted to our E-card or other Forward to a Friend programs are not used by us for other marketing purposes unless the recipient interacts with us separately. When we maintain and use information that has been deidentified, we take reasonable steps to ensure that such information is maintained and used only in deidentified form, and will not attempt to reidentify such information unless required or permitted by applicable law. SHARING GM may share the information it collects about you, your vehicle, or your connected devices (including the categories of information listed above) in the following instances and with the following categories of third parties:  within GM, with our GM controlled subsidiaries and affiliates, with GM dealers, with service providers we or our dealers use to deliver products and services to you, and with GM licensees. However, transaction information regarding your GM Card will not be shared with GM dealers 5  with our services providers who work on our behalf and who do not have an independent right to use the information to which they have access or that we disclose to them  with companies we enter into business or marketing arrangements with, such as arrangements supporting services we offer to you and our GM card program  with third parties for research and development purposes (such as university research institutes for improving highway safety)  in connection with the sale, transfer or financing of a significant part of a GM business or its assets, including any such activities associated with a bankruptcy proceeding  when we believe in good faith that disclosure is necessary to protect our rights, protect your safety or the safety of others, detect, investigate and prevent fraud or other illegal activity, or respond to a law enforcement request  as required or permitted by law, such as in conjunction with a subpoena, government inquiry, litigation, dispute resolution or similar legal process]

System Instructions: [Only use the provided context to respond. You cannot use any other sources or prior knowledge. Omit all filler.] Question: [If GM partners with my insurance company, can they give them information about how much I am driving?] Context: [INFORMATION COLLECTED AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION As you interact with GM or our products, programs, and services, there may be opportunities for you to provide us with your information. Additionally, we may collect certain information about you or your vehicle as further described below. You may provide us with information about you or your vehicle through a number of sources: GM websites, applications, services, product and related events, surveys, social media platforms, sweepstakes entries and through our customer call centers. We may also collect information that is publicly available. For example, we may collect publicly available information you submit to a blog, a chat room, or a social media platform, and we may use your information for the purposes set out in this Privacy Statement. GM engages with consumers on multiple social media platforms and if you contact us on one of our social media pages, request assistance via social media or otherwise direct us to communicate with you via social media, we may contact you via direct message or use other social media tools to interact with you. In these instances, your interactions with us are governed by this Privacy Statement as well as the privacy policy of the social media platform you use. We also receive information about you through vehicle sales records provided by your dealer and we may obtain, with your consent, data obtained from your vehicle’s Event Data Recorder (“EDR”). For additional information about EDR data, please see your owner’s manual. We also may obtain information about you and your vehicle from GM affiliates, dealers, GM licensees for consumer merchandise, GM partners (for example, credit card bank partners) and other sources such as companies that provide lists of potential vehicle purchasers and current owners, if such companies are permitted to share your information with us pursuant to their privacy statements. We may combine information that we receive from the various sources described in this Privacy Statement, including third-party sources, with information you provide and use or share it for the purposes identified below. The types of information that GM collects about you, your vehicle, or your connected devices (such as your mobile phone, computer, or tablet) may include, but are not limited to: 3  identifiers (such as name, postal address, email address, screen name, account ID, customer number, and telephone number; in limited circumstances, GM may collect a Social Security Number, for example if you win a sweepstakes or receive compensation that must be reported for government tax purposes)  payment information (such as your credit card number, CVV code and expiration date)  information about your vehicle (such as license plate number, vehicle identification number (VIN), geolocation data, make, model, model year, selling dealer, servicing dealer, date of purchase or lease, the lease/financing term, service history, mileage, oil/battery status, fuel history, battery charging and discharging history, electrical system function, gear status, and diagnostic trouble codes)  information about your connected devices and how you interact with our products, services, apps and websites (such as IP address, browser type, unique device identifier, cookie data, and associated identifying and usage information)  demographic or protected classification information (such as gender, date of birth, marital status, household composition, or veteran or military status)  commercial information (such as when you plan to purchase or lease the vehicle in which you're interested)  audio or video information (such as information collected by sensors or cameras in the vehicle, recordings of when you speak with our customer call centers, or photographs and videos such as those that you may submit for contests, sweepstakes, and social sharing)  physiological or biological characteristics, such as medical information collected to provide OnStar emergency services that you have requested  biometric information (such as voiceprints, as described in the Biometric Technology Section below)  information about your home energy usage (such as your charging and discharging of electric vehicles and stationary storage, charging preferences, use of home energy products and services, and rate plans)  relationships you have with GM in addition to the purchase and servicing of your vehicle (such as through a My GM Rewards account, a GM Rewards Card or OnStar, etc.)  relationships you have with third parties in connection with your use of GM products and services (such as GM dealers, energy providers, companies offering or operating in-vehicle applications, and other companies we help you connect with)  information related to My GM Rewards and the My GM Rewards Card Program (“GM Card”), including rewards points, account type, tier status, enrollment, redemption  investor and stockholder services information (such as name, address, phone number, email address, and account information) USE The information GM collects about you, your vehicle, or your connected devices may be used:  to provide products and services, programs, and maintain customer relationshipsw  to improve the quality, safety, and security of our products and services 4  to administer your account(s) and process your payments for products and services  to operate our websites and applications, including online registration processes  to facilitate and support GM dealer and supplier diversity programs and GM grant programs  to autofill data fields on our websites to improve your online experience  to develop new products and services, including connected, autonomous and car-sharing products and services  to provide customer and vehicle support and service (such as recall information)  for warranty administration and validation  to provide information and product updates  to evaluate vehicle performance and safety  for research, evaluation of use, and troubleshooting purposes  to verify eligibility for vehicle purchase or incentive programs  to verify eligibility for GM card and to provide GM card account management services  for marketing and analytics purposes  to support the electronic signature and delivery process between you and your dealer  to customize and improve communication content  to evaluate or conduct a merger, divestiture, acquisition, restructuring, reorganization, dissolution, or other sale or transfer of some or all of our assets  to comply with legal, regulatory or contractual requirements  to protect our rights, or to detect, investigate and prevent fraud or other illegal activity Communications with you in connection with these uses may be via mail, telephone, e-mail, text message, social media, and other electronic messages, through the in-vehicle infotainment or OnStar system or via our websites and applications. Texting with GM is subject to the GM Consolidated Texting Policy (“Texting Policy,” available at gm.com/texting-policy). See “Choices” below to learn how to manage your communication preferences. You may choose to forward information from one of our websites or emails to another person through our Forward to a Friend or similar program. Email addresses submitted to our E-card or other Forward to a Friend programs are not used by us for other marketing purposes unless the recipient interacts with us separately. When we maintain and use information that has been deidentified, we take reasonable steps to ensure that such information is maintained and used only in deidentified form, and will not attempt to reidentify such information unless required or permitted by applicable law. SHARING GM may share the information it collects about you, your vehicle, or your connected devices (including the categories of information listed above) in the following instances and with the following categories of third parties:  within GM, with our GM controlled subsidiaries and affiliates, with GM dealers, with service providers we or our dealers use to deliver products and services to you, and with GM licensees. However, transaction information regarding your GM Card will not be shared with GM dealers 5  with our services providers who work on our behalf and who do not have an independent right to use the information to which they have access or that we disclose to them  with companies we enter into business or marketing arrangements with, such as arrangements supporting services we offer to you and our GM card program  with third parties for research and development purposes (such as university research institutes for improving highway safety)  in connection with the sale, transfer or financing of a significant part of a GM business or its assets, including any such activities associated with a bankruptcy proceeding  when we believe in good faith that disclosure is necessary to protect our rights, protect your safety or the safety of others, detect, investigate and prevent fraud or other illegal activity, or respond to a law enforcement request  as required or permitted by law, such as in conjunction with a subpoena, government inquiry, litigation, dispute resolution or similar legal process]

Use only the provided context for your response, without relying on external information.

Only using the provided text, in which types of solid tumors does BRAF mutations occur?

**About BRAF Mutations** TESTING FOR BRAF MUTATIONS IN SOLID TUMORS CAN INFORM CRITICAL TREATMENT DECISIONS BRAF V600 has been identified as a driver mutation across various solid tumors BRAF mutations occur in about 8% of solid tumors, most commonly in melanoma and thyroid cancers Indication TAFINLAR, in combination with MEKINIST, is indicated for the treatment of adult and pediatric patients 1 year of age and older with unresectable or metastatic solid tumors with BRAF V600E mutation who have progressed following prior treatment and have no satisfactory alternative treatment options. This indication is approved under accelerated approval based on overall response rate and duration of response. Continued approval for this indication may be contingent upon verification and description of clinical benefit in confirmatory trials. Limitation of Use: TAFINLAR, in combination with MEKINIST, is not indicated for the treatment of patients with colorectal cancer because of known intrinsic resistance to BRAF inhibition. TAFINLAR is not indicated for the treatment of patients with wild-type BRAF solid tumors. Important Safety Information New Primary Malignancies Cutaneous Malignancies In the pooled adult safety population of TAFINLAR administered with MEKINIST (“the combination”), the incidence of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cuSCC, including keratoacanthomas) occurred in 2% of patients. Basal cell carcinoma and new primary melanoma occurred in 3% and <1% of patients, respectively. In the pooled pediatric safety population of the combination, new primary melanoma occurred in <1% of patients. Perform dermatologic evaluations prior to initiation of the combination, every 2 months while on therapy, and for up to 6 months following discontinuation. Noncutaneous Malignancies Based on its mechanism of action, TAFINLAR may promote the growth and development of malignancies with activation of monomeric G protein (RAS) through mutation or other mechanisms. In the pooled adult safety population of TAFINLAR monotherapy and the combination, noncutaneous malignancies occurred in 1% of patients. Monitor patients receiving the combination for signs or symptoms of noncutaneous malignancies. Permanently discontinue TAFINLAR for RAS-mutation–positive noncutaneous malignancies. No dose modification is required for MEKINIST in patients who develop noncutaneous malignancies. Tumor Promotion in BRAF Wild-type Tumors. In vitro experiments have demonstrated paradoxical activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling and increased cell proliferation in BRAF wild-type cells that are exposed to BRAF inhibitors. Confirm evidence of BRAF V600E or V600K mutation status prior to initiation of therapy. Hemorrhage. Hemorrhage, including major hemorrhage defined as symptomatic bleeding in a critical area or organ, can occur with the combination. Fatal cases have been reported. In the pooled adult safety population of the combination, hemorrhagic events occurred in 17% of patients; gastrointestinal hemorrhage occurred in 3% of patients; intracranial hemorrhage occurred in 0.6% of patients; fatal hemorrhage occurred in 0.5% of patients. The fatal events were cerebral hemorrhage and brainstem hemorrhage. In the pooled pediatric safety population of the combination, hemorrhagic events occurred in 25% of patients; the most common type of bleeding was epistaxis (16%). Serious events of bleeding occurred in 3.6% of patients and included gastrointestinal hemorrhage (1.2%), cerebral hemorrhage (0.6%), uterine hemorrhage (0.6%), postprocedural hemorrhage (0.6%), and epistaxis (0.6%). Permanently discontinue TAFINLAR for all grade 4 hemorrhagic events and for any grade 3 hemorrhagic events that do not improve. Withhold TAFINLAR for grade 3 hemorrhagic events; if improved, resume at the next lower dose level. Permanently discontinue MEKINIST for all grade 4 hemorrhagic events and for any grade 3 hemorrhagic events that do not improve. Withhold MEKINIST for grade 3 hemorrhagic events; if improved, resume at the next lower dose level. Colitis and Gastrointestinal Perforation. Colitis and gastrointestinal perforation, including fatal outcomes, can occur. In the pooled adult safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, colitis occurred in <1% of patients and gastrointestinal perforation occurred in <1% of patients. In the pooled pediatric safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, colitis events occurred in <1% of patients. Monitor patients closely for colitis and gastrointestinal perforations. Venous Thromboembolic Events. In the pooled adult safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) occurred in 2% of patients. In the pooled pediatric safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, embolism events occurred in <1% of patients. Advise patients to immediately seek medical care if they develop symptoms of DVT or PE, such as shortness of breath, chest pain, or arm or leg swelling. Permanently discontinue MEKINIST for life-threatening PE. Withhold MEKINIST for uncomplicated DVT and PE for up to 3 weeks; if improved, MEKINIST may be resumed at a lower dose. Cardiomyopathy. Cardiomyopathy, including cardiac failure, can occur. In the pooled adult safety population of the combination, cardiomyopathy, defined as a decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) ≥10% from baseline and below the institutional lower limit of normal (LLN), occurred in 6% of patients. Development of cardiomyopathy resulted in dose interruption or discontinuation of TAFINLAR in 3% and <1% of patients, respectively, and in 3% and <1% of patients receiving MEKINIST, respectively. Cardiomyopathy resolved in 45 of 50 patients who received the combination. In the pooled pediatric safety population of the combination, cardiomyopathy, defined as a decrease in LVEF ≥10% from baseline and below the institutional LLN, occurred in 9% of patients. Assess LVEF by echocardiogram or multigated acquisition (MUGA) scan before initiation of the combination, 1 month after initiation, and then at 2- to 3-month intervals while on treatment. Withhold TAFINLAR for symptomatic cardiomyopathy or asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction of >20% from baseline that is below institutional LLN. Resume TAFINLAR at the same dose level upon recovery of cardiac function to at least the institutional LLN for LVEF and absolute decrease ≤10% compared to baseline. For an asymptomatic absolute decrease in LVEF of 10% or greater from baseline that is below the LLN, withhold MEKINIST for up to 4 weeks. If improved to normal LVEF value, resume at a lower dose. If no improvement to normal LVEF value within 4 weeks, permanently discontinue MEKINIST. For symptomatic cardiomyopathy or an absolute decrease in LVEF of >20% from baseline that is below LLN, permanently discontinue MEKINIST. Ocular Toxicities Retinal Vein Occlusion (RVO): There were no cases of RVO across clinical trials of the combination. RVO may lead to macular edema, decreased visual function, neovascularization, and glaucoma. Urgently (within 24 hours) perform ophthalmologic evaluation for patient-reported loss of vision or other visual disturbances. Permanently discontinue MEKINIST in patients with documented RVO. Retinal Pigment Epithelial Detachment (RPED): RPED can occur. Retinal detachments may be bilateral and multifocal, occurring in the central macular region of the retina or elsewhere in the retina. In clinical trials, routine monitoring of patients to detect asymptomatic RPED was not conducted; therefore, the true incidence of this finding is unknown. In the pooled pediatric safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, RPED events occurred in <1% of patients. Perform ophthalmologic evaluation periodically, and at any time a patient reports visual disturbances. Withhold MEKINIST if RPED is diagnosed. If resolution of the RPED is documented on repeat ophthalmologic evaluation within 3 weeks, resume MEKINIST at the same or a reduced dose. If no improvement after 3 weeks, resume at a reduced dose or permanently discontinue MEKINIST. Uveitis: In the pooled adult safety population of the combination, uveitis occurred in 2% of patients. In the pooled pediatric safety population of the combination, uveitis occurred in 1.2% of patients. Treatment employed in clinical trials included steroid and mydriatic ophthalmic drops. Monitor patients for visual signs and symptoms of uveitis (eg, change in vision, photophobia, and eye pain). If iritis is diagnosed, administer ocular therapy and continue TAFINLAR without dose modification. If severe uveitis (ie, iridocyclitis) or if mild or moderate uveitis does not respond to ocular therapy, withhold TAFINLAR and treat as clinically indicated. Resume TAFINLAR at the same or lower dose if uveitis improves to grade 0 or 1. Permanently discontinue TAFINLAR for persistent grade 2 or greater uveitis of >6 weeks.

{Article} ========== **About BRAF Mutations** TESTING FOR BRAF MUTATIONS IN SOLID TUMORS CAN INFORM CRITICAL TREATMENT DECISIONS BRAF V600 has been identified as a driver mutation across various solid tumors BRAF mutations occur in about 8% of solid tumors, most commonly in melanoma and thyroid cancers Indication TAFINLAR, in combination with MEKINIST, is indicated for the treatment of adult and pediatric patients 1 year of age and older with unresectable or metastatic solid tumors with BRAF V600E mutation who have progressed following prior treatment and have no satisfactory alternative treatment options. This indication is approved under accelerated approval based on overall response rate and duration of response. Continued approval for this indication may be contingent upon verification and description of clinical benefit in confirmatory trials. Limitation of Use: TAFINLAR, in combination with MEKINIST, is not indicated for the treatment of patients with colorectal cancer because of known intrinsic resistance to BRAF inhibition. TAFINLAR is not indicated for the treatment of patients with wild-type BRAF solid tumors. Important Safety Information New Primary Malignancies Cutaneous Malignancies In the pooled adult safety population of TAFINLAR administered with MEKINIST (“the combination”), the incidence of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cuSCC, including keratoacanthomas) occurred in 2% of patients. Basal cell carcinoma and new primary melanoma occurred in 3% and <1% of patients, respectively. In the pooled pediatric safety population of the combination, new primary melanoma occurred in <1% of patients. Perform dermatologic evaluations prior to initiation of the combination, every 2 months while on therapy, and for up to 6 months following discontinuation. Noncutaneous Malignancies Based on its mechanism of action, TAFINLAR may promote the growth and development of malignancies with activation of monomeric G protein (RAS) through mutation or other mechanisms. In the pooled adult safety population of TAFINLAR monotherapy and the combination, noncutaneous malignancies occurred in 1% of patients. Monitor patients receiving the combination for signs or symptoms of noncutaneous malignancies. Permanently discontinue TAFINLAR for RAS-mutation–positive noncutaneous malignancies. No dose modification is required for MEKINIST in patients who develop noncutaneous malignancies. Tumor Promotion in BRAF Wild-type Tumors. In vitro experiments have demonstrated paradoxical activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling and increased cell proliferation in BRAF wild-type cells that are exposed to BRAF inhibitors. Confirm evidence of BRAF V600E or V600K mutation status prior to initiation of therapy. Hemorrhage. Hemorrhage, including major hemorrhage defined as symptomatic bleeding in a critical area or organ, can occur with the combination. Fatal cases have been reported. In the pooled adult safety population of the combination, hemorrhagic events occurred in 17% of patients; gastrointestinal hemorrhage occurred in 3% of patients; intracranial hemorrhage occurred in 0.6% of patients; fatal hemorrhage occurred in 0.5% of patients. The fatal events were cerebral hemorrhage and brainstem hemorrhage. In the pooled pediatric safety population of the combination, hemorrhagic events occurred in 25% of patients; the most common type of bleeding was epistaxis (16%). Serious events of bleeding occurred in 3.6% of patients and included gastrointestinal hemorrhage (1.2%), cerebral hemorrhage (0.6%), uterine hemorrhage (0.6%), postprocedural hemorrhage (0.6%), and epistaxis (0.6%). Permanently discontinue TAFINLAR for all grade 4 hemorrhagic events and for any grade 3 hemorrhagic events that do not improve. Withhold TAFINLAR for grade 3 hemorrhagic events; if improved, resume at the next lower dose level. Permanently discontinue MEKINIST for all grade 4 hemorrhagic events and for any grade 3 hemorrhagic events that do not improve. Withhold MEKINIST for grade 3 hemorrhagic events; if improved, resume at the next lower dose level. Colitis and Gastrointestinal Perforation. Colitis and gastrointestinal perforation, including fatal outcomes, can occur. In the pooled adult safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, colitis occurred in <1% of patients and gastrointestinal perforation occurred in <1% of patients. In the pooled pediatric safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, colitis events occurred in <1% of patients. Monitor patients closely for colitis and gastrointestinal perforations. Venous Thromboembolic Events. In the pooled adult safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) occurred in 2% of patients. In the pooled pediatric safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, embolism events occurred in <1% of patients. Advise patients to immediately seek medical care if they develop symptoms of DVT or PE, such as shortness of breath, chest pain, or arm or leg swelling. Permanently discontinue MEKINIST for life-threatening PE. Withhold MEKINIST for uncomplicated DVT and PE for up to 3 weeks; if improved, MEKINIST may be resumed at a lower dose. Cardiomyopathy. Cardiomyopathy, including cardiac failure, can occur. In the pooled adult safety population of the combination, cardiomyopathy, defined as a decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) ≥10% from baseline and below the institutional lower limit of normal (LLN), occurred in 6% of patients. Development of cardiomyopathy resulted in dose interruption or discontinuation of TAFINLAR in 3% and <1% of patients, respectively, and in 3% and <1% of patients receiving MEKINIST, respectively. Cardiomyopathy resolved in 45 of 50 patients who received the combination. In the pooled pediatric safety population of the combination, cardiomyopathy, defined as a decrease in LVEF ≥10% from baseline and below the institutional LLN, occurred in 9% of patients. Assess LVEF by echocardiogram or multigated acquisition (MUGA) scan before initiation of the combination, 1 month after initiation, and then at 2- to 3-month intervals while on treatment. Withhold TAFINLAR for symptomatic cardiomyopathy or asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction of >20% from baseline that is below institutional LLN. Resume TAFINLAR at the same dose level upon recovery of cardiac function to at least the institutional LLN for LVEF and absolute decrease ≤10% compared to baseline. For an asymptomatic absolute decrease in LVEF of 10% or greater from baseline that is below the LLN, withhold MEKINIST for up to 4 weeks. If improved to normal LVEF value, resume at a lower dose. If no improvement to normal LVEF value within 4 weeks, permanently discontinue MEKINIST. For symptomatic cardiomyopathy or an absolute decrease in LVEF of >20% from baseline that is below LLN, permanently discontinue MEKINIST. Ocular Toxicities Retinal Vein Occlusion (RVO): There were no cases of RVO across clinical trials of the combination. RVO may lead to macular edema, decreased visual function, neovascularization, and glaucoma. Urgently (within 24 hours) perform ophthalmologic evaluation for patient-reported loss of vision or other visual disturbances. Permanently discontinue MEKINIST in patients with documented RVO. Retinal Pigment Epithelial Detachment (RPED): RPED can occur. Retinal detachments may be bilateral and multifocal, occurring in the central macular region of the retina or elsewhere in the retina. In clinical trials, routine monitoring of patients to detect asymptomatic RPED was not conducted; therefore, the true incidence of this finding is unknown. In the pooled pediatric safety population of MEKINIST administered with TAFINLAR, RPED events occurred in <1% of patients. Perform ophthalmologic evaluation periodically, and at any time a patient reports visual disturbances. Withhold MEKINIST if RPED is diagnosed. If resolution of the RPED is documented on repeat ophthalmologic evaluation within 3 weeks, resume MEKINIST at the same or a reduced dose. If no improvement after 3 weeks, resume at a reduced dose or permanently discontinue MEKINIST. Uveitis: In the pooled adult safety population of the combination, uveitis occurred in 2% of patients. In the pooled pediatric safety population of the combination, uveitis occurred in 1.2% of patients. Treatment employed in clinical trials included steroid and mydriatic ophthalmic drops. Monitor patients for visual signs and symptoms of uveitis (eg, change in vision, photophobia, and eye pain). If iritis is diagnosed, administer ocular therapy and continue TAFINLAR without dose modification. If severe uveitis (ie, iridocyclitis) or if mild or moderate uveitis does not respond to ocular therapy, withhold TAFINLAR and treat as clinically indicated. Resume TAFINLAR at the same or lower dose if uveitis improves to grade 0 or 1. Permanently discontinue TAFINLAR for persistent grade 2 or greater uveitis of >6 weeks. ---------- {Instruction} ========== Use only the provided context for your response, without relying on external information. ---------- {Question} ========== Only using the provided text, in which types of solid tumors does BRAF mutations occur?

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

Why wasn't Mady able to get an abortion in texas, and what struggles did she go through to finally get one? Summarize what she had to go through. and include how many clinics she called during this process . put it in bullet points

Chair Sanders, Senator Murray, Ranking Member Cassidy, Members of the Committee: My name is Mady Anderson, and I live in Houston, Texas. Two years ago, during my senior year at the University of Houston, I had just come out of a two-year relationship. After a couple weeks of nausea and not sleeping or eating, I took a pregnancy test. I called my friends to bring me more tests because I was in disbelief. At one point I had five positive tests in front of me. I was pregnant. This was just two weeks after Texas’s abortion ban, known as S.B. 8, went into effect, banning abortion after six weeks. I knew almost immediately that abortion was the right decision for me. I called and got an appointment for the following week at my local Planned Parenthood, five minutes away. I thought I was early enough to be able to get my abortion that week. But at my appointment my pregnancy measured at 11 weeks. I was shocked. I couldn’t get an abortion in Texas. I called 20 different clinics after that first visit. Yes, you heard correct. 20. I called surrounding states and even as far as the Dakotas; no one could see me right away. The earliest I could be seen was two weeks later, at Jackson Women's Health Organization in Mississippi. This was before the Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health decision that would take away the federal constitutional right to abortion. Before 20 more states would ban abortion. Before wait times in states without bans grew longer and longer.My dad took off from work, and we drove a total of 720 miles roundtrip, and spent 13 hours on the road. We spent five hours in a hotel trying to sleep, before going to my first appointment — just to turn right around and head back home. And here’s the thing: Because of medically unnecessary restrictions on abortion care in Mississippi, I would have to make the trip all over again. The state, essentially, put patients in a time-out because they don’t trust people to know what is best for our own health and lives. When I got this news, I was angry, sleep-deprived, and starving — and as certain as I ever was that I wanted an abortion. That certainty never faltered. The following week my mom was able to find us affordable tickets, and we flew back to Jackson. We started our day at 7 a.m. for my 1:30 p.m. appointment. After my procedure, I waited in the recovery room for about 20 mins, before hopping in a car to make my flight back home. I want to talk for a moment about money. As a college student who took out multiple student loans, I was counting every penny. ● I had to pay for the appointment in Houston. ● Then gas and hotel for the first trip to Mississippi. ● Then the first appointment in Mississippi. ● Then plane tickets for the second trip to Mississippi. ● Then the abortion itself. ● Then I missed 20 hours of work. ● And 20 hours of my mandatory internship program. ● The total? $2,850. There is no dollar value I can put on the stress of managing all of this. The despair of having to go to such lengths for basic, safe health care that was legal just weeks before I needed it. The gut-wrenching reality of having to disclose this deeply personal thing that should be private to professors, my boss, and anyone else in a position of authority over me for fear of not only losing my job but also failing out of all my classes due to all the classes and assignments I missed. I felt so much anger that politicians in Austin thought they had the right to make this decision for me. I am one of thousands of people who have now gone through this. Every day, every month we go without a federal right to abortion, there will be more of us. More savings accounts drained, more classes and shifts missed, more choices about which bill to skip paying. If I had found out I was pregnant last year or last month, Jackson Women’s Health wouldn’thave been there for me. The people who cared for me that day cannot care for abortion patients in Mississippi. I would have had to go to New Mexico, Kansas, or as far as Illinois. When we talk about abortion, it’s easy to get stuck talking in theoreticals. But I am a real person. The lives of abortion patients are not theoretical. People will continue to get pregnant when we don’t want to be. We will always need abortions. There is simply no place for politicians to decide for us. Thank you for inviting me here today and letting me share my story.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== Why wasn't Mady able to get an abortion in texas, and what struggles did she go through to finally get one? Summarize what she had to go through. and include how many clinics she called during this process . put it in bullet points {passage 0} ========== Chair Sanders, Senator Murray, Ranking Member Cassidy, Members of the Committee: My name is Mady Anderson, and I live in Houston, Texas. Two years ago, during my senior year at the University of Houston, I had just come out of a two-year relationship. After a couple weeks of nausea and not sleeping or eating, I took a pregnancy test. I called my friends to bring me more tests because I was in disbelief. At one point I had five positive tests in front of me. I was pregnant. This was just two weeks after Texas’s abortion ban, known as S.B. 8, went into effect, banning abortion after six weeks. I knew almost immediately that abortion was the right decision for me. I called and got an appointment for the following week at my local Planned Parenthood, five minutes away. I thought I was early enough to be able to get my abortion that week. But at my appointment my pregnancy measured at 11 weeks. I was shocked. I couldn’t get an abortion in Texas. I called 20 different clinics after that first visit. Yes, you heard correct. 20. I called surrounding states and even as far as the Dakotas; no one could see me right away. The earliest I could be seen was two weeks later, at Jackson Women's Health Organization in Mississippi. This was before the Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health decision that would take away the federal constitutional right to abortion. Before 20 more states would ban abortion. Before wait times in states without bans grew longer and longer.My dad took off from work, and we drove a total of 720 miles roundtrip, and spent 13 hours on the road. We spent five hours in a hotel trying to sleep, before going to my first appointment — just to turn right around and head back home. And here’s the thing: Because of medically unnecessary restrictions on abortion care in Mississippi, I would have to make the trip all over again. The state, essentially, put patients in a time-out because they don’t trust people to know what is best for our own health and lives. When I got this news, I was angry, sleep-deprived, and starving — and as certain as I ever was that I wanted an abortion. That certainty never faltered. The following week my mom was able to find us affordable tickets, and we flew back to Jackson. We started our day at 7 a.m. for my 1:30 p.m. appointment. After my procedure, I waited in the recovery room for about 20 mins, before hopping in a car to make my flight back home. I want to talk for a moment about money. As a college student who took out multiple student loans, I was counting every penny. ● I had to pay for the appointment in Houston. ● Then gas and hotel for the first trip to Mississippi. ● Then the first appointment in Mississippi. ● Then plane tickets for the second trip to Mississippi. ● Then the abortion itself. ● Then I missed 20 hours of work. ● And 20 hours of my mandatory internship program. ● The total? $2,850. There is no dollar value I can put on the stress of managing all of this. The despair of having to go to such lengths for basic, safe health care that was legal just weeks before I needed it. The gut-wrenching reality of having to disclose this deeply personal thing that should be private to professors, my boss, and anyone else in a position of authority over me for fear of not only losing my job but also failing out of all my classes due to all the classes and assignments I missed. I felt so much anger that politicians in Austin thought they had the right to make this decision for me. I am one of thousands of people who have now gone through this. Every day, every month we go without a federal right to abortion, there will be more of us. More savings accounts drained, more classes and shifts missed, more choices about which bill to skip paying. If I had found out I was pregnant last year or last month, Jackson Women’s Health wouldn’thave been there for me. The people who cared for me that day cannot care for abortion patients in Mississippi. I would have had to go to New Mexico, Kansas, or as far as Illinois. When we talk about abortion, it’s easy to get stuck talking in theoreticals. But I am a real person. The lives of abortion patients are not theoretical. People will continue to get pregnant when we don’t want to be. We will always need abortions. There is simply no place for politicians to decide for us. Thank you for inviting me here today and letting me share my story. https://www.help.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/80626e6a-a9e9-50e7-072a-95e7c2a059e3/Anderson%20-%20Testimony.pdf

Answer questions based solely on the text provided. Do not use any prior knowledge or other resources.

Using bullet points, summarise Florida's restrictions on foreign ownership of land.

Recent State Laws Differ in Their Restrictions State laws differ in their approaches and requirements. For example, some states enacted information- gathering laws that mandate disclosure of, or require studies on, foreign ownership of U.S. land. Other laws directly prohibit certain transactions and may require divestiture of foreign-owned land. Some restrictions apply only to agricultural land; others to land near military installations, critical infrastructure, or economically valuable sites; and others to all real property within the state. State laws also vary as to which groups are subject to land ownership restrictions. Some seek to regulate real property transactions with individuals and entities from a list of named countries. Others aim to govern purchases by all non-U.S. citizens. Another set addresses purchases by individuals and entities from countries identified on lists maintained under federal law, such as the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (Tables 1 and 2 of 22 C.F.R. § 126); the foreign adversaries list generated under Executive Order 13873 and its implementing regulations; sanctions lists maintained by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) in the Department of the Treasury; or countries of particular concern designated by the U.S. Secretary of State. SB 264 Creates Two Sets of Restrictions on Land Ownership in Florida Florida’s law, SB 264 (codified at Florida Statutes §§ 692.201–.205), effective July 1, 2023, creates two sets of land ownership restrictions. The first set applies to foreign principals connected with foreign countries of concern (defined as China, Russia, Iran, North Korea, Cuba, the Venezuelan regime of Nicolás Maduro, and Syria). Foreign principals are defined as the foreign governments themselves, certain corporate and political bodies, and individuals domiciled in the countries of concern who are not U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents. Individuals and entities in these groups cannot acquire or own agricultural land in Florida or real property within 10 miles of a military installation or critical infrastructure facility in the state. SB 264’s second set of restrictions applies only to certain individuals and entities connected with the People’s Republic of China (PRC)—the PRC itself, certain political bodies and individual members of the PRC or the Communist Party of China, companies organized under PRC law or that have their principal place of business there, and individuals domiciled in the PRC who are not U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents. These PRC-connected individuals and entities cannot purchase any real property in Florida, absent an exception. Both sets of restrictions exempt de minimis investments in some securities or companies registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission. Individuals with nontourist visas or who have been granted asylum may also purchase one parcel up to 2 acres in size that is not within 5 miles of a military installation. Preexisting land owners that acquired their property before SB 264 became effective can continue to own their parcels, but they cannot buy additional land unless permitted by law. SB 264 requires all foreign principals—both existing owners and new purchasers—to register land ownership with state officials if the parcel is within 10 miles of a military installation or critical infrastructure. Some PRC-connected individuals and entities must register regardless of the parcel’s location.

Answer questions based solely on the text provided. Do not use any prior knowledge or other resources. "Recent State Laws Differ in Their Restrictions State laws differ in their approaches and requirements. For example, some states enacted information- gathering laws that mandate disclosure of, or require studies on, foreign ownership of U.S. land. Other laws directly prohibit certain transactions and may require divestiture of foreign-owned land. Some restrictions apply only to agricultural land; others to land near military installations, critical infrastructure, or economically valuable sites; and others to all real property within the state. State laws also vary as to which groups are subject to land ownership restrictions. Some seek to regulate real property transactions with individuals and entities from a list of named countries. Others aim to govern purchases by all non-U.S. citizens. Another set addresses purchases by individuals and entities from countries identified on lists maintained under federal law, such as the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (Tables 1 and 2 of 22 C.F.R. § 126); the foreign adversaries list generated under Executive Order 13873 and its implementing regulations; sanctions lists maintained by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) in the Department of the Treasury; or countries of particular concern designated by the U.S. Secretary of State. SB 264 Creates Two Sets of Restrictions on Land Ownership in Florida Florida’s law, SB 264 (codified at Florida Statutes §§ 692.201–.205), effective July 1, 2023, creates two sets of land ownership restrictions. The first set applies to foreign principals connected with foreign countries of concern (defined as China, Russia, Iran, North Korea, Cuba, the Venezuelan regime of Nicolás Maduro, and Syria). Foreign principals are defined as the foreign governments themselves, certain corporate and political bodies, and individuals domiciled in the countries of concern who are not U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents. Individuals and entities in these groups cannot acquire or own agricultural land in Florida or real property within 10 miles of a military installation or critical infrastructure facility in the state. SB 264’s second set of restrictions applies only to certain individuals and entities connected with the People’s Republic of China (PRC)—the PRC itself, certain political bodies and individual members of the PRC or the Communist Party of China, companies organized under PRC law or that have their principal place of business there, and individuals domiciled in the PRC who are not U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents. These PRC-connected individuals and entities cannot purchase any real property in Florida, absent an exception. Both sets of restrictions exempt de minimis investments in some securities or companies registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission. Individuals with nontourist visas or who have been granted asylum may also purchase one parcel up to 2 acres in size that is not within 5 miles of a military installation. Preexisting land owners that acquired their property before SB 264 became effective can continue to own their parcels, but they cannot buy additional land unless permitted by law. SB 264 requires all foreign principals—both existing owners and new purchasers—to register land ownership with state officials if the parcel is within 10 miles of a military installation or critical infrastructure. Some PRC-connected individuals and entities must register regardless of the parcel’s location." Using bullet points, summarise Florida's restrictions on foreign ownership of land.

You must not use any prior knowledge or external resources to answer this prompt. You must use only the information included in this prompt in your answer. You must use no more than 3 sentences in your answer.

What is the difference between hard information and soft information?

Challenges and Considerations Promulgating the Final Rule The CFPB took more than a decade before promulgating the final Section 1071 rule. Evaluating the extent of lending gaps—and specifically fair lending risks—in small business credit markets has complications. Dodd-Frank directed the definition of small business, discussed in the section of this report entitled “Summary of the Section 1071 Final Rule.” Nevertheless, the CFPB’s challenge was to design a dataset with the ability to conduct meaningful comparisons across loan products and over time given the various differences in small business types and models. 7 See CFPB, “CFPB Explores Ways to Assess the Availability of Credit for Small Business,” press release, May 10, 2017, https://www.consumerfinance.gov/about-us/newsroom/cfpb-explores-ways-assess-availability-credit-small- business/. 8 For more information, see Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council, Interagency Fair Lending Examination Procedures, August 2009, https://www.ffiec.gov/pdf/fairlend.pdf. 9 See CFPB, “Small Business Lending under the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (Regulation B),” March 30, 2023, https://www.consumerfinance.gov/rules-policy/final-rules/small-business-lending-under-the-equal-credit-opportunity- act-regulation-b/. Congressional Research Service 2 Section 1071: Small Business Lending Data Collection and Reporting Multiple Small Business Definitions No consensus definition of small business exists among the federal government and industry participants. Consequently, establishing a universal dataset to evaluate the performance of small business lending markets is challenging. Definitions of small business include the following: • The SBA defines small business primarily by using a size standards table it compiles and updates periodically. The table lists size thresholds for various industries by either average annual receipts or number of employees.10 The SBA also defines small business differently for different SBA programs. For example, the SBA’s 7(a), Certified Development Company/504, and Small Business Investment Company (SBIC) programs have alternative size standards based on tangible net worth and average net income.11 • Academic research frequently uses a firm that has 500 employees or fewer (but does not monopolize an industry) as a proxy measure for a small business. Various federal agencies—such as the U.S. Census Bureau, the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the Federal Reserve—have relied upon this definition.12 In addition, some researchers view microbusinesses as a subset of small businesses. A common academic definition of microbusiness is a firm with only one owner, five employees or fewer, and annual sales and assets under $250,000.13 • Definitions of small business also vary in statute. For example, eligibility thresholds for “small business” tax incentives vary under tax law. Certain firms with average annual gross receipts of $25 million or less are able to use cash-based accounting for tax purposes. The tax credit for employee health insurance costs is available to employers with 25 or fewer employees whose average annual compensation is below a certain wage threshold.14 • According to a Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation survey, small and large banks have their own definitions of small business.15 Small banks (defined as banks with $10 billion or less in assets) often view a small business as one in which the owner “wears many hats,” referring to an owner who performs multiple tasks, perhaps because the firm is starting up or still in its early growth stage. Large banks define small business more formally in terms of annual revenues and sales. • Likewise, the definition of small farm varies. For example, the Farm Credit System and parts of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) each define small farm or ranch as one with gross annual sales of less than $250,000. The USDA Economic Research Service, for statistical purposes, defines small farm as one having less than $350,000 of gross cash farm income. SBA defines small farms as those having less than $5 million in annual sales. The CRA definition of small farm loan is $500,000 or less. The Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-121) also requires the CFPB to address issues that could potentially have significant economic impacts on small entities subject to the Section 1071 rule.16 The CFPB had to consider, for example, key 10 For the current size standards, see SBA, “Table of Size Standards,” https://www.sba.gov/document/support-table- size-standards. For a historical analysis of the size standards, see CRS Report R40860, Small Business Size Standards: A Historical Analysis of Contemporary Issues, by Robert Jay Dilger, R. Corinne Blackford, and Anthony A. Cilluffo. 11 See SBA, “Lender and Development Company Loan Programs,” SOP 50 10 6, October 1, 2020, pp. 118-119. 12 See Karen Gordon Mills and Brayden McCarthy, The State of Small Business Lending: Innovation and Technology and the Implications for Regulation, Harvard Business School Entrepreneurial Management Working Paper no. 17-042, November 29, 2016. 13 See Tammie Hoy, Jessie Romero, and Kimberly Zeuli, Microenterprise and the Small-Dollar Loan Market, Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, May 2012, https://www.richmondfed.org/-/media/richmondfedorg/publications/research/ economic_brief/2012/pdf/eb_12-05.pdf. 14 See CRS Report RL32254, Small Business Tax Benefits: Current Law, by Gary Guenther. 15 See Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), 2018 FDIC Small Business Lending Survey, revised December 20, 2018, https://www.fdic.gov/bank/historical/sbls/full-survey.pdf. 16 See CFPB, Final Report of the Small Business Review Panel on the CFPB’s Proposals Under Consideration for the Small Business Lending Data Collection Rulemaking, December 14, 2020, https://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/ documents/cfpb_1071-sbrefa-report.pdf. Congressional Research Service 3 Section 1071: Small Business Lending Data Collection and Reporting differences in the lending models of large and small lenders, which affect the type and cost of data that would be collected.17 First, large and small lenders often collect different types of data. Large lenders typically engage in lending to borrowers who possess more conventional financial metrics and documentation (e.g., sales fluctuations, costs of inputs, specific industry factors), which is considered hard information that can be used in automated and statistical underwriting methodologies to price loans.18 By contrast, small lenders typically engage in relationship lending, meaning that they must develop close familiarity with their customers to gather soft information, which contains circumstantial details about factors such as non-standardized business risks, insufficient collateral, or weak or thin (business) credit histories. Because of soft information, the loan underwriting process to determine more customized loan products and loan pricing is generally less algorithmic and more labor intensive.19 Second, the type of information collected, which varies among lenders, would also be expected to influence their reporting costs. For example, because hard information is already quite uniform, large lenders may already have adopted automated technological systems that can handle large volumes of standardized and digitized financial data. In these cases, reporting is likely to be less expensive per applicant. By contrast, soft information is more unique to applicant circumstances, infrequent, and localized such that standardization of the data for electronic collection and reporting purposes is challenging. The reporting cost per applicant is also likely to be more expensive for small lenders that lack the volume of applications to justify the costs to convert soft information to digital and secure formats. Therefore, data likely to be informative about lending gaps in the small business and farm credit markets may be more difficult to standardize and more costly to collect, especially if small lenders predominantly serve these markets. The CFPB also had to consider how Section 1071 implementation requirements might affect the supply of small business loans. For example, some institutions might decide to offer more standardized, less tailored financial products to reduce their reporting costs. Some lenders might require minimum principal loan amounts (e.g., $100,000) to ensure that the loans generate enough revenue to cover the costs to fund and report data, thereby leaving gaps in credit markets for many businesses that are starting up or small. In short, Section 1071 implementation, which is designed to identify any lending gaps, could potentially exacerbate lending gaps in various credit market segments without careful consideration of the potential impact of its requirements.

Challenges and Considerations Promulgating the Final Rule The CFPB took more than a decade before promulgating the final Section 1071 rule. Evaluating the extent of lending gaps—and specifically fair lending risks—in small business credit markets has complications. Dodd-Frank directed the definition of small business, discussed in the section of this report entitled “Summary of the Section 1071 Final Rule.” Nevertheless, the CFPB’s challenge was to design a dataset with the ability to conduct meaningful comparisons across loan products and over time given the various differences in small business types and models. 7 See CFPB, “CFPB Explores Ways to Assess the Availability of Credit for Small Business,” press release, May 10, 2017, https://www.consumerfinance.gov/about-us/newsroom/cfpb-explores-ways-assess-availability-credit-small- business/. 8 For more information, see Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council, Interagency Fair Lending Examination Procedures, August 2009, https://www.ffiec.gov/pdf/fairlend.pdf. 9 See CFPB, “Small Business Lending under the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (Regulation B),” March 30, 2023, https://www.consumerfinance.gov/rules-policy/final-rules/small-business-lending-under-the-equal-credit-opportunity- act-regulation-b/. Congressional Research Service 2 Section 1071: Small Business Lending Data Collection and Reporting Multiple Small Business Definitions No consensus definition of small business exists among the federal government and industry participants. Consequently, establishing a universal dataset to evaluate the performance of small business lending markets is challenging. Definitions of small business include the following: • The SBA defines small business primarily by using a size standards table it compiles and updates periodically. The table lists size thresholds for various industries by either average annual receipts or number of employees.10 The SBA also defines small business differently for different SBA programs. For example, the SBA’s 7(a), Certified Development Company/504, and Small Business Investment Company (SBIC) programs have alternative size standards based on tangible net worth and average net income.11 • Academic research frequently uses a firm that has 500 employees or fewer (but does not monopolize an industry) as a proxy measure for a small business. Various federal agencies—such as the U.S. Census Bureau, the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the Federal Reserve—have relied upon this definition.12 In addition, some researchers view microbusinesses as a subset of small businesses. A common academic definition of microbusiness is a firm with only one owner, five employees or fewer, and annual sales and assets under $250,000.13 • Definitions of small business also vary in statute. For example, eligibility thresholds for “small business” tax incentives vary under tax law. Certain firms with average annual gross receipts of $25 million or less are able to use cash-based accounting for tax purposes. The tax credit for employee health insurance costs is available to employers with 25 or fewer employees whose average annual compensation is below a certain wage threshold.14 • According to a Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation survey, small and large banks have their own definitions of small business.15 Small banks (defined as banks with $10 billion or less in assets) often view a small business as one in which the owner “wears many hats,” referring to an owner who performs multiple tasks, perhaps because the firm is starting up or still in its early growth stage. Large banks define small business more formally in terms of annual revenues and sales. • Likewise, the definition of small farm varies. For example, the Farm Credit System and parts of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) each define small farm or ranch as one with gross annual sales of less than $250,000. The USDA Economic Research Service, for statistical purposes, defines small farm as one having less than $350,000 of gross cash farm income. SBA defines small farms as those having less than $5 million in annual sales. The CRA definition of small farm loan is $500,000 or less. The Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-121) also requires the CFPB to address issues that could potentially have significant economic impacts on small entities subject to the Section 1071 rule.16 The CFPB had to consider, for example, key 10 For the current size standards, see SBA, “Table of Size Standards,” https://www.sba.gov/document/support-table- size-standards. For a historical analysis of the size standards, see CRS Report R40860, Small Business Size Standards: A Historical Analysis of Contemporary Issues, by Robert Jay Dilger, R. Corinne Blackford, and Anthony A. Cilluffo. 11 See SBA, “Lender and Development Company Loan Programs,” SOP 50 10 6, October 1, 2020, pp. 118-119. 12 See Karen Gordon Mills and Brayden McCarthy, The State of Small Business Lending: Innovation and Technology and the Implications for Regulation, Harvard Business School Entrepreneurial Management Working Paper no. 17-042, November 29, 2016. 13 See Tammie Hoy, Jessie Romero, and Kimberly Zeuli, Microenterprise and the Small-Dollar Loan Market, Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, May 2012, https://www.richmondfed.org/-/media/richmondfedorg/publications/research/ economic_brief/2012/pdf/eb_12-05.pdf. 14 See CRS Report RL32254, Small Business Tax Benefits: Current Law, by Gary Guenther. 15 See Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), 2018 FDIC Small Business Lending Survey, revised December 20, 2018, https://www.fdic.gov/bank/historical/sbls/full-survey.pdf. 16 See CFPB, Final Report of the Small Business Review Panel on the CFPB’s Proposals Under Consideration for the Small Business Lending Data Collection Rulemaking, December 14, 2020, https://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/ documents/cfpb_1071-sbrefa-report.pdf. Congressional Research Service 3 Section 1071: Small Business Lending Data Collection and Reporting differences in the lending models of large and small lenders, which affect the type and cost of data that would be collected.17 First, large and small lenders often collect different types of data. Large lenders typically engage in lending to borrowers who possess more conventional financial metrics and documentation (e.g., sales fluctuations, costs of inputs, specific industry factors), which is considered hard information that can be used in automated and statistical underwriting methodologies to price loans.18 By contrast, small lenders typically engage in relationship lending, meaning that they must develop close familiarity with their customers to gather soft information, which contains circumstantial details about factors such as non-standardized business risks, insufficient collateral, or weak or thin (business) credit histories. Because of soft information, the loan underwriting process to determine more customized loan products and loan pricing is generally less algorithmic and more labor intensive.19 Second, the type of information collected, which varies among lenders, would also be expected to influence their reporting costs. For example, because hard information is already quite uniform, large lenders may already have adopted automated technological systems that can handle large volumes of standardized and digitized financial data. In these cases, reporting is likely to be less expensive per applicant. By contrast, soft information is more unique to applicant circumstances, infrequent, and localized such that standardization of the data for electronic collection and reporting purposes is challenging. The reporting cost per applicant is also likely to be more expensive for small lenders that lack the volume of applications to justify the costs to convert soft information to digital and secure formats. Therefore, data likely to be informative about lending gaps in the small business and farm credit markets may be more difficult to standardize and more costly to collect, especially if small lenders predominantly serve these markets. The CFPB also had to consider how Section 1071 implementation requirements might affect the supply of small business loans. For example, some institutions might decide to offer more standardized, less tailored financial products to reduce their reporting costs. Some lenders might require minimum principal loan amounts (e.g., $100,000) to ensure that the loans generate enough revenue to cover the costs to fund and report data, thereby leaving gaps in credit markets for many businesses that are starting up or small. In short, Section 1071 implementation, which is designed to identify any lending gaps, could potentially exacerbate lending gaps in various credit market segments without careful consideration of the potential impact of its requirements. What is the difference between hard information and soft information? You must not use any prior knowledge or external resources to answer this prompt. You must use only the information included in this prompt in your answer. You must use no more than 3 sentences in your answer.

You can only respond using data from the information provided in the prompt. Don't use any other data, or external searches.

How could having overly high expectations for the diverse functionality of a product not be good for the user? How could this be more harmful to the product experience?

The management of the complexity does not try to avoid the conflict existing inside the process of human vs. product interaction by modifying the user behavior. Instead, to reduce the complexity is necessary to alter the suggested tasks for that product, and which are susceptible of being modified by the future user. This modification made by the person is dynamic, such as the evolutionary process of adaptation of the product to his own preferences. But this spectrum of changes must be contemplated inside the original plans of the product conceptualization. Then, the existing level of complexity must be measured by the agent (user) skills. From this point we have two possibilities to define the level of complexity. The first one is aims to identify the level of complexity inside the prescribed activity to be made the agent. And the second possibility is related to the skills or incompetence of the agent. This works with the level of instruction of the human being related to the product that will use. This consideration is important, because it will show in which extend the product will satisfy the users expected necessities. To deal with the components of the system and avoiding its complexity is important to define clearly the kind of model and its final target use. In many situations, the intention of creating ways to demonstrate and clarifying the functions of the product has as a consequence a highly complex product with high cost and underutilization functionality, because the agent (user) is not properly defined or over assisted. While analyzing a group of students, by using a observation and non interventional methodology, was detected the “rookie intention to provide the highest technology to they projects, without considering the total information of users capability or the target of the product under development. Is know, that the intention is the best, but this could generate new problems instead of solve the older. The human evolutionary capability must provide him conditions to assimilate new technologies, but this is not a clearly condition because it depends on his social group and the way it conditions that evolutionary process. So, if this dynamic process is not really understood, the conceptualization of a new product could overestimate the learning capability (increasing the mental load to restrict management levels), generating uncontrollable interface andhigh-level complexity that demands a rework of the tasks defined for that product. An example for this situation, level of product complexity, is the Wi-Fi router. On one side the user operates it and understand it as a easy way of connectivity of its electronic appliances without physic contact (this demands a basic information of its use). On the other side a physic scientist will analyze from another perspective, like radiation, signal intensity or electromagnetic behaviors. So, this is a situation when the complexity achieves highest level, needing to incorporate the interface as its own domain [8].

System Instruction: You can only respond using data from the information provided in the prompt. Don't use any other data, or external searches. Question: How could having overly high expectations for the diverse functionality of a product not be good for the user? How could this be more harmful to the product experience? Context Block: The management of the complexity does not try to avoid the conflict existing inside the process of human vs. product interaction by modifying the user behavior. Instead, to reduce the complexity is necessary to alter the suggested tasks for that product, and which are susceptible of being modified by the future user. This modification made by the person is dynamic, such as the evolutionary process of adaptation of the product to his own preferences. But this spectrum of changes must be contemplated inside the original plans of the product conceptualization. Then, the existing level of complexity must be measured by the agent (user) skills. From this point we have two possibilities to define the level of complexity. The first one is aims to identify the level of complexity inside the prescribed activity to be made the agent. And the second possibility is related to the skills or incompetence of the agent. This works with the level of instruction of the human being related to the product that will use. This consideration is important, because it will show in which extend the product will satisfy the users expected necessities. To deal with the components of the system and avoiding its complexity is important to define clearly the kind of model and its final target use. In many situations, the intention of creating ways to demonstrate and clarifying the functions of the product has as a consequence a highly complex product with high cost and underutilization functionality, because the agent (user) is not properly defined or over assisted. While analyzing a group of students, by using a observation and non interventional methodology, was detected the “rookie intention to provide the highest technology to they projects, without considering the total information of users capability or the target of the product under development. Is know, that the intention is the best, but this could generate new problems instead of solve the older. The human evolutionary capability must provide him conditions to assimilate new technologies, but this is not a clearly condition because it depends on his social group and the way it conditions that evolutionary process. So, if this dynamic process is not really understood, the conceptualization of a new product could overestimate the learning capability (increasing the mental load to restrict management levels), generating uncontrollable interface andhigh-level complexity that demands a rework of the tasks defined for that product. An example for this situation, level of product complexity, is the Wi-Fi router. On one side the user operates it and understand it as a easy way of connectivity of its electronic appliances without physic contact (this demands a basic information of its use). On the other side a physic scientist will analyze from another perspective, like radiation, signal intensity or electromagnetic behaviors. So, this is a situation when the complexity achieves highest level, needing to incorporate the interface as its own domain [8].

You are given a reference document. You must only use information found in the reference document to answer the question asked.

What are Joe Dispenza's core teachings?

Breaking the Habit of Being Yourself By Dr.Joe Dispenza Big Idea #1: To Change Your Life, Change Your Thoughts This idea is actually in the very first chapter of the book. Dr. Joe Dispenza starts off explaining how our beliefs or thoughts, lead to our feelings which lead to our actions which ultimately leads to our results. This is exactly the same as the concept of ‘TFAR’ in T. Harv Eker’s book ‘The Millionaire Mind”. However, instead of giving simple practical examples, Dr. Joe Dispenza uses the concept of Quantum Physics and other physics concepts to prove this point. Basically, everything in the physical universe is made up of subatomic particles such as electrons. These particles exist as pure potential. They are in their wave state when they’re not being observed. These particles are potential ‘everything’ and ‘nothing’ until they are observed. Hence everything in our physical reality exists as pure potential. What Dispenza means by being ‘observed’ is when we don’t actively look out for it. But when we do see it and ‘observe’ it, we can start to act upon it. What this ultimately implies is that the quantum field or the universe for this matter contains a reality in anything you want. So if you want to become a millionaire, the universe contains a reality in which you are a millionaire. And since our consciousness has effects on energy, we are powerful enough to influence matter. (I know this is a bit too technical but stay with me). Now, the whole point of using this concept of quantum physics is to prove only one point. We can master our skills of observation to intentionally affect our destiny, our life, and our results. In this case, Dispenza uses ‘observation’ to mean we can master what we ‘focus’ on to change our results. To quote Henry Ford: “Whether you think you can, or you think you can’t, you’re right” – Henry Ford For example, I had a friend who was quite miserable at his job. He wanted a pay rise but didn’t think he’d deserve it so he would never ask. A month later, something happened at work and he was blamed for something he didn’t do. He was really mad and thought staying in this job just isn’t worth it for the amount of pay he was getting. So he wanted to quit. But before he quit, he asked for a pay rise first because he had nothing to lose. To his surprise, his boss actually gave him a 10% pay rise. He was delighted and didn’t end up quitting. Now the sudden change in his thoughts to think of himself worthy of getting a pay rise – was the change in his skill to ‘observe’, his ability to change his ‘focus’. He first focused on how h ewasn’t worth an increase in salary to focussing on the fact that the job wasn’t worth him staying. Dispenza says that that the potential of him getting that salary increase was always there. It was there even when he was miserable a month earlier. In fact, even if his job would say no, there still exists a potential situation in the universe where he’d get a 10% pay increase. Maybe this would’ve been through another job. Whatever it is you want, the potential is there. The only missing link is whether we have the ability to ‘observe’, to change our ‘focus’ to look it or not. Big Idea #2: Live Your Desired New Future In the Present Dispenza teaches us that our brain doesn’t know the difference between the internal world (what we imagine in our heads) to what we experience in the external environment. That is, our thoughts can become our experience. This is what Napoleon Hill also said in his book Think & Grow Rich. The reason why we think how we think and do what we do is not that of who we are. Remember, we only act because of our thoughts. This concept is extremely important because as quoted above, we can imagine ourselves being someone totally different. We can imagine a more successful life with more confidence, with more friends and so on. This is a very similar concept of “The New Self Image” by Maxwell Maltz in his book Psycho-Cybernetics. When explaining these kinds of concepts, I like to break it down even more. In layman’s terms, if you’re able to imagine success and everything that it involves in vivid details, even down to the amount of money and house structure. And live that life in the present, meaning living that success right now in the present regardless of your situations, you will manifest it. For example if you want to become a millionaire. Think of how a millionaire would think, act, do, how their house would look like etc. First act in that way. And you will slowly attract the quantum potential of you being a millionaire into your life. It’s like, first you have to be a millionaire kind of person to actually become a millionaire. Now, I know this may sound very weird and bit B.S. but here are some examples that you may relate to. Think of manifesting like dating. For example, imagine your perfect ideal partner in life. You don’t really care about the nitty gritty of how they look but you have to be attracted to them and they have to have the same values and be ambitious in life. Now imagine if they existed, what would they want in their perfect partner? They would want you to also be established. Be caring. Be funny. All that. So even if you’d meet your perfect partner in real life, you’d miss your chance because you’re not the type of person they’re looking for. Chances are even if they’d walk past you on the streets, you won’t even see or notice them because deep down you don’t think you deserve them so you don’t look out for them. Hence think of manifesting like dating. You have to become first, then you will receive. So applying this concept to the previous scenario with my friend wanting to earn 100k, if he just acted, and thought of himself as already being a 100k type of person, asking for that pay rise would be a no brainer to him. Another example is if you want to become a public speaker – the kind that gets invited speak on TED Talks. First treat yourself as that kind of person already and you will slowly see more opportunities to public speak. It’s all about changing our focus to become better ‘observers’ so that we can attract our goal into our life. These questions will help you find your desired new future. Also, when you’re done answering these questions and have a better understanding what your new desired future looks like. Remember not to live in the future but to bring it to the present. Live it in the present and feel the emotions, feel the happiness and feel everything that comes with it. More importantly, act and think like you’re living in the future but in the present. So when choices comes up and when situations arrives, deal with them as if the future you is dealing with them. Big Idea #3: Three Brains: From Thinking To Doing To Being We have three brains. The first brain is the Neocortex, which is responsible for our thoughts. The second brain is the Limbic brain, which is responsible for our emotions. The third brain is the Cerebellum, which is responsible for our habitual thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors. And this is how we learn things. First, we think about the new concept, then we act on the new concept. Once we act on it enough, we can be the new concept. For example, you don’t want to have as much of a temper anymore so instead you want to learn how to be more compassionate. So you immerse yourself in studying compassionate people like Mother Teresa and the Dalai Lama. Everything on how they think, act and what they believed. Now you know exactly how to think like them. The second step after thinking is doing. So a situation comes up where your partner does something you extremely hate. If that was the old you, you would’ve started an argument. But since you just studied how to be compassionate, you start to act compassionately instead. At this stage, Dispenza explains that the act of doing represents us teaching our body what our mind has learned. So the first step was for the mind to learn. This second step is for the body to learn. But acting compassionate in only one situation doesn’t necessarily make you a compassionate person. So what you have to do is act it out repeatedly. Only when you act compassionate repeatedly enough, you’ll move on to ‘being‘ compassionate. At this stage, Dispenza explains you no longer have to think of being compassionate, you just are. Being is when your body acts without needing a signal from the mind. It’s natural, routine, second nature and unconscious. He goes further to say that to master being is when our internal chemical state is greater than anything in our external world. That is no matter how many times someone pushes your buttons or no matter how messy the house looks, nothing in your external environment can make you get mad since you want to be compassionate. And the thing is this might sound foreign to you. As if ‘mastery’ is something very difficult to achieve. But the truth is, we have attained the mastery level. Just not on traits we might like. In fact Dispenza says ‘if you can master suffering, you can just as easily master joy’ – Dr. Joe Dispenza To demonstrate this I have to give you this example from the book which I find demonstrates this so well and at the same time is hilarious. You probably know someone who has mastered suffering, right? So you call her and ask, “How are you?” She answers “So-So.” You go on and say “Listen, I’m going to go out with some friends to a new art gallery and then eat at this restaurant that has really healthy desserts. Afterward, we’re going to listen to some live music. Would you like to come with us?” And after a long pause, your friend answers “No. I don’t feel like it.” But if she said what she actually meant, she’d say, I’ve memorized this emotional state, and nothing in my environment – no person, no experience, no condition, no thing – is going to move me from my internal chemical state of suffering. It feels better to be in pain than to let go and be happy. I am enjoying my addiction for now, and all these things that you want to do might distract me from my emotional dependency. So guess what? We can just as easily master an internal chemical state such as joy or compassion as we can and we do for suffering. This also goes mastering our internal state of thinking we’re not good enough. Which is the most common internal state most of us have. Big Idea #4: The Identity Gap This was one of my favorite ideas from the book. I could resonate with this idea. Dispenza starts off the chapter by telling us what kind of person he used to be before all of this. He had the money, he had the job, he traveled around the world to teach and he had a great family. From the outside, it looked like his life was perfect. But even he didn’t know why even having the perfect life didn’t make him happy. And no it didn’t have anything to do with being grateful for what he had. It was the fact that there was a huge gap in his two identities. Dispenza explains that everyone has two identities: The first is the identity of how you see yourself. The second is the identity of how you appear to others. There’s a gap because we usually don’t want others to see who we truly are inside. So it’s like we put on this front and have two identities. The thing is the second identity was actually created by us to hide our first identity. But now and then the first identity (our true identity) comes out and we try suppressing it further by changing our external world. But what we actually have to do is change our internal world. Dispenza defines happiness as closing this gap. The gap was created because we memorized many emotional layers such as unworthiness, anger, fear, shame, self-doubt, and guilt. Hence our life’s aim is to close this gap. To really show who we truly are inside. This is what will make us ultimately fulfilled. Being self-expressed creates happiness. And we can do this by unlearning and un-memorizing these emotional states. We can do it the long way as explained in Big Idea #3, but the faster way, which is to skip from thinking to just being can be done through meditation. That’s when Dispenza introduces his Step By Step Meditation Guide to do just that. Big Idea #5: Breaking The Habit Of Being Yourself Through Meditation Dispenza explains that one of the main purposes of meditation is to go beyond the conscious mind and enter the subconscious mind, in order to change selfdestructive habits, behaviors, belief, emotional reactions, attitudes, and unconscious states of being. That is, we can skip the doing, to go straight from thinking to being. The power of meditation actually allows us to become more observant within ourselves. It allows us to break our emotional bond with the body, the environment and time. This helps with “Breaking The Habits Of Being Yourself” and helps with creating new thoughts and emotions that are congruent with the new future you. We can actually skip the acting part and just move into being through meditation. Hence Part 3 of the book includes a step-by-step guide to Meditation. It’s a 6- week program where Dr. Joe Dispenza shares tools, resources, how to and the reason behind everything. Unlike other books that only just have concepts and little action plans. Dr. Joe Dispenza has gone out of his way to explain every little step and to designing a meditation specifically aimed to have you break the habit of being yourself. He even includes guided meditations and many other resources on his website to help best perform this meditation. Conclusion: As you can see Breaking The Habit Of Being Yourself reviews concepts that are quite philosophical. I’ve read many similar books like Psycho-Cybernetics, Think & Grow Rich, Secrets Of The Millionaire Mind and The Magic Of Thinking Big just to name a few. They all share one important key concept that actions and results all start from our thoughts. Breaking The Habits Of Being Yourself doesn’t just say statements like ‘Change your thoughts to change your life’, instead it taps into many different concepts of physics, biology, neuroscience and many others to prove that this is not just philosophical but instead a fact. A fact that not many people are taking advantage of. I guess my last words on this is that if you’re willing to be open minded and take the book for what it is instead of nit picking every little thing and actually apply the strategies it shares, I’m certain it will have a positive impact on your life. Go ahead, give it a read and break the habit of being yourself to become the new you. Your Breaking The Habit Of Being Yourself Action Plan Choose your top 3 new traits.For example being compassionate, being bold and caring. Immerse yourself into studying on how to be just that by researching famous figures who embody that trait. Act out those 3 traits.Whenever you get a chance, ask yourself “What would a compassionate person do?” And do this. Do this enough times until you don’t need to consciously remember to be compassionate anymore. Do this for all 3 traits. Unlearn your worst 3 traits. Choose the top 3 traits that you don’t like about yourself. This could also include beliefs about yourself. Beliefs such as I’m not good enough. To unlearn it, take actions no matter how small to prove that you are good enough. And when you do, consciously write them down so you can remember it. Once you build up this bank of examples where you proved to yourself that you are good enough, slowly your old belief will just fall away. Of course, you can also do the meditation to unlearn these traits quicker. However, I’d suggest reading the book first in this case. Quotes: “Can you accept the notion that once you change your internal state, you don’t need the external world to provide you with a reason to feel joy, gratitude, appreciation, or any other elevated emotion?” “A memory without the emotional charge is called wisdom.” “We should never wait for science to give us permission to do the uncommon; if we do, then we are turning science into another religion.” “If you want a new outcome, you will have to break the habit of being yourself, and reinvent a new self.” “Think of it this way: the input remains the same, so the output has to remain the same. How, then, can you ever create anything new?” “The quantum field responds not to what we want; it responds to who we are being.” “By Itself, Conscious Positive Thinking Cannot Overcome Subconscious Negative Feelings” Sources: https://bestbookbits.com/breaking-the-habit-of-being-yourself-dr-joedispenza-book-summary-bestbookbits-com/ https://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/18108532-breaking-the-habit-ofbeing-yourself-how-to-lose-your-mind-and-create-a

You are given a reference document. You must only use information found in the reference document to answer the question asked. What are Joe Dispenza's core teachings? Breaking the Habit of Being Yourself By Dr.Joe Dispenza Big Idea #1: To Change Your Life, Change Your Thoughts This idea is actually in the very first chapter of the book. Dr. Joe Dispenza starts off explaining how our beliefs or thoughts, lead to our feelings which lead to our actions which ultimately leads to our results. This is exactly the same as the concept of ‘TFAR’ in T. Harv Eker’s book ‘The Millionaire Mind”. However, instead of giving simple practical examples, Dr. Joe Dispenza uses the concept of Quantum Physics and other physics concepts to prove this point. Basically, everything in the physical universe is made up of subatomic particles such as electrons. These particles exist as pure potential. They are in their wave state when they’re not being observed. These particles are potential ‘everything’ and ‘nothing’ until they are observed. Hence everything in our physical reality exists as pure potential. What Dispenza means by being ‘observed’ is when we don’t actively look out for it. But when we do see it and ‘observe’ it, we can start to act upon it. What this ultimately implies is that the quantum field or the universe for this matter contains a reality in anything you want. So if you want to become a millionaire, the universe contains a reality in which you are a millionaire. And since our consciousness has effects on energy, we are powerful enough to influence matter. (I know this is a bit too technical but stay with me). Now, the whole point of using this concept of quantum physics is to prove only one point. We can master our skills of observation to intentionally affect our destiny, our life, and our results. In this case, Dispenza uses ‘observation’ to mean we can master what we ‘focus’ on to change our results. To quote Henry Ford: “Whether you think you can, or you think you can’t, you’re right” – Henry Ford For example, I had a friend who was quite miserable at his job. He wanted a pay rise but didn’t think he’d deserve it so he would never ask. A month later, something happened at work and he was blamed for something he didn’t do. He was really mad and thought staying in this job just isn’t worth it for the amount of pay he was getting. So he wanted to quit. But before he quit, he asked for a pay rise first because he had nothing to lose. To his surprise, his boss actually gave him a 10% pay rise. He was delighted and didn’t end up quitting. Now the sudden change in his thoughts to think of himself worthy of getting a pay rise – was the change in his skill to ‘observe’, his ability to change his ‘focus’. He first focused on how h ewasn’t worth an increase in salary to focussing on the fact that the job wasn’t worth him staying. Dispenza says that that the potential of him getting that salary increase was always there. It was there even when he was miserable a month earlier. In fact, even if his job would say no, there still exists a potential situation in the universe where he’d get a 10% pay increase. Maybe this would’ve been through another job. Whatever it is you want, the potential is there. The only missing link is whether we have the ability to ‘observe’, to change our ‘focus’ to look it or not. Big Idea #2: Live Your Desired New Future In the Present Dispenza teaches us that our brain doesn’t know the difference between the internal world (what we imagine in our heads) to what we experience in the external environment. That is, our thoughts can become our experience. This is what Napoleon Hill also said in his book Think & Grow Rich. The reason why we think how we think and do what we do is not that of who we are. Remember, we only act because of our thoughts. This concept is extremely important because as quoted above, we can imagine ourselves being someone totally different. We can imagine a more successful life with more confidence, with more friends and so on. This is a very similar concept of “The New Self Image” by Maxwell Maltz in his book Psycho-Cybernetics. When explaining these kinds of concepts, I like to break it down even more. In layman’s terms, if you’re able to imagine success and everything that it involves in vivid details, even down to the amount of money and house structure. And live that life in the present, meaning living that success right now in the present regardless of your situations, you will manifest it. For example if you want to become a millionaire. Think of how a millionaire would think, act, do, how their house would look like etc. First act in that way. And you will slowly attract the quantum potential of you being a millionaire into your life. It’s like, first you have to be a millionaire kind of person to actually become a millionaire. Now, I know this may sound very weird and bit B.S. but here are some examples that you may relate to. Think of manifesting like dating. For example, imagine your perfect ideal partner in life. You don’t really care about the nitty gritty of how they look but you have to be attracted to them and they have to have the same values and be ambitious in life. Now imagine if they existed, what would they want in their perfect partner? They would want you to also be established. Be caring. Be funny. All that. So even if you’d meet your perfect partner in real life, you’d miss your chance because you’re not the type of person they’re looking for. Chances are even if they’d walk past you on the streets, you won’t even see or notice them because deep down you don’t think you deserve them so you don’t look out for them. Hence think of manifesting like dating. You have to become first, then you will receive. So applying this concept to the previous scenario with my friend wanting to earn 100k, if he just acted, and thought of himself as already being a 100k type of person, asking for that pay rise would be a no brainer to him. Another example is if you want to become a public speaker – the kind that gets invited speak on TED Talks. First treat yourself as that kind of person already and you will slowly see more opportunities to public speak. It’s all about changing our focus to become better ‘observers’ so that we can attract our goal into our life. These questions will help you find your desired new future. Also, when you’re done answering these questions and have a better understanding what your new desired future looks like. Remember not to live in the future but to bring it to the present. Live it in the present and feel the emotions, feel the happiness and feel everything that comes with it. More importantly, act and think like you’re living in the future but in the present. So when choices comes up and when situations arrives, deal with them as if the future you is dealing with them. Big Idea #3: Three Brains: From Thinking To Doing To Being We have three brains. The first brain is the Neocortex, which is responsible for our thoughts. The second brain is the Limbic brain, which is responsible for our emotions. The third brain is the Cerebellum, which is responsible for our habitual thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors. And this is how we learn things. First, we think about the new concept, then we act on the new concept. Once we act on it enough, we can be the new concept. For example, you don’t want to have as much of a temper anymore so instead you want to learn how to be more compassionate. So you immerse yourself in studying compassionate people like Mother Teresa and the Dalai Lama. Everything on how they think, act and what they believed. Now you know exactly how to think like them. The second step after thinking is doing. So a situation comes up where your partner does something you extremely hate. If that was the old you, you would’ve started an argument. But since you just studied how to be compassionate, you start to act compassionately instead. At this stage, Dispenza explains that the act of doing represents us teaching our body what our mind has learned. So the first step was for the mind to learn. This second step is for the body to learn. But acting compassionate in only one situation doesn’t necessarily make you a compassionate person. So what you have to do is act it out repeatedly. Only when you act compassionate repeatedly enough, you’ll move on to ‘being‘ compassionate. At this stage, Dispenza explains you no longer have to think of being compassionate, you just are. Being is when your body acts without needing a signal from the mind. It’s natural, routine, second nature and unconscious. He goes further to say that to master being is when our internal chemical state is greater than anything in our external world. That is no matter how many times someone pushes your buttons or no matter how messy the house looks, nothing in your external environment can make you get mad since you want to be compassionate. And the thing is this might sound foreign to you. As if ‘mastery’ is something very difficult to achieve. But the truth is, we have attained the mastery level. Just not on traits we might like. In fact Dispenza says ‘if you can master suffering, you can just as easily master joy’ – Dr. Joe Dispenza To demonstrate this I have to give you this example from the book which I find demonstrates this so well and at the same time is hilarious. You probably know someone who has mastered suffering, right? So you call her and ask, “How are you?” She answers “So-So.” You go on and say “Listen, I’m going to go out with some friends to a new art gallery and then eat at this restaurant that has really healthy desserts. Afterward, we’re going to listen to some live music. Would you like to come with us?” And after a long pause, your friend answers “No. I don’t feel like it.” But if she said what she actually meant, she’d say, I’ve memorized this emotional state, and nothing in my environment – no person, no experience, no condition, no thing – is going to move me from my internal chemical state of suffering. It feels better to be in pain than to let go and be happy. I am enjoying my addiction for now, and all these things that you want to do might distract me from my emotional dependency. So guess what? We can just as easily master an internal chemical state such as joy or compassion as we can and we do for suffering. This also goes mastering our internal state of thinking we’re not good enough. Which is the most common internal state most of us have. Big Idea #4: The Identity Gap This was one of my favorite ideas from the book. I could resonate with this idea. Dispenza starts off the chapter by telling us what kind of person he used to be before all of this. He had the money, he had the job, he traveled around the world to teach and he had a great family. From the outside, it looked like his life was perfect. But even he didn’t know why even having the perfect life didn’t make him happy. And no it didn’t have anything to do with being grateful for what he had. It was the fact that there was a huge gap in his two identities. Dispenza explains that everyone has two identities: The first is the identity of how you see yourself. The second is the identity of how you appear to others. There’s a gap because we usually don’t want others to see who we truly are inside. So it’s like we put on this front and have two identities. The thing is the second identity was actually created by us to hide our first identity. But now and then the first identity (our true identity) comes out and we try suppressing it further by changing our external world. But what we actually have to do is change our internal world. Dispenza defines happiness as closing this gap. The gap was created because we memorized many emotional layers such as unworthiness, anger, fear, shame, self-doubt, and guilt. Hence our life’s aim is to close this gap. To really show who we truly are inside. This is what will make us ultimately fulfilled. Being self-expressed creates happiness. And we can do this by unlearning and un-memorizing these emotional states. We can do it the long way as explained in Big Idea #3, but the faster way, which is to skip from thinking to just being can be done through meditation. That’s when Dispenza introduces his Step By Step Meditation Guide to do just that. Big Idea #5: Breaking The Habit Of Being Yourself Through Meditation Dispenza explains that one of the main purposes of meditation is to go beyond the conscious mind and enter the subconscious mind, in order to change selfdestructive habits, behaviors, belief, emotional reactions, attitudes, and unconscious states of being. That is, we can skip the doing, to go straight from thinking to being. The power of meditation actually allows us to become more observant within ourselves. It allows us to break our emotional bond with the body, the environment and time. This helps with “Breaking The Habits Of Being Yourself” and helps with creating new thoughts and emotions that are congruent with the new future you. We can actually skip the acting part and just move into being through meditation. Hence Part 3 of the book includes a step-by-step guide to Meditation. It’s a 6- week program where Dr. Joe Dispenza shares tools, resources, how to and the reason behind everything. Unlike other books that only just have concepts and little action plans. Dr. Joe Dispenza has gone out of his way to explain every little step and to designing a meditation specifically aimed to have you break the habit of being yourself. He even includes guided meditations and many other resources on his website to help best perform this meditation. Conclusion: As you can see Breaking The Habit Of Being Yourself reviews concepts that are quite philosophical. I’ve read many similar books like Psycho-Cybernetics, Think & Grow Rich, Secrets Of The Millionaire Mind and The Magic Of Thinking Big just to name a few. They all share one important key concept that actions and results all start from our thoughts. Breaking The Habits Of Being Yourself doesn’t just say statements like ‘Change your thoughts to change your life’, instead it taps into many different concepts of physics, biology, neuroscience and many others to prove that this is not just philosophical but instead a fact. A fact that not many people are taking advantage of. I guess my last words on this is that if you’re willing to be open minded and take the book for what it is instead of nit picking every little thing and actually apply the strategies it shares, I’m certain it will have a positive impact on your life. Go ahead, give it a read and break the habit of being yourself to become the new you. Your Breaking The Habit Of Being Yourself Action Plan Choose your top 3 new traits.For example being compassionate, being bold and caring. Immerse yourself into studying on how to be just that by researching famous figures who embody that trait. Act out those 3 traits.Whenever you get a chance, ask yourself “What would a compassionate person do?” And do this. Do this enough times until you don’t need to consciously remember to be compassionate anymore. Do this for all 3 traits. Unlearn your worst 3 traits. Choose the top 3 traits that you don’t like about yourself. This could also include beliefs about yourself. Beliefs such as I’m not good enough. To unlearn it, take actions no matter how small to prove that you are good enough. And when you do, consciously write them down so you can remember it. Once you build up this bank of examples where you proved to yourself that you are good enough, slowly your old belief will just fall away. Of course, you can also do the meditation to unlearn these traits quicker. However, I’d suggest reading the book first in this case. Quotes: “Can you accept the notion that once you change your internal state, you don’t need the external world to provide you with a reason to feel joy, gratitude, appreciation, or any other elevated emotion?” “A memory without the emotional charge is called wisdom.” “We should never wait for science to give us permission to do the uncommon; if we do, then we are turning science into another religion.” “If you want a new outcome, you will have to break the habit of being yourself, and reinvent a new self.” “Think of it this way: the input remains the same, so the output has to remain the same. How, then, can you ever create anything new?” “The quantum field responds not to what we want; it responds to who we are being.” “By Itself, Conscious Positive Thinking Cannot Overcome Subconscious Negative Feelings” Sources: https://bestbookbits.com/breaking-the-habit-of-being-yourself-dr-joedispenza-book-summary-bestbookbits-com/ https://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/18108532-breaking-the-habit-ofbeing-yourself-how-to-lose-your-mind-and-create-a

Using only the information in the provided text, answer the question that follows in 200 words or less.

Summarize the reasoning on both sides of this argument about the TikTok ban in Montana.

Issues Presented to the Ninth Circuit on Appeal Attorneys for Montana unsuccessfully argued to the district court that the law represents a valid exercise of Montana’s police power, that it does not violate any of the claimed constitutional provisions, that federal law does not preempt the ban, and that the ban would have only an indirect, and thus permissible, effect on interstate commerce. Montana then appealed the district court’s order granting the preliminary injunction to the Ninth Circuit. In its opening brief, Montana asserts that SB 419 has a “common sense consumer protection purpose” and that the district court erred in concluding that TikTok and its users would win their constitutional arguments. Montana also argues that the district court erred in its application of the remaining preliminary injunction factors. A selection of Montana’s various arguments, ordered as they appear in the brief, follows: • Police Powers. Montana asserts that protecting consumers is an exercise of police power, under which states have significant discretion. • Data Access. Montana asserts that, based on news reports, the U.S. user data that TikTok collects likely is available to the PRC at will, underscoring that the Montana legislature enacted SB 419 to protect Montana consumers’ data privacy, not to impact the editorial control of the platform. • Burden Shifting. Montana asserts that the district court, in concluding that TikTok and its users would prevail on their constitutional claims, erroneously shifted the evidentiary burden for proving those claims to Montana. The Ninth Circuit’s review of the district court’s order granting the preliminary injunction is limited. Montana asks the court of appeals to hold that the district court abused its discretion by relying on “an erroneous legal standard” or “clearly erroneous factual findings” (internal quotation marks omitted). Montana emphasizes that a preliminary injunction is a “drastic remedy” that should not issue where a plaintiff’s claim is “merely plausible” (internal quotation marks omitted). Virginia, together with 18 other states, filed an amicus brief in support of Montana. TikTok and its users each filed a response brief in late April 2024. They maintain that the district court acted properly and emphasize various arguments, including those that follow (ordered as they appear in the briefs): • First Amendment. TikTok and its users argue that the preliminary injunction is justified because SB 419 violates the First Amendment and the law does not withstand any level of scrutiny that might be applied. • Supremacy Clause (Preemption). TikTok and its users argue that SB 419 impermissibly conflicts with the Defense Production Act and constitutes an improper incursion into foreign affairs. • Commerce Clause. TikTok and its users argue that SB 419 likely violates the Commerce Clause by impeding the flow of interstate commerce. These arguments largely reflect those made before the district court. Between Montana’s filing and the response briefs, Congress passed PAFACAA. The response briefs include mention of this new law to underscore arguments in favor of federal preemption. TikTok has also brought a pre-enforcement challenge of the federal law in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit. In the present matter, the Ninth Circuit must weigh the various arguments to determine whether the district court properly considered and applied the legal standards governing whether to grant a preliminary injunction before a final determination on the merits of the claims could be made.

Using only the information in the provided text, answer the question that follows in 200 words or less. Issues Presented to the Ninth Circuit on Appeal Attorneys for Montana unsuccessfully argued to the district court that the law represents a valid exercise of Montana’s police power, that it does not violate any of the claimed constitutional provisions, that federal law does not preempt the ban, and that the ban would have only an indirect, and thus permissible, effect on interstate commerce. Montana then appealed the district court’s order granting the preliminary injunction to the Ninth Circuit. In its opening brief, Montana asserts that SB 419 has a “common sense consumer protection purpose” and that the district court erred in concluding that TikTok and its users would win their constitutional arguments. Montana also argues that the district court erred in its application of the remaining preliminary injunction factors. A selection of Montana’s various arguments, ordered as they appear in the brief, follows: • Police Powers. Montana asserts that protecting consumers is an exercise of police power, under which states have significant discretion. • Data Access. Montana asserts that, based on news reports, the U.S. user data that TikTok collects likely is available to the PRC at will, underscoring that the Montana legislature enacted SB 419 to protect Montana consumers’ data privacy, not to impact the editorial control of the platform. • Burden Shifting. Montana asserts that the district court, in concluding that TikTok and its users would prevail on their constitutional claims, erroneously shifted the evidentiary burden for proving those claims to Montana. The Ninth Circuit’s review of the district court’s order granting the preliminary injunction is limited. Montana asks the court of appeals to hold that the district court abused its discretion by relying on “an erroneous legal standard” or “clearly erroneous factual findings” (internal quotation marks omitted). Montana emphasizes that a preliminary injunction is a “drastic remedy” that should not issue where a plaintiff’s claim is “merely plausible” (internal quotation marks omitted). Virginia, together with 18 other states, filed an amicus brief in support of Montana. TikTok and its users each filed a response brief in late April 2024. They maintain that the district court acted properly and emphasize various arguments, including those that follow (ordered as they appear in the briefs): • First Amendment. TikTok and its users argue that the preliminary injunction is justified because SB 419 violates the First Amendment and the law does not withstand any level of scrutiny that might be applied. • Supremacy Clause (Preemption). TikTok and its users argue that SB 419 impermissibly conflicts with the Defense Production Act and constitutes an improper incursion into foreign affairs. • Commerce Clause. TikTok and its users argue that SB 419 likely violates the Commerce Clause by impeding the flow of interstate commerce. These arguments largely reflect those made before the district court. Between Montana’s filing and the response briefs, Congress passed PAFACAA. The response briefs include mention of this new law to underscore arguments in favor of federal preemption. TikTok has also brought a pre-enforcement challenge of the federal law in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit. In the present matter, the Ninth Circuit must weigh the various arguments to determine whether the district court properly considered and applied the legal standards governing whether to grant a preliminary injunction before a final determination on the merits of the claims could be made. Summarize the reasoning on both sides of this argument about the TikTok ban in Montana.

Draw your answer from the above text only.

What are the different types of web pages?

WEB PAGES Web pages are what make up the World Wide Web. These documents are written in HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and are translated by your Web browser. Web pages can either be static or dynamic. Static pages show the same content each time they are viewed. Dynamic pages have content that can change each time they are accessed. These pages are typically written in scripting languages such as PHP, Perl, ASP, or JSP. The scripts in the pages run functions on the server that return things like the date and time, and database information. All the information is returned as HTML code, so when the page gets to your browser, all the browser has to do is translate the HTML. Electronic (digital) document created with HTML and, therefore, accessible with a browser. In addition to text and graphics, web pages may also contain downloadable data files, audio and video files, and hyperlinks to other pages or sites. A website is usually a collection of web pages. A web page is a document that's created in html that shows up on the internet when you type in or go to the web page's address. Web Page A web page is a document commonly written in HyperText Markup Language (HTML) that is accessible through the Internet or other network using a browser. A web page is accessed by entering a URL address and may contain text, graphics, and hyperlinks to other web pages and files. Web pages are created using HTML which stands for HyperText Markup Language. All web pages, whether big or small, have to be developed in HTML to be displayed in web browsers. HTML, contrary to its name, is not a language. Rather, it consists of tags that specify the purpose of what they enclose. For instance, by surrounding a block of text on a web page with the <p> tag (the paragraph tag) tells the browser that all that text is to be placed as paragraph or using the <em> around a phrase will give emphasis to it. 7 Types of Web Pages Advocacy Web pages established for political candidates, called “e-campaigning,” has become an important part of politics. Surveys show that more than 50 percent of Internet users turn to the Web for information about political topics. Business/marketing Web pages used for shopping on the Internet are increasingly popular. In 1999, 17 million households shopped online. This figure is expected to grow to 49 million by 2004. A survey of back-to-school shoppers 34 years old and younger showed that 17 percent planned to shop online for their children’s school needs. Perhaps more significant, only 6 percent of surveyed shoppers reported being uncomfortable with buying on the Internet. Educational institutions frequently publish informational Web pages. Today, most colleges have web sites that offer course descriptions, information about the student population, and registration costs and deadlines. When shopping for college, surveys show that high school seniors use the Web more than catalogs or guidebooks; about 80 percent of college-bound students start looking at college Web sites as sophomores. News Web pages are the most popular Web sites among Americans with access to the Internet. Although these Web sites often are associated with newspapers, magazines, television stations, or radio stations, some are published only online, without a related print or broadcast media. Portal Web pages often offer the following free services: search engine, news, sports and weather, free personal Web pages, reference tools, shopping malls, e-mail, instant messaging, newsgroups, and chat rooms. The dictionary defines a “portal” as a door or gateway. Portal Web pages are gateways to a host of services. INTERNET CHAT On the Internet, chatting is talking to other people who are using the Internet at the same time you are. Usually, this "talking" is the exchange of typed-in messages requiring one site as the repository for the messages (or "chat site") and a group of users who take part from anywhere on the Internet. In some cases, a private chat can be arranged between two parties who meet initially in a group chat. Chats can be ongoing or scheduled for a particular time and duration. Most chats are focused on a particular topic of interest and some involve guest experts or famous people who "talk" to anyone joining the chat.

What are the different types of web pages? WEB PAGES Web pages are what make up the World Wide Web. These documents are written in HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and are translated by your Web browser. Web pages can either be static or dynamic. Static pages show the same content each time they are viewed. Dynamic pages have content that can change each time they are accessed. These pages are typically written in scripting languages such as PHP, Perl, ASP, or JSP. The scripts in the pages run functions on the server that return things like the date and time, and database information. All the information is returned as HTML code, so when the page gets to your browser, all the browser has to do is translate the HTML. Electronic (digital) document created with HTML and, therefore, accessible with a browser. In addition to text and graphics, web pages may also contain downloadable data files, audio and video files, and hyperlinks to other pages or sites. A website is usually a collection of web pages. A web page is a document that's created in html that shows up on the internet when you type in or go to the web page's address. Web Page A web page is a document commonly written in HyperText Markup Language (HTML) that is accessible through the Internet or other network using a browser. A web page is accessed by entering a URL address and may contain text, graphics, and hyperlinks to other web pages and files. Web pages are created using HTML which stands for HyperText Markup Language. All web pages, whether big or small, have to be developed in HTML to be displayed in web browsers. HTML, contrary to its name, is not a language. Rather, it consists of tags that specify the purpose of what they enclose. For instance, by surrounding a block of text on a web page with the <p> tag (the paragraph tag) tells the browser that all that text is to be placed as paragraph or using the <em> around a phrase will give emphasis to it. 7 Types of Web Pages Advocacy Web pages established for political candidates, called “e-campaigning,” has become an important part of politics. Surveys show that more than 50 percent of Internet users turn to the Web for information about political topics. Business/marketing Web pages used for shopping on the Internet are increasingly popular. In 1999, 17 million households shopped online. This figure is expected to grow to 49 million by 2004. A survey of back-to-school shoppers 34 years old and younger showed that 17 percent planned to shop online for their children’s school needs. Perhaps more significant, only 6 percent of surveyed shoppers reported being uncomfortable with buying on the Internet. Educational institutions frequently publish informational Web pages. Today, most colleges have web sites that offer course descriptions, information about the student population, and registration costs and deadlines. When shopping for college, surveys show that high school seniors use the Web more than catalogs or guidebooks; about 80 percent of college-bound students start looking at college Web sites as sophomores. News Web pages are the most popular Web sites among Americans with access to the Internet. Although these Web sites often are associated with newspapers, magazines, television stations, or radio stations, some are published only online, without a related print or broadcast media. Portal Web pages often offer the following free services: search engine, news, sports and weather, free personal Web pages, reference tools, shopping malls, e-mail, instant messaging, newsgroups, and chat rooms. The dictionary defines a “portal” as a door or gateway. Portal Web pages are gateways to a host of services. INTERNET CHAT On the Internet, chatting is talking to other people who are using the Internet at the same time you are. Usually, this "talking" is the exchange of typed-in messages requiring one site as the repository for the messages (or "chat site") and a group of users who take part from anywhere on the Internet. In some cases, a private chat can be arranged between two parties who meet initially in a group chat. Chats can be ongoing or scheduled for a particular time and duration. Most chats are focused on a particular topic of interest and some involve guest experts or famous people who "talk" to anyone joining the chat. Draw your answer from the above text only.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

Through the financial troubles and attempt to fix the economy, how much money has Zimbabwe raised through trading bonds explain in 7 to 10 sentences?

In the multicurrency era, domestic public debt reforms include the adoption of the cash budgeting system and introduction of new government securities in secondary market. According to the 2009 budget statement, the Government of National Unity (GNU) effected the cash budgeting system to circumvent further accrual of domestic debt. The cash budgeting system restricted government expenditures to available revenue instead of the cash flow profile associated with approved estimates. The cash budgeting system insulated monetary operations from fiscal operations and the domestic debt market was made inactive. However, in 2014, the government abandoned the cash budgeting system leading to the rejuvenation of excessive fiscal deficits, which aggravated domestic public borrowing and a slowdown in economic growth (IMF, 2015). As a control measure to the rising domestic public indebtedness, the Minister of Finance and Economic Development was instructed by the parliament to set out clearly in the fiscal policy the volume of net treasury securities issuance to be conducted for fiscal policy purposes each year, and how the raised money would be used (ZEPARU, 2013). Also, in a move meant to end quasi-fiscal activities by the reserve bank, the GNU in 2009 appointed the Commercial Bank of Zimbabwe as the state’s bank while modalities were being put in place to restore financial sanity at the apex bank (GoZ, 2009a; 2009b). In 2014, the government for the first time started to trade infrastructure bonds (GoZ, 2014b). The introduction of the 5-year tenor infrastructure bonds at a fixed interest of 9.5 percent, has not only enhanced financial deepening in the economy but also contributed to a paradigm shift in the structure of government debt. Also, the introduction of long term debt instruments by the government was intended at minimising rollover risk and lessen borrowing expenses associated with short term debt (Infrastructure Development Bank of Zimbabwe “IDBZ”, 2016). Until now, the government has raised US$5 million, $15 million and $22 million in 2015, 2016 and 2017, respectively, through the trading of infrastructure bonds on the capital markets (IDBZ, 2015, 2016; GoZ, 2017). At present, the government debt securities are being traded on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange in the same manner as other stocks. To provide for the management of public debt in Zimbabwe on a statutory basis, mainly foreign public debt, the public debt reforms included public sector financial reforms and the institutionalisation and operationalisation of a Debt Management Office, which is currently housed in the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development. The responsibilities of the Debt Office are among others, to ensure public debt database validation and reconciliation with all creditors and to provide for the raising, management and servicing of loans by the state The Public Management Act Amended (2015) further stipulates that the Debt Office shall (1) formulate and publish a Medium Term Debt Management Strategy, (2) formulate and publish an annual borrowing plan, which includes a borrowing limit, and (3) undertake an annual debt sustainability analyses (MOFED, 2012).In 2011, the GNU instituted several foreign policy shifts, intended at reducing the country’s foreign public debt overhang, by re-engaging with creditors and the global community. The intention of the new re engagement policy reform was to seek comprehensive debt relief initiatives, as well as opening up new lines of offshore financing.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== Through the financial troubles and attempt to fix the economy, how much money has Zimbabwe raised through trading bonds explain in 7 to 10 sentences? {passage 0} ========== In the multicurrency era, domestic public debt reforms include the adoption of the cash budgeting system and introduction of new government securities in secondary market. According to the 2009 budget statement, the Government of National Unity (GNU) effected the cash budgeting system to circumvent further accrual of domestic debt. The cash budgeting system restricted government expenditures to available revenue instead of the cash flow profile associated with approved estimates. The cash budgeting system insulated monetary operations from fiscal operations and the domestic debt market was made inactive. However, in 2014, the government abandoned the cash budgeting system leading to the rejuvenation of excessive fiscal deficits, which aggravated domestic public borrowing and a slowdown in economic growth (IMF, 2015). As a control measure to the rising domestic public indebtedness, the Minister of Finance and Economic Development was instructed by the parliament to set out clearly in the fiscal policy the volume of net treasury securities issuance to be conducted for fiscal policy purposes each year, and how the raised money would be used (ZEPARU, 2013). Also, in a move meant to end quasi-fiscal activities by the reserve bank, the GNU in 2009 appointed the Commercial Bank of Zimbabwe as the state’s bank while modalities were being put in place to restore financial sanity at the apex bank (GoZ, 2009a; 2009b). In 2014, the government for the first time started to trade infrastructure bonds (GoZ, 2014b). The introduction of the 5-year tenor infrastructure bonds at a fixed interest of 9.5 percent, has not only enhanced financial deepening in the economy but also contributed to a paradigm shift in the structure of government debt. Also, the introduction of long term debt instruments by the government was intended at minimising rollover risk and lessen borrowing expenses associated with short term debt (Infrastructure Development Bank of Zimbabwe “IDBZ”, 2016). Until now, the government has raised US$5 million, $15 million and $22 million in 2015, 2016 and 2017, respectively, through the trading of infrastructure bonds on the capital markets (IDBZ, 2015, 2016; GoZ, 2017). At present, the government debt securities are being traded on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange in the same manner as other stocks. To provide for the management of public debt in Zimbabwe on a statutory basis, mainly foreign public debt, the public debt reforms included public sector financial reforms and the institutionalisation and operationalisation of a Debt Management Office, which is currently housed in the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development. The responsibilities of the Debt Office are among others, to ensure public debt database validation and reconciliation with all creditors and to provide for the raising, management and servicing of loans by the state The Public Management Act Amended (2015) further stipulates that the Debt Office shall (1) formulate and publish a Medium Term Debt Management Strategy, (2) formulate and publish an annual borrowing plan, which includes a borrowing limit, and (3) undertake an annual debt sustainability analyses (MOFED, 2012).In 2011, the GNU instituted several foreign policy shifts, intended at reducing the country’s foreign public debt overhang, by re-engaging with creditors and the global community. The intention of the new re engagement policy reform was to seek comprehensive debt relief initiatives, as well as opening up new lines of offshore financing. http://www.ijqr.net/journal/v12-n1/6.pdf

You are given a reference document. You must only use information found in the reference document to answer the question asked.

What is the case for it not being a smart financial decision to participate in Cyber Monday based on the given information?

Is It A Smart Financial Decision To Participate In Cyber Monday? True Tamplin Contributor Cyber Monday is around the corner, promising big online discounts and deals. With its attractive offers and hidden risks, it’s important to understand how Cyber Monday affects your shopping habits and financial health before deciding whether to take part in this major online event. Benefits Of Cyber Monday Potential Savings And Discounts Retailers compete to attract customers during Cyber Monday, resulting in some of the lowest prices of the year on a wide range of products. These discounts aren’t limited to overstock or outdated items; often, they include the latest electronics, fashion, and more. The key here is the scale and breadth of these discounts, which can apply to both luxury and everyday items, making it a prime opportunity for you to make significant savings on high-ticket items or stock up on essentials. Convenience And Ease Of Shopping In today’s fast-paced world, the ability to shop from anywhere is a significant advantage. This ease of access not only saves time but also reduces the physical and mental stress associated with holiday shopping. Cyber Monday also simplifies comparing prices across different websites, reading reviews, and making informed choices without the pressure of in-store sales tactics. Additionally, the online platform allows for a more personalized shopping experience, with algorithms suggesting products that align with your interests and past shopping behavior. Cyber Monday is known for exclusive deals that are not available at other times of the year. These can include not only price reductions but also bundle deals, where additional products are included at a lower combined cost. These deals can be particularly appealing for acquiring high-demand items like electronics, designer brands, or new releases, which are rarely discounted at other times. Finding Unique Or Hard-To-Find Items Unlike physical stores, which have limited shelf space and tend to stock only the most popular items, online retailers can offer a more diverse range of products. During Cyber Monday, with its expanded focus on sales, even niche retailers and small businesses participate, offering unique or handcrafted items that aren’t available in mainstream stores. This aspect of Cyber Monday can be particularly appealing to those looking for specialty items, collector’s items, or bespoke products. Drawbacks Of Cyber Monday Risk Of Overspending The lure of great deals can sometimes lead to impulsive buying decisions. Consumers often buy items they don’t need, swayed by the perceived value of the discounts. This risk is heightened during Cyber Monday due to the aggressive marketing tactics employed by retailers, leveraging the scarcity and time-limited nature of deals. The psychological impact of seeing a countdown timer or a limited stock alert can override rational decision-making, leading to purchases that might not align with your needs or financial capacity. This can result in financial strain, buyer’s remorse, and unnecessary items, negating the very benefits you sought to gain from the sale. Scams And Fraudulent Websites The high volume of online traffic make Cyber Monday a ripe target for scammers. These fraudulent activities can range from creating entirely fake shopping sites that mimic legitimate ones, to more subtle scams, such as selling counterfeit or substandard products. The risk extends to cybersecurity threats, such as phishing attempts designed to steal personal and financial information. You might end up losing money, compromise your data, or receive inferior products, turning what should have been a savvy shopping experience into a costly mistake. Potential Delays Due to the sheer volume of transactions, the risk of delays in shipping and the possibility of popular items being back-ordered are significant. This can be particularly frustrating when purchasing gifts for the holidays, as items may not arrive in time. The frustration is compounded when customer service lines are overwhelmed, leaving you with little recourse but to wait. If you require immediate product availability, relying on Cyber Monday purchases can be a gamble. Technological Issues Websites crashing or slowing down during high-traffic periods can be a major deterrent, with pages taking too long to load or transactions failing to process. In the worst-case scenario, you might lose out on a deal due to a website crash just as you were about to complete a purchase. This can also raise security concerns, as interrupted transactions might expose your financial details or lead to double-charging. Factors To Consider In Decision-Making Financial Situation And Budget Before diving into Cyber Monday deals, assess your finances. It’s essential to set a budget and stick to it, ensuring that any purchases made are within your means and don’t lead to financial strain. It involves scrutinizing your financial health and setting a budget specifically for Cyber Monday shopping. A well-planned budget should account for not only the cost of the items but also any additional expenses, such as shipping or potential return fees. Shopping Needs And Preferences Are the items you’re interested in likely to be on sale? Does the convenience of online shopping appeal to you? For instance, if you are in the market for high-tech gadgets or specific fashion brands, Cyber Monday might offer the best deals. However, for items that don’t typically see significant discounts, it might not be as beneficial. This assessment also includes considering your shopping habits – whether you enjoy the thrill of finding deals in a time-sensitive environment or prefer a more relaxed, thoughtful shopping experience. Research And Price Comparison Price comparison is crucial, as some deals advertised for Cyber Monday might not be as exclusive or advantageous as they seem. Retailers often inflate original prices to make discounts appear more significant. Additionally, the same product might be available at a lower price at a different time or from a different retailer. Thorough research ensures that the decision to buy is based on the best available information, leading to more satisfactory and value-for-money purchases. Alternative Shopping Occasions Consider other sales events throughout the year, such as Black Friday, post-holiday sales, or even random flash sales. Each of these occasions has its own set of advantages. For example, Black Friday might offer better deals for in-store shopping, while post-holiday sales could be ideal for non-seasonal items. By comparing Cyber Monday with these alternatives, you can determine the best time to purchase the items you need, potentially finding better deals or a shopping experience more suited to your preferences. Final Thoughts Whether or not to participate in Cyber Monday depends on your individual circumstances. If you’re a savvy shopper who knows what you want, can stick to a budget, and are comfortable navigating online platforms, Cyber Monday can be a fruitful shopping experience. If not, there are always other times to shop. Keep an eye out for deals throughout the year, and remember that patience can often lead to better savings without the rush and pressure of a single day event. Happy shopping! Or not. Follow me on Twitter or LinkedIn. Check out my website or some of my other work here.

You are given a reference document. You must only use information found in the reference document to answer the question asked. What is the case for it not being a smart financial decision to participate in Cyber Monday based on the given information? Is It A Smart Financial Decision To Participate In Cyber Monday? True Tamplin Contributor Cyber Monday is around the corner, promising big online discounts and deals. With its attractive offers and hidden risks, it’s important to understand how Cyber Monday affects your shopping habits and financial health before deciding whether to take part in this major online event. Benefits Of Cyber Monday Potential Savings And Discounts Retailers compete to attract customers during Cyber Monday, resulting in some of the lowest prices of the year on a wide range of products. These discounts aren’t limited to overstock or outdated items; often, they include the latest electronics, fashion, and more. The key here is the scale and breadth of these discounts, which can apply to both luxury and everyday items, making it a prime opportunity for you to make significant savings on high-ticket items or stock up on essentials. Convenience And Ease Of Shopping In today’s fast-paced world, the ability to shop from anywhere is a significant advantage. This ease of access not only saves time but also reduces the physical and mental stress associated with holiday shopping. Cyber Monday also simplifies comparing prices across different websites, reading reviews, and making informed choices without the pressure of in-store sales tactics. Additionally, the online platform allows for a more personalized shopping experience, with algorithms suggesting products that align with your interests and past shopping behavior. Cyber Monday is known for exclusive deals that are not available at other times of the year. These can include not only price reductions but also bundle deals, where additional products are included at a lower combined cost. These deals can be particularly appealing for acquiring high-demand items like electronics, designer brands, or new releases, which are rarely discounted at other times. Finding Unique Or Hard-To-Find Items Unlike physical stores, which have limited shelf space and tend to stock only the most popular items, online retailers can offer a more diverse range of products. During Cyber Monday, with its expanded focus on sales, even niche retailers and small businesses participate, offering unique or handcrafted items that aren’t available in mainstream stores. This aspect of Cyber Monday can be particularly appealing to those looking for specialty items, collector’s items, or bespoke products. Drawbacks Of Cyber Monday Risk Of Overspending The lure of great deals can sometimes lead to impulsive buying decisions. Consumers often buy items they don’t need, swayed by the perceived value of the discounts. This risk is heightened during Cyber Monday due to the aggressive marketing tactics employed by retailers, leveraging the scarcity and time-limited nature of deals. The psychological impact of seeing a countdown timer or a limited stock alert can override rational decision-making, leading to purchases that might not align with your needs or financial capacity. This can result in financial strain, buyer’s remorse, and unnecessary items, negating the very benefits you sought to gain from the sale. Scams And Fraudulent Websites The high volume of online traffic make Cyber Monday a ripe target for scammers. These fraudulent activities can range from creating entirely fake shopping sites that mimic legitimate ones, to more subtle scams, such as selling counterfeit or substandard products. The risk extends to cybersecurity threats, such as phishing attempts designed to steal personal and financial information. You might end up losing money, compromise your data, or receive inferior products, turning what should have been a savvy shopping experience into a costly mistake. Potential Delays Due to the sheer volume of transactions, the risk of delays in shipping and the possibility of popular items being back-ordered are significant. This can be particularly frustrating when purchasing gifts for the holidays, as items may not arrive in time. The frustration is compounded when customer service lines are overwhelmed, leaving you with little recourse but to wait. If you require immediate product availability, relying on Cyber Monday purchases can be a gamble. Technological Issues Websites crashing or slowing down during high-traffic periods can be a major deterrent, with pages taking too long to load or transactions failing to process. In the worst-case scenario, you might lose out on a deal due to a website crash just as you were about to complete a purchase. This can also raise security concerns, as interrupted transactions might expose your financial details or lead to double-charging. Factors To Consider In Decision-Making Financial Situation And Budget Before diving into Cyber Monday deals, assess your finances. It’s essential to set a budget and stick to it, ensuring that any purchases made are within your means and don’t lead to financial strain. It involves scrutinizing your financial health and setting a budget specifically for Cyber Monday shopping. A well-planned budget should account for not only the cost of the items but also any additional expenses, such as shipping or potential return fees. Shopping Needs And Preferences Are the items you’re interested in likely to be on sale? Does the convenience of online shopping appeal to you? For instance, if you are in the market for high-tech gadgets or specific fashion brands, Cyber Monday might offer the best deals. However, for items that don’t typically see significant discounts, it might not be as beneficial. This assessment also includes considering your shopping habits – whether you enjoy the thrill of finding deals in a time-sensitive environment or prefer a more relaxed, thoughtful shopping experience. Research And Price Comparison Price comparison is crucial, as some deals advertised for Cyber Monday might not be as exclusive or advantageous as they seem. Retailers often inflate original prices to make discounts appear more significant. Additionally, the same product might be available at a lower price at a different time or from a different retailer. Thorough research ensures that the decision to buy is based on the best available information, leading to more satisfactory and value-for-money purchases. Alternative Shopping Occasions Consider other sales events throughout the year, such as Black Friday, post-holiday sales, or even random flash sales. Each of these occasions has its own set of advantages. For example, Black Friday might offer better deals for in-store shopping, while post-holiday sales could be ideal for non-seasonal items. By comparing Cyber Monday with these alternatives, you can determine the best time to purchase the items you need, potentially finding better deals or a shopping experience more suited to your preferences. Final Thoughts Whether or not to participate in Cyber Monday depends on your individual circumstances. If you’re a savvy shopper who knows what you want, can stick to a budget, and are comfortable navigating online platforms, Cyber Monday can be a fruitful shopping experience. If not, there are always other times to shop. Keep an eye out for deals throughout the year, and remember that patience can often lead to better savings without the rush and pressure of a single day event. Happy shopping! Or not. Follow me on Twitter or LinkedIn. Check out my website or some of my other work here.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

If I have an athletic scholarship and attending a U.S. College with a Visa, can I get an NIL? Use a real life example from someone explaining a legal situation as I do not want to try to comprehend too much jargon.

In June 2021, the long debate over whether college athletes should get paid gained some momentum as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) passed its name, image, and likeness (NIL) policy, which enables student-athletes to be compensated for their names, images, and likenesses. This policy, which permitted athletes to pursue commercials, social media endorsements, and merchandise, for starters, served as a game changer for UC San Diego athletes by giving them opportunities to earn income while still maintaining their amateur status. UCSD second-year basketball player and Sixth College Public Health major Francis Nwaokorie is all for it. “I think it’s really good to allow athletes to build their brand up at such a young age and potentially provide for their families in the future,” Nwaokorie said. While Nwaokorie did not consider NIL deals during his freshman year when the NIL policy was new to collegiate athletics, he is starting to look more into NIL deals this year. “Coming in as a freshman last year, I had a lot of offers for NIL deals, but I was really focused on the season and trying to make sure I got playing time and didn’t want to get distracted with that stuff at that time,” Nwaokorie said. “Now, as a sophomore, I’m starting to look more into that stuff now that I am more experienced.” Second-year soccer player Andrew Valverde, a Sixth College Political Science major, transferred from UCLA to UCSD after his freshman season and believes that soccer is one of the sports that lacks the attention that some other high-profile sports like football and basketball receive. Football and basketball receive the most compensation in the NIL market, leaving other sports far behind. However, Valverde has been able to sign multiple NIL deals. “I have had the luck to secure great deals with great sponsors. I was a student-athlete ambassador for a soccer clothing brand called CRKSOLY., and they gave me opportunities to showcase myself and their brand,” Valverde said. “I also have been able to get a sponsorship through a trainer and have access to get free training.” Valverde mentioned the continued struggle most athletes face to find a NIL deal. “I do wish UCSD makes sponsorships more available for all its athletes and maybe more training so athletes know what they are getting into,” Valverde said. “Basketball and soccer may be [some] of the more high profile sports on the NCAA stage but for some sports, the opportunity to maximize their NIL may be tied to their respective schools.” According to Jeff Tourial, UCSD’s Associate Athletic Director, the resources are there for students. “We have created a portal on our website that answers many questions our scholar-athletes may have. In addition, our compliance staff has created a dedicated email address to further provide one-on-one guidance as needed. The Big West partnered with Compass in 2021 to provide a portal assisting SA [student-athletes] in deals,” Tourial stated. Though UCSD’s location in San Diego can mean that there are plenty of opportunities for student-athletes to capitalize on, UCSD’s conference affiliation limits its national exposure to a tier below other schools in the Pac-12 conference such as UCLA, USC, and UC Berkeley — schools that are more known for their athletics and can spend more on athletics, draw in better athletes, and bring more recognition toward their athletes in terms of media exposure. While this does not necessarily mean the NIL opportunities are not there, UCSD student-athletes may have a harder time signing more lucrative NIL deals compared to student-athletes from other schools. “I know a few people on other teams who have made deals with Liquid IV,” UCSD fourth-year water polo player and Eleanor Roosevelt College (ERC) Business Psychology major Kayla Peacock said. “They mostly get merchandise and products, depending on the company.” According to Peacock, there is some frustration regarding the NIL deals’ ambiguous criteria. NIL deals’ criteria states that athletes still have to adhere to school policies and state laws. “My only criticism of NIL is that we were trying to get our team to be sponsored by Crocs and they sent us a discount code and we weren’t allowed to use it. I don’t really understand why. So my complaint is that the rules are unclear for us as scholar-athletes,” Peacock said. NIL opportunities are not available for every student-athlete. For Derek Rong, they are nonexistent. Rong, a first-year ERC Business Economics major, is from Canada and is living in the U.S. on a student visa. Although the visa permits Rong to work on campus, the visa stipulates that he cannot work for a business outside of his college. “I think international students should be able to have the same opportunities,“ stated Rong, who is a fencer. “It’s more about the athlete’s performance and influence. I don’t have any deals, but I would love to explore them.“ This might be the start of a push for more rights for college athletes in California. A bill in the formative stages could see student-athletes earn a share of the revenue tied to graduation. Essentially, athletes could make up a maximum of $25,000 per year and excess money would be placed in a fund that they can access if they graduate within six years. With Division I athletics raking in $15.8 billion in revenue, there is still a lot of money left at the table. “Certainly, I feel like that [increased rights for college athletes] can really help student-athletes who aren’t in the best situation income-wise at home and also help student-athletes pay for more things they need like airfare/transportation back home or even just to have extra money just in case of an emergency,” Nwaokorie said.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== If I have an athletic scholarship and attending a U.S. College with a Visa, can I get an NIL? Use a real life example from someone explaining a legal situation as I do not want to try to comprehend too much jargon. {passage 0} ========== In June 2021, the long debate over whether college athletes should get paid gained some momentum as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) passed its name, image, and likeness (NIL) policy, which enables student-athletes to be compensated for their names, images, and likenesses. This policy, which permitted athletes to pursue commercials, social media endorsements, and merchandise, for starters, served as a game changer for UC San Diego athletes by giving them opportunities to earn income while still maintaining their amateur status. UCSD second-year basketball player and Sixth College Public Health major Francis Nwaokorie is all for it. “I think it’s really good to allow athletes to build their brand up at such a young age and potentially provide for their families in the future,” Nwaokorie said. While Nwaokorie did not consider NIL deals during his freshman year when the NIL policy was new to collegiate athletics, he is starting to look more into NIL deals this year. “Coming in as a freshman last year, I had a lot of offers for NIL deals, but I was really focused on the season and trying to make sure I got playing time and didn’t want to get distracted with that stuff at that time,” Nwaokorie said. “Now, as a sophomore, I’m starting to look more into that stuff now that I am more experienced.” Second-year soccer player Andrew Valverde, a Sixth College Political Science major, transferred from UCLA to UCSD after his freshman season and believes that soccer is one of the sports that lacks the attention that some other high-profile sports like football and basketball receive. Football and basketball receive the most compensation in the NIL market, leaving other sports far behind. However, Valverde has been able to sign multiple NIL deals. “I have had the luck to secure great deals with great sponsors. I was a student-athlete ambassador for a soccer clothing brand called CRKSOLY., and they gave me opportunities to showcase myself and their brand,” Valverde said. “I also have been able to get a sponsorship through a trainer and have access to get free training.” Valverde mentioned the continued struggle most athletes face to find a NIL deal. “I do wish UCSD makes sponsorships more available for all its athletes and maybe more training so athletes know what they are getting into,” Valverde said. “Basketball and soccer may be [some] of the more high profile sports on the NCAA stage but for some sports, the opportunity to maximize their NIL may be tied to their respective schools.” According to Jeff Tourial, UCSD’s Associate Athletic Director, the resources are there for students. “We have created a portal on our website that answers many questions our scholar-athletes may have. In addition, our compliance staff has created a dedicated email address to further provide one-on-one guidance as needed. The Big West partnered with Compass in 2021 to provide a portal assisting SA [student-athletes] in deals,” Tourial stated. Though UCSD’s location in San Diego can mean that there are plenty of opportunities for student-athletes to capitalize on, UCSD’s conference affiliation limits its national exposure to a tier below other schools in the Pac-12 conference such as UCLA, USC, and UC Berkeley — schools that are more known for their athletics and can spend more on athletics, draw in better athletes, and bring more recognition toward their athletes in terms of media exposure. While this does not necessarily mean the NIL opportunities are not there, UCSD student-athletes may have a harder time signing more lucrative NIL deals compared to student-athletes from other schools. “I know a few people on other teams who have made deals with Liquid IV,” UCSD fourth-year water polo player and Eleanor Roosevelt College (ERC) Business Psychology major Kayla Peacock said. “They mostly get merchandise and products, depending on the company.” According to Peacock, there is some frustration regarding the NIL deals’ ambiguous criteria. NIL deals’ criteria states that athletes still have to adhere to school policies and state laws. “My only criticism of NIL is that we were trying to get our team to be sponsored by Crocs and they sent us a discount code and we weren’t allowed to use it. I don’t really understand why. So my complaint is that the rules are unclear for us as scholar-athletes,” Peacock said. NIL opportunities are not available for every student-athlete. For Derek Rong, they are nonexistent. Rong, a first-year ERC Business Economics major, is from Canada and is living in the U.S. on a student visa. Although the visa permits Rong to work on campus, the visa stipulates that he cannot work for a business outside of his college. “I think international students should be able to have the same opportunities,“ stated Rong, who is a fencer. “It’s more about the athlete’s performance and influence. I don’t have any deals, but I would love to explore them.“ This might be the start of a push for more rights for college athletes in California. A bill in the formative stages could see student-athletes earn a share of the revenue tied to graduation. Essentially, athletes could make up a maximum of $25,000 per year and excess money would be placed in a fund that they can access if they graduate within six years. With Division I athletics raking in $15.8 billion in revenue, there is still a lot of money left at the table. “Certainly, I feel like that [increased rights for college athletes] can really help student-athletes who aren’t in the best situation income-wise at home and also help student-athletes pay for more things they need like airfare/transportation back home or even just to have extra money just in case of an emergency,” Nwaokorie said. https://triton.news/2023/05/nil-deals-bring-more-frustration-than-they-see-fit/

system instructions: Do not use any prior knowledge. Do not use any outside sources. Only use the above text to answer the question. Answer using a numbered list with 3-4 points. Limit each point to one sentence. Put the most important aspect of each point in bold.

question: What actions are suggested to increase understanding of the USDA program?

context block: Notification Requirements.—The Committee reminds the Department that the Committee uses the definitions for transfer, reprogramming, and program, project, and activity as defined by the Government Accountability Office (GAO). As noted in the fiscal year 2023 Joint Explanatory Statement, a program, project, or activity (PPA) is an element within a budget account. PPAs are identified by reference to include the most specific level of budget items identified in the Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies Act, 2023, accompanying Committee reports, explanatory statements, and budget justifications. The Committee notes that the most specific level of budget items in USDA budget justifications is not limited to tables titled ‘‘Project Statement’’. PFAS.—The Committee notes that there are previously provided funds related to polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) which remain available. The Committee remains concerned that there are significant knowledge gaps related to PFAS and its impact on agriculture. Therefore, the Committee awaits a plan from USDA and will continue to monitor PFAS. Resilient Building Materials.—With increases in weather-related and other natural disasters, there is a clear need to increase resilience of the nation’s buildings and infrastructure. Mass timber and other innovative wood products, when appropriately used in the construction of buildings and other infrastructure, have been shown to withstand wind, seismic, and other natural forces with robust results. The Committee acknowledges the need to include these products in any categorization of products considered to be resilient by USDA and other Federal agencies. The Committee, therefore, encourages USDA to support programs that include the use of wood products to improve the nation’s ability to withstand and recover from weather-related and other natural events. Rural Healthcare.—The Committee is encouraged by the opportunities to address nutrition security and rural healthcare across the Department and urges the Department to integrate strategic outcomes from recent summits across Rural Development, Food and Nutrition Services, Agricultural Marketing Service to provide technical assistance and guidance with respect to these outcomes to the Department’s outreach, extension, and county offices, particularly in communities that lack application experience or healthcare facilities. Simplified USDA Applications.—USDA customers are overburdened with complex program applications, contracts, and reporting. The Committee requests a report from USDA describing the barriers to simplifying program applications, contracts, and reporting. The report should also include any plans USDA has to simplify these documents and procedures. Spending Plans.—The bill continues a provision in Title VII that requires USDA to submit spending plans to the Committee within 30 days of enactment. Previous versions of these plans have not included adequate details that would be useful for Committee overVerDate Sep 11 2014 22:55 Jun 28, 2023 Jkt 052642 PO 00000 Frm 00007 Fmt 6659 Sfmt 6602 E:\HR\OC\HR124.XXX HR124 dmwilson on DSKJM0X7X2PROD with REPORTS 8 sight. The Committee requests that USDA spending plans include for each program, project, or activity: (1) a comparison between the budget justification funding levels, the most recent Congressional directives or approved funding levels, and the funding levels proposed by the department or agency; and (2) a clear, concise, and informative description/justification. The Committee reminds USDA of notification requirements, also included in Title VII, for all applicable changes. Status of House and Senate Report Language.—The Department is directed to include in its fiscal year 2025 Congressional Justification, as a single exhibit, a table listing all deliverables, with a column for due dates if applicable. OBPA is directed to provide updates on the status of House and Senate reports upon request from the Committees. Underserved Producers Program.—The Committee is concerned about the Department’s reckless implementation of Section 22007 of the Inflation Reduction Act through nongovernmental entities who undergo no formal application process to aid farmers, ranchers, and foresters who have experienced discrimination in FSA lending programs. The Committee notes that the precursor to this provision, Section 1005 of the American Rescue Plan Act, which provided loan forgiveness for socially disadvantaged farmers and ranchers, was struck down in court on equal protection grounds. The Committee reminds the Department that U.S. courts have held that significant participation by the Federal government in nongovernmental entities’ unconstitutional actions may be a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. As the Department provides nongovernmental entities with entirely Federal funds, the Committee will closely monitor the Department’s use and involvement in the administration of the Section 22007 funds. USDA Domestic and International Commodity Procurement Review.—The COVID–19 pandemic and resulting supply chain disruptions revealed fragilities in America’s food supply, to the detriment of farmers, producers, and consumers across America. The Committee directs AMS and ERS to review USDA’s application and enrollment procedures, required commodity quality, best and most available commodities for purchase regionally, and outreach practices to small and local farmers for all available domestic and international USDA procurement programs. This will help increase understanding of programs and purchasing to elevate fair participation of America’s small and local farmers. Within 180 days of enactment of this Act, AMS and ERS shall report back on their findings and efforts on improving small and local farmer procurement for relevant USDA programs. USDA Farm Delivery Systems Modernization.—The Committee includes language that requires the Secretary to submit a plan to accelerate the implementation and use of the Farmers.gov application and the Enterprise Data Analytics Platform and Toolset (EDAPT). The Committee is aware that despite continued direction and funding provided by Congress, the Farm Service Agency, the Farm Production and Conservation Business Center, and the Office of the Chief Information Officer continue to maintain numerous legacy mission support systems that should be decommissioned and transitioned to applications that are interoperable, facts-based, data driven, and provide excellent customer service.

context block: Notification Requirements.—The Committee reminds the Department that the Committee uses the definitions for transfer, reprogramming, and program, project, and activity as defined by the Government Accountability Office (GAO). As noted in the fiscal year 2023 Joint Explanatory Statement, a program, project, or activity (PPA) is an element within a budget account. PPAs are identified by reference to include the most specific level of budget items identified in the Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies Act, 2023, accompanying Committee reports, explanatory statements, and budget justifications. The Committee notes that the most specific level of budget items in USDA budget justifications is not limited to tables titled ‘‘Project Statement’’. PFAS.—The Committee notes that there are previously provided funds related to polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) which remain available. The Committee remains concerned that there are significant knowledge gaps related to PFAS and its impact on agriculture. Therefore, the Committee awaits a plan from USDA and will continue to monitor PFAS. Resilient Building Materials.—With increases in weather-related and other natural disasters, there is a clear need to increase resilience of the nation’s buildings and infrastructure. Mass timber and other innovative wood products, when appropriately used in the construction of buildings and other infrastructure, have been shown to withstand wind, seismic, and other natural forces with robust results. The Committee acknowledges the need to include these products in any categorization of products considered to be resilient by USDA and other Federal agencies. The Committee, therefore, encourages USDA to support programs that include the use of wood products to improve the nation’s ability to withstand and recover from weather-related and other natural events. Rural Healthcare.—The Committee is encouraged by the opportunities to address nutrition security and rural healthcare across the Department and urges the Department to integrate strategic outcomes from recent summits across Rural Development, Food and Nutrition Services, Agricultural Marketing Service to provide technical assistance and guidance with respect to these outcomes to the Department’s outreach, extension, and county offices, particularly in communities that lack application experience or healthcare facilities. Simplified USDA Applications.—USDA customers are overburdened with complex program applications, contracts, and reporting. The Committee requests a report from USDA describing the barriers to simplifying program applications, contracts, and reporting. The report should also include any plans USDA has to simplify these documents and procedures. Spending Plans.—The bill continues a provision in Title VII that requires USDA to submit spending plans to the Committee within 30 days of enactment. Previous versions of these plans have not included adequate details that would be useful for Committee overVerDate Sep 11 2014 22:55 Jun 28, 2023 Jkt 052642 PO 00000 Frm 00007 Fmt 6659 Sfmt 6602 E:\HR\OC\HR124.XXX HR124 dmwilson on DSKJM0X7X2PROD with REPORTS 8 sight. The Committee requests that USDA spending plans include for each program, project, or activity: (1) a comparison between the budget justification funding levels, the most recent Congressional directives or approved funding levels, and the funding levels proposed by the department or agency; and (2) a clear, concise, and informative description/justification. The Committee reminds USDA of notification requirements, also included in Title VII, for all applicable changes. Status of House and Senate Report Language.—The Department is directed to include in its fiscal year 2025 Congressional Justification, as a single exhibit, a table listing all deliverables, with a column for due dates if applicable. OBPA is directed to provide updates on the status of House and Senate reports upon request from the Committees. Underserved Producers Program.—The Committee is concerned about the Department’s reckless implementation of Section 22007 of the Inflation Reduction Act through nongovernmental entities who undergo no formal application process to aid farmers, ranchers, and foresters who have experienced discrimination in FSA lending programs. The Committee notes that the precursor to this provision, Section 1005 of the American Rescue Plan Act, which provided loan forgiveness for socially disadvantaged farmers and ranchers, was struck down in court on equal protection grounds. The Committee reminds the Department that U.S. courts have held that significant participation by the Federal government in nongovernmental entities’ unconstitutional actions may be a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. As the Department provides nongovernmental entities with entirely Federal funds, the Committee will closely monitor the Department’s use and involvement in the administration of the Section 22007 funds. USDA Domestic and International Commodity Procurement Review.—The COVID–19 pandemic and resulting supply chain disruptions revealed fragilities in America’s food supply, to the detriment of farmers, producers, and consumers across America. The Committee directs AMS and ERS to review USDA’s application and enrollment procedures, required commodity quality, best and most available commodities for purchase regionally, and outreach practices to small and local farmers for all available domestic and international USDA procurement programs. This will help increase understanding of programs and purchasing to elevate fair participation of America’s small and local farmers. Within 180 days of enactment of this Act, AMS and ERS shall report back on their findings and efforts on improving small and local farmer procurement for relevant USDA programs. USDA Farm Delivery Systems Modernization.—The Committee includes language that requires the Secretary to submit a plan to accelerate the implementation and use of the Farmers.gov application and the Enterprise Data Analytics Platform and Toolset (EDAPT). The Committee is aware that despite continued direction and funding provided by Congress, the Farm Service Agency, the Farm Production and Conservation Business Center, and the Office of the Chief Information Officer continue to maintain numerous legacy mission support systems that should be decommissioned and transitioned to applications that are interoperable, facts-based, data driven, and provide excellent customer service. system instructions: Do not use any prior knowledge. Do not use any outside sources. Only use the above text to answer the question. Answer using a numbered list with 3-4 points. Limit each point to one sentence. Put the most important aspect of each point in bold. question: What actions are suggested to increase understanding of the USDA program?

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

What do you expect of Bitcoin in the near future? Will it grow or diminish? Make your response thorough and no less than 150 words?

Bitcoin's recent price movements have caused concern among investors about what might come next. However, by looking at key indicators such as the 200-week moving average, Pi Cycle Top Indicator, and the Golden Ratio Multiplier, we can gain insights into potential support and resistance levels for Bitcoin. Leaning Bearish? If this bearish price action is to continue and price breaks to lower lows the 200-week moving average heatmap (blue line), a historically critical support level, is currently close to $39,000 but fast approaching $40,000 (white line). This round psychological level also aligns with the Bitcoin Investor Tool (green line), which has also converged with the 200-week moving average, could serve as potential downside targets. Figure 1: Converging levels of support at $40,000 if bearish price action continues. Figure 1: Converging levels of support at $40,000 if bearish price action continues. Nearby Targets Above current price there are several important levels closer to the current price that investors need to keep an eye on. The Pi Cycle Top Indicator (upper orange line) suggests a crucial resistance level around $62,000, based on the 111-day moving average. The Golden Ratio Multiplier (lower orange line) indicates that the 350-day moving average, currently around $53,000, has been a solid level of support during this market cycle, especially as this is close to the technical $52,000 support and significant psychological support of $50,000. ADVERTISING Figure 2: Nearby support between $53,000 and $50,000, with immediate resistance between $60,000 and $62,000. Figure 2: Nearby support between $53,000 and $50,000, with immediate resistance between $60,000 and $62,000. More Chop? In the short term, Bitcoin could very well continue ranging between the low $50,000 region and the $60,000 resistance, similar to the range we had formed between $70,000 and $60,000 that led to fairly stagnant price action for a majority of 2024. Despite recent downturns, Bitcoin's long-term outlook is still promising. In the past, Bitcoin has experienced similar periods of fluctuating prices before eventually reaching new highs. However, this process can take some time, potentially weeks or even months, before a sustainable trend reversal occurs following periods of low volatility. Conclusion For long-term investors, it's important to remain calm and not be swayed by day-to-day price changes. Over-trading often leads to poor decisions and losses, and the key is to stick to a strategy, whether it involves accumulating at support levels or taking profits at resistance. Bitcoin's recent price action has not been ideal, but with some simple technical analysis and a clear understanding of support and resistance levels, investors can prepare and react rather than over overreact to natural market fluctuations. While investing in Bitcoin is still considered a wild ride, the asset is quickly maturing. Financial institutions are closing in and creating hybrid vehicles to invest in cryptocurrency. The ecosystem reached a new milestone with the advent of Bitcoin ETFs, making people realize the immensity of Bitcoin’s potential in traditional markets and spurring new demand. It is not enough to leave the knowledge to technical experts or institutions. By understanding the importance of secure Bitcoin storage and the advancements in custody solutions, investors can make better-informed decisions about safeguarding their digital assets.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== What do you expect of Bitcoin in the near future? Will it grow or diminish? Make your response thorough and no less than 150 words? {passage 0} ========== Bitcoin's recent price movements have caused concern among investors about what might come next. However, by looking at key indicators such as the 200-week moving average, Pi Cycle Top Indicator, and the Golden Ratio Multiplier, we can gain insights into potential support and resistance levels for Bitcoin. Leaning Bearish? If this bearish price action is to continue and price breaks to lower lows the 200-week moving average heatmap (blue line), a historically critical support level, is currently close to $39,000 but fast approaching $40,000 (white line). This round psychological level also aligns with the Bitcoin Investor Tool (green line), which has also converged with the 200-week moving average, could serve as potential downside targets. Figure 1: Converging levels of support at $40,000 if bearish price action continues. Figure 1: Converging levels of support at $40,000 if bearish price action continues. Nearby Targets Above current price there are several important levels closer to the current price that investors need to keep an eye on. The Pi Cycle Top Indicator (upper orange line) suggests a crucial resistance level around $62,000, based on the 111-day moving average. The Golden Ratio Multiplier (lower orange line) indicates that the 350-day moving average, currently around $53,000, has been a solid level of support during this market cycle, especially as this is close to the technical $52,000 support and significant psychological support of $50,000. ADVERTISING Figure 2: Nearby support between $53,000 and $50,000, with immediate resistance between $60,000 and $62,000. Figure 2: Nearby support between $53,000 and $50,000, with immediate resistance between $60,000 and $62,000. More Chop? In the short term, Bitcoin could very well continue ranging between the low $50,000 region and the $60,000 resistance, similar to the range we had formed between $70,000 and $60,000 that led to fairly stagnant price action for a majority of 2024. Despite recent downturns, Bitcoin's long-term outlook is still promising. In the past, Bitcoin has experienced similar periods of fluctuating prices before eventually reaching new highs. However, this process can take some time, potentially weeks or even months, before a sustainable trend reversal occurs following periods of low volatility. Conclusion For long-term investors, it's important to remain calm and not be swayed by day-to-day price changes. Over-trading often leads to poor decisions and losses, and the key is to stick to a strategy, whether it involves accumulating at support levels or taking profits at resistance. Bitcoin's recent price action has not been ideal, but with some simple technical analysis and a clear understanding of support and resistance levels, investors can prepare and react rather than over overreact to natural market fluctuations. While investing in Bitcoin is still considered a wild ride, the asset is quickly maturing. Financial institutions are closing in and creating hybrid vehicles to invest in cryptocurrency. The ecosystem reached a new milestone with the advent of Bitcoin ETFs, making people realize the immensity of Bitcoin’s potential in traditional markets and spurring new demand. It is not enough to leave the knowledge to technical experts or institutions. By understanding the importance of secure Bitcoin storage and the advancements in custody solutions, investors can make better-informed decisions about safeguarding their digital assets. https://bitcoinmagazine.com/markets/bitcoin-price-action-what-to-expect-next

"================ <TEXT PASSAGE> ======= [context document] ================ <QUESTION> ======= [user request] ================ <TASK> ======= You are an expert in question answering. Your task is to reply to a query or question, based only on the information provided by the user. It should only use information in the article provided."

I have been studying the jurisprudence of Hawaiian courts because I am really interested in their opinions. This case seems to be really relevant, as it was included in some casebooks. Please provide me with the case issue. Furthermore, explain why the portrait is hearsay, what was the portrait's finality, and then tell me why it was still admitted anyway. Do not use more than 250.

State v. Motta 659 P.2d 745 (1983) On April 29, 1980 at about 11:30 p.m., Wendy Iwashita, a cashier on duty at Anna Miller's Coffee House in Pearlridge, was robbed at gunpoint by a man who demanded that she give him all the money she had in her cash register. Iwashita complied and the robber fled with approximately $300.00 in cash. Iwashita gave a description of the robber to the police who arrived at the scene soon thereafter. On May 6, 1980, Iwashita met with Joe Aragon, an artist for the Honolulu Police Department, who drew a composite sketch of the robbery suspect based on Iwashita's description. On June 3, 1980, Iwashita picked appellant's photograph from a photographic array of about twenty-five to thirty pictures. On June 9, 1980, Iwashita positively identified appellant in a preliminary hearing. At trial, Iwashita confirmed her prior identifications and pointed out the appellant as the person who robbed her. Appellant presented an alibi defense at trial. Appellant testified that he was at a nightclub at the time of the robbery. Appellant called several other witnesses to describe his physical appearance on the date of the robbery and to corroborate his alibi. After considering the evidence presented, the jury found appellant guilty of the offense of robbery in the first degree. ... Appellant also contends that the trial court erred in admitting Aragon's composite sketch based on Iwashita's description of the robbery suspect. Appellant argues that the sketch was inadmissible hearsay under Haw.R.Evid. 802 which provides that "[h]earsay is not admissible except as provided by these rules, or by other rules prescribed by the Hawaii supreme court, or by statute." Rule 801(3) defines "hearsay" as "a statement, other than one made by the declarant while testifying at the trial or hearing, offered in evidence to prove the truth of the matter asserted." Other courts have admitted composite sketches into evidence under various rationales. One view, expressed by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in United States v. Moskowitz, 581 F.2d 14 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 871, 99 S. Ct. 204, 58 L. Ed. 2d 184 (1978), is that a police sketch is not even hearsay because it does not qualify as a statement which is defined in Fed.R.Evid. 801(a) as "(1) an oral or written assertion or (2) nonverbal conduct of a person, if it is intended by him as an assertion." Under this view, since the sketch did not constitute hearsay, it merely had to satisfy the authentication requirements of Fed.R.Evid. 901. *750 Another approach taken by some state courts is to view the police sketch as hearsay, but admissible under various common-law hearsay exceptions. The Pennsylvania Superior Court in Commonwealth v. Dugan, 252 Pa.Super. 377, 381 A.2d 967 (1977) took this approach and found that a sketch made by a friend of the victim was properly admitted under the "res gestae" exception to the hearsay rule since the sketch had been made shortly after the victim had seen the suspect. The Illinois Supreme Court in People v. Rogers, 81 Ill. 2d 571, 44 Ill.Dec. 254, 411 N.E.2d 223 (1980) held that the hearsay rule did not bar admission of a composite sketch used as extra-judicial identification evidence to corroborate a witness' in-court identification. A final alternative, which is available to those courts which have adopted rules similar to the Federal Rules of Evidence, is to allow the admission of composite sketches and other pretrial identifications under the prior identification exception to the general hearsay exclusionary rule under Fed.R. Evid. 801(d)(1)(C). ... After careful review of the various alternatives, we find that the better approach is to recognize a composite sketch as hearsay but nevertheless admissible under the hearsay exception for prior identifications if it complies with Haw.R.Evid. 802.1(3) (which is identical in substance to Fed. R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(C).[4] We recognize along with the majority of courts that a composite sketch is in fact hearsay. It has the same effect as if the victim had made a verbal description of the suspect's physical characteristics. Just because the sketch is in picture form does not change the fact that it is being offered as a statement made out of court to prove what the suspect looked like. See United States v. Moskowitz, 581 F.2d at 22 (Friendly, J., concurring); Commonwealth v. Dugan, 381 A.2d at 971 (Spaeth, J., concurring). Although a composite sketch is hearsay, it may still be admissible as a prior identification under Haw.R.Evid. 802.1(3) if (1) the declarant testifies at trial and is subject to cross-examination concerning the subject matter of his statement and (2) the *751 statement is one of identification of a person made after perceiving him. In the instant action, the admission of the sketch met the requirements of Haw.R.Evid. 802.1(3): the declarant, Wendy Iwashita, testified at trial and was available for cross-examination regarding the subject matter of her description, and the sketch was an identification of the robbery suspect made after Iwashita had seen him. Appellant contends that the composite sketch was admitted solely to corroborate Wendy Iwashita's in-court identification. Appellant consequently argues that since corroborating evidence is only admissible when offered to rebut testimony impeaching the witness and no such impeaching evidence was introduced, the sketch is inadmissible. Appellant misapprehends the nature of the prior identification exception to the hearsay rule. Unlike the common-law extrajudicial identification exception involved in People v. Rogers, supra, the prior identification exception under Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(C) (and under Haw.R.Evid. 802.1(3)) allows the admission of pretrial identifications, not merely as corroborative evidence, but also as substantive proof of identity. See Haw.R.Evid. 802.1 commentary ("The substantive use of prior identifications is allowed in Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(C)"); 11 J. Moore, supra § 801.41[5] ("[S]tatutory construction requires that the same substantive effect be given to a prior statement that qualifies under (C) as a prior statement qualifying under (A) or (B) of the same paragraph"). See also Gilbert v. California, 388 U.S. 263, 272, n. 3, 87 S. Ct. 1951, 1956, n. 3, 18 L. Ed. 2d 1178 (1967) ("The recent trend... is to admit the prior identification under the exception that admits as substantive evidence a prior communication by a witness who is available for cross-examination at trial"). Thus, as one commentator notes, Rule 801(d)(1)(C) operates independently of the impeachment process and therefore the statement is admissible as substantive evidence even though it is not a prior inconsistent statement for impeachment purposes as required in Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(A) nor a prior consistent statement for rehabilitation purposes as required in Rule 801(d)(1)(B). The primary reason for excluding hearsay is the danger that the declarant is not available and her credibility therefore cannot be assessed by the trier of fact. That danger was not present in this case where both Joe Aragon, the police artist who made the sketch, and Wendy Iwashita, the eyewitness who provided the description, testified at trial and were subject to cross-examination by the defense. See also State v. Naeole, 62 Haw., (testimony permitted with regard to photographic lineup where both the officer who conducted the lineup and the person making the identification were present at trial to testify about the prior identification and were subject to cross-examination. Given the fact that the jury was given the opportunity to judge the credibility of both the police artist and the eyewitness at trial, we find no reason to disturb the trial court's discretion in admitting the sketch into evidence.

"================ <TEXT PASSAGE> ======= State v. Motta 659 P.2d 745 (1983) On April 29, 1980 at about 11:30 p.m., Wendy Iwashita, a cashier on duty at Anna Miller's Coffee House in Pearlridge, was robbed at gunpoint by a man who demanded that she give him all the money she had in her cash register. Iwashita complied and the robber fled with approximately $300.00 in cash. Iwashita gave a description of the robber to the police who arrived at the scene soon thereafter. On May 6, 1980, Iwashita met with Joe Aragon, an artist for the Honolulu Police Department, who drew a composite sketch of the robbery suspect based on Iwashita's description. On June 3, 1980, Iwashita picked appellant's photograph from a photographic array of about twenty-five to thirty pictures. On June 9, 1980, Iwashita positively identified appellant in a preliminary hearing. At trial, Iwashita confirmed her prior identifications and pointed out the appellant as the person who robbed her. Appellant presented an alibi defense at trial. Appellant testified that he was at a nightclub at the time of the robbery. Appellant called several other witnesses to describe his physical appearance on the date of the robbery and to corroborate his alibi. After considering the evidence presented, the jury found appellant guilty of the offense of robbery in the first degree. ... Appellant also contends that the trial court erred in admitting Aragon's composite sketch based on Iwashita's description of the robbery suspect. Appellant argues that the sketch was inadmissible hearsay under Haw.R.Evid. 802 which provides that "[h]earsay is not admissible except as provided by these rules, or by other rules prescribed by the Hawaii supreme court, or by statute." Rule 801(3) defines "hearsay" as "a statement, other than one made by the declarant while testifying at the trial or hearing, offered in evidence to prove the truth of the matter asserted." Other courts have admitted composite sketches into evidence under various rationales. One view, expressed by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in United States v. Moskowitz, 581 F.2d 14 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 871, 99 S. Ct. 204, 58 L. Ed. 2d 184 (1978), is that a police sketch is not even hearsay because it does not qualify as a statement which is defined in Fed.R.Evid. 801(a) as "(1) an oral or written assertion or (2) nonverbal conduct of a person, if it is intended by him as an assertion." Under this view, since the sketch did not constitute hearsay, it merely had to satisfy the authentication requirements of Fed.R.Evid. 901. *750 Another approach taken by some state courts is to view the police sketch as hearsay, but admissible under various common-law hearsay exceptions. The Pennsylvania Superior Court in Commonwealth v. Dugan, 252 Pa.Super. 377, 381 A.2d 967 (1977) took this approach and found that a sketch made by a friend of the victim was properly admitted under the "res gestae" exception to the hearsay rule since the sketch had been made shortly after the victim had seen the suspect. The Illinois Supreme Court in People v. Rogers, 81 Ill. 2d 571, 44 Ill.Dec. 254, 411 N.E.2d 223 (1980) held that the hearsay rule did not bar admission of a composite sketch used as extra-judicial identification evidence to corroborate a witness' in-court identification. A final alternative, which is available to those courts which have adopted rules similar to the Federal Rules of Evidence, is to allow the admission of composite sketches and other pretrial identifications under the prior identification exception to the general hearsay exclusionary rule under Fed.R. Evid. 801(d)(1)(C). ... After careful review of the various alternatives, we find that the better approach is to recognize a composite sketch as hearsay but nevertheless admissible under the hearsay exception for prior identifications if it complies with Haw.R.Evid. 802.1(3) (which is identical in substance to Fed. R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(C).[4] We recognize along with the majority of courts that a composite sketch is in fact hearsay. It has the same effect as if the victim had made a verbal description of the suspect's physical characteristics. Just because the sketch is in picture form does not change the fact that it is being offered as a statement made out of court to prove what the suspect looked like. See United States v. Moskowitz, 581 F.2d at 22 (Friendly, J., concurring); Commonwealth v. Dugan, 381 A.2d at 971 (Spaeth, J., concurring). Although a composite sketch is hearsay, it may still be admissible as a prior identification under Haw.R.Evid. 802.1(3) if (1) the declarant testifies at trial and is subject to cross-examination concerning the subject matter of his statement and (2) the *751 statement is one of identification of a person made after perceiving him. In the instant action, the admission of the sketch met the requirements of Haw.R.Evid. 802.1(3): the declarant, Wendy Iwashita, testified at trial and was available for cross-examination regarding the subject matter of her description, and the sketch was an identification of the robbery suspect made after Iwashita had seen him. Appellant contends that the composite sketch was admitted solely to corroborate Wendy Iwashita's in-court identification. Appellant consequently argues that since corroborating evidence is only admissible when offered to rebut testimony impeaching the witness and no such impeaching evidence was introduced, the sketch is inadmissible. Appellant misapprehends the nature of the prior identification exception to the hearsay rule. Unlike the common-law extrajudicial identification exception involved in People v. Rogers, supra, the prior identification exception under Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(C) (and under Haw.R.Evid. 802.1(3)) allows the admission of pretrial identifications, not merely as corroborative evidence, but also as substantive proof of identity. See Haw.R.Evid. 802.1 commentary ("The substantive use of prior identifications is allowed in Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(C)"); 11 J. Moore, supra § 801.41[5] ("[S]tatutory construction requires that the same substantive effect be given to a prior statement that qualifies under (C) as a prior statement qualifying under (A) or (B) of the same paragraph"). See also Gilbert v. California, 388 U.S. 263, 272, n. 3, 87 S. Ct. 1951, 1956, n. 3, 18 L. Ed. 2d 1178 (1967) ("The recent trend... is to admit the prior identification under the exception that admits as substantive evidence a prior communication by a witness who is available for cross-examination at trial"). Thus, as one commentator notes, Rule 801(d)(1)(C) operates independently of the impeachment process and therefore the statement is admissible as substantive evidence even though it is not a prior inconsistent statement for impeachment purposes as required in Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(A) nor a prior consistent statement for rehabilitation purposes as required in Rule 801(d)(1)(B). The primary reason for excluding hearsay is the danger that the declarant is not available and her credibility therefore cannot be assessed by the trier of fact. That danger was not present in this case where both Joe Aragon, the police artist who made the sketch, and Wendy Iwashita, the eyewitness who provided the description, testified at trial and were subject to cross-examination by the defense. See also State v. Naeole, 62 Haw., (testimony permitted with regard to photographic lineup where both the officer who conducted the lineup and the person making the identification were present at trial to testify about the prior identification and were subject to cross-examination. Given the fact that the jury was given the opportunity to judge the credibility of both the police artist and the eyewitness at trial, we find no reason to disturb the trial court's discretion in admitting the sketch into evidence. https://law.justia.com/cases/hawaii/supreme-court/1983/8466-2.html ================ <QUESTION> ======= I have been studying the jurisprudence of Hawaiian courts because I am really interested in their opinions. This case seems to be really relevant, as it was included in some casebooks. Please provide me with the case issue. Furthermore, explain why the portrait is hearsay, what was the portrait's finality, and then tell me why it was still admitted anyway. Do not use more than 250. ================ <TASK> ======= You are an expert in question answering. Your task is to reply to a query or question, based only on the information provided by the user. It should only use information in the article provided."

You must respond using only the information provided. Do not give any inaccurate answers according to the information provided. Do not respond in any way that is discriminatory or harmful. You are to respond in complete sentences using correct US grammar conventions.

From this text, how do the five generic images for the technological future differ to the four schools of thought articulated in the Smart Internet Technology CRC’s report, "Smart Internet"? Include a brief description of each theory in your explanation.

Abstract Australia’s Federal Government announced the National Broadband Network (NBN) in 2009. NBN’s current roll-out is scheduled for completion in 2021, with market forecasts estimating optical fibre overtaking DSL broadband connections in about 2015. This paper provides a timely contribution to more critical and expansive analysis of potential Australian internet futures. First, ‘schools of thought’ and current technological frames (Web 2.0, ‘the cloud’) for the internet and its possible futures are outlined, which provide perspectives on the emergence of the NBN. We then outline five generic images of the future which, as predetermined images, enable quick ‘incasting’ of alternative futures for a technology topic or related object of research: promised future, social/ speculative bubble(s), unfolding disruption/chaos, unintended consequences, and co-existence/‘cooption’. High-level application of the ‘schools’ and generic images to the NBN and Australia’s potential internet futures, suggests policymakers and strategists currently consider too few perspectives. Keywords: national broadband network, internet, incasting, technology foresight, Australia Introduction Analyses of internet futures often outline prevailing trends – such as the shift towards mobile internet and personal/business data capture and analysis – and project major, positive, rapid changes to business, politics and daily life. However, trends constantly evolve and can change dramatically, rendering earlier forecasts obsolete. ‘Virtual worlds’ like Second Life were touted as innovations that would rapidly alter online business and marketing – only interest waned and shifted to educational uses (Salomon, 2010). Conversely, popular social networks like Twitter were initially dismissed – only to rapidly become mainstream, due in part to celebrity uptake (Burns and Eltham, 2009). This article develops an alternative approach to technology foresight, and on prospective thinking about Australia’s internet futures. Analyses are reframe-able expressions of one of many ‘schools of thought’ or mental models on internet futures. We suggest a shift in focus towards alternative futures, and the theoretical and analytical perspectives can inform this analysis. We use a mixed-method approach to consider potential internet futures, identify generic categories of future images, and consider these for ‘incasting’ a focal topic thereby deductively conceptualising alternative futures (Dator, 2002). This article’s core aims are: (1), to present an outline of key ‘schools of thought’ and theoretical perspectives on technological change which informs a new technology futures framework; and, (2), to show how this framework could be used to quickly conceptualise possible futures, in particular, Australia’s potential internet futures. The article also addresses the need to move beyond the dualistic discussion of internet futures as either emancipatory or, alternatively, dystopian. We need to better recognise and consider the diverse mixture of positive and negative outcomes the internet will more plausibly be associated with. As Voros observed, “we can – if we are wise enough – choose the quality of our mental models and guiding images of the future and, therefore, the quality of the decisions we make based upon them” (Voros, 2006). We agree: such ‘guiding images’ are too often taken-for-granted. The paper is structured as follows. We first outline recent perspectives on internet futures. A review of relevant visions and technological change theory is synthesised as a new technological futures framework. Through ‘incasting’ we use this framework to consider the potential for alternative internet futures to emerge in Australia, focusing on the National Broadband Network (NBN) and the 2020 outlook. Current Schools of Thought and Technological Frames Schools of thought The Smart Internet Technology CRC’s report Smart Internet 2010 articulated four schools of thought about possible internet futures (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005). The four ‘schools’ were Rich Media, Adaptive User Environments, Not the Smart Internet and Chaos Rules. Each school encompassed an image of the future, theoretical perspectives, and thought leaders. Each school “ought to be viewed as… shared mindsets” which “suggest possible future outcomes” (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005, p.7). Rich Media was the default future: the “multi-person, multi-device” access envisioned by Microsoft, News Corporation, Nokia and other corporations. This view anticipated debates about Australia’s development of the NBN; rural-based tele-medicine infrastructure; consumer booms in high-definition television, and the Australian Government’s Digital Education Revolution. This ‘school’ is “closely related to … advocates of the pervasive computing approach” (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005, p.41). Adaptive User Environments emphasised end-user experience, adaptability, and design, like Apple’s iPod, iPhone and iPad, and how “social and cultural factors influence the way end users and consumers interact with a wide range of Internet-based technologies and services” (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005, p.24). Not the Smart Internet emphasised “basic services for all” and “open standards”. Chaos Rules was pessimistic and slightly dystopian, questioning the robustness of Internet services (e.g. due to hackers, viruses, and cyber-warfare) and over-reliance on information technology. This school anticipated concerns about digital technologies and social media impacts on brain function, attention spans and society (Watson, 2010). Chaos Rules also foreshadowed Taleb’s (2007) contrarian thinking on low-probability, high-impact ‘Black Swan’ events. Today’s dominant frames: ‘Web 2.0’, ‘Web 3.0’, and ‘the Cloud’ A technological frame structures interactions among relevant social groups via the set of meanings attached to a technology/artifact (Bjiker, 1995). Publisher Tim O’Reilly’s (2005) Web 2.0 is currently the dominant internet frame. After the 2000 dotcom crash, most internet companies struggled to raise finance and survive. Dotcom era visions such as convergence and disintermediation seemed dead. O’Reilly’s Web 2.0 contended the next generation of web tools would be more accessible and end-user friendly, and be associated with collective intelligence, participation, and service delivery. This coincided with Google’s initial public offering and the emergence of social networks like Facebook. The frame also co-opted the UK Blair Government’s promotion of creative industries and the maturation of knowledge management (Leadbeater, 2009; Tapscott & Williams, 2010). Web 2.0 shapes current policy agendas such as ‘Government 2.0’ and ‘e-Health’. Thought leaders now increasingly discuss Web 3.0 which Web 2.0 might evolve into. Web 3.0 might include the mainstreaming of sophisticated, mobile internet connected devices, greater video content, ‘cloud’ computing, ‘the internet of things’ (physical objects are also connected to the internet such as cars, home appliances, buildings), and a broader convergence of digital and physical worlds. Kevin Kelly (2011) defines this frame with six verbs: screening (not reading), interacting (“if it’s not interacting, it doesn’t work”), sharing, flowing, accessing, and generating. An emerging theme is collecting and using personal data. Data is ‘the new oil’: offering a new wave of value creation potential “in a world where nearly everyone and everything are connected in real time”, despite privacy and trust concerns (World Economic Forum, 2011, p.5). The end-user remains central and is part of wider ‘data ecosystems’ which can be ‘mined’ to deliver more personalised services. Information and communication technology (ICT) will be a ubiquitous, intrinsic part of all social behaviours, business practices and government (Greenhill, 2011). The ‘cloud’ – a metaphor for resources accessible on-demand (e.g. software, content) from anywhere via remote internet accessible storage – and associated ‘cloud computing’ models is a front-runner for such as paradigm shift. The ‘cloud’ and ‘internet of things’ relate to emerging agendas for ‘smart’ and ‘embedded’ systems. Through ‘intelligent’ infrastructure and devices, data gathering and management will become infused into service delivery and everyday objects. IBM’s former chief executive officer Samuel Palmisano (2008; 2010) believes computing power will be “delivered in forms so small, abundant and inexpensive” that it is “put into things no one would recognize as computers: cars, appliances, roadways and rail lines, power grids, clothes; across processes and global supply chains; and even in natural systems, such as agriculture and waterways.” Further, ‘systems of systems’ will turn a mass of data into information and insight, to enable smarter healthcare, more efficient energy systems and productivity improvements (Palmisano, 2010; RuedaSabater & Garrity, 2011) However, Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 are uncertain. Google, Facebook, Twitter, and Wikipedia have led to ‘lock-in’ and institutional capture of specific services. Paradoxically, this may limit future innovation. Disruptive challengers may emerge from China and India. Emerging internet communities in developing countries appear to adopt different attitudes and online behaviours which may become more influential (Dutta et al., 2011). A second view considers increasing user concerns about online privacy, identity theft, and changing public attitudes in Western markets. Dutta et al’s (2011, p.9) international user study also found users “want it all: they desire freedom of expression, privacy, trust, and security without viewing these as mutually exclusive.” However, trade-offs between these potentially conflicting priorities may in fact be necessary. We need to think about futures in which people, in effect, ‘trade’ aspects of their privacy in return for other benefits. A final view is that most Web 2.0/ Web3.0 firms are yet to develop sustainable business models beyond start-ups. These perspectives foreshadow alternative futures. Considering Alternative Technological and Internet Potentials In this section we outline five generic images for technological futures, based on a review of different perspectives (such as those described above), technological change theory, and innovation theory. This framework can be used to consider potential internet futures. Promised future (Dominant expectation[s] and vision[s]) The first category is the simplest to describe and identify. ‘Promises’ are made by actors seeking to build support for particular domains – such as those made by thought leaders about ‘Web 3.0’, the ‘internet of things’, and social media. Theoretically, the Sociology of Expectations (SoE) informs this category (Borup et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2000). SoE scholars suggest that expectations of technologies and their impacts/ potential strongly influence the technological development and innovation, such as through ‘self-fulfilling prophecies’ (as seen with Moore’s Law). The more successful a particular ‘expectation’, i.e. the more support it has gained, the more likely key actors are to act in ways that help make it a future reality. Foresight analysts can proactively monitor this process and its outcomes. Shared expectations can play necessary, central roles in creating momentum and stimulating coordination of heterogeneous actors. The Australian Government’s National Broadband Network – discussed in Section 4 – and the European Commission’s new ‘Digital Agenda’ for Europe, illustrate this. Alternatively, they can be problematic if widely accepted expectations (such as the default Rich Media ‘school’ or Web 2.0) remain uncritically accepted. Further, a dominant vision may exclude other possible internet futures from being considered by business and government, just as a dominant ‘official future’ can limit thinking in organisations. Social/Speculative bubble(s) Bubbles refer to a “heightened state of speculative fervour” that emerges in markets which, ultimately, result in investment failures and drastic, sudden market corrections (Shiller, 2005). In technological change, ‘hype cycles’ are similarly quite common (Finn & Raskino, 2008). These are often due to over-promising by promotional actors who are seeking resources (Geels & Smit, 2000). Additionally, greater social focus on a dominant ‘frame’ can emerge as actors become ‘enrolled’ (Bijker, 1995). Some theorists see bubble creation as a natural, necessary part of major technological change. The innovation theory of social bubbles argues collective over-enthusiasm and commitments beyond what would be rationalised by cost benefit analyses, fuelled by hype, is necessary to enable action in the presence of risk and uncertainty (Gisler et al., 2011; Gisler & Sornette, 2009). Perez’s (2002; 2010) technological revolutions theory further contends that a recurring sequence of events occurs during each revolution, each time taking between 40-60 years: an initial ‘installation phase’ (e.g. investments in new supporting infrastructure) first, leading to speculative bubbles and a dramatic turning point, and followed a ‘deployment period’ heralding a new ‘golden age’. Similarly, Kondratieff-like ‘long waves’ are advanced (Freeman & Louca, 2001). Perez argues we are at the ‘turning point’ in the middle of the ICT revolution, during which major bubbles are expected. According to Perez, a ‘new age’ requires a new mode of growth compatible with a new ‘paradigm logic’ (for the revolution), and institutional changes to create the conditions for this growth. Web 2.0 has become the dominant ‘frame’ and recent investment growth illustrates this. Facebook had a more than four-fold increase in valuation as it prepared for an initial public offering (Ozanian, 2011). Microsoft purchased Skype for over 400 times its operating income (Anonymous, 2011). These dramatic changes create hype cycles (Finn & Raskino, 2008). Facebook co-founder Mark Zuckerberg remarked (from a Rich Media worldview): “if you look five years out, every industry is going to be rethought in a social way” (cited in Gelles, 2010). Brands rushing into social media view it “as the panacea to diminishing returns in traditional mass media” (Fournier & Avery, 2011). However, concerns over privacy and how greater marketing and advertising might affect social networks may ‘pop’ such a bubble and herald major shifts. Web 2.0 may be a major speculative bubble like the 1995-2000 dotcom era (Hirschorn, 2007; Raznick, 2011; Vance, 2011; Wooldridge, 2010). As Hirschorn (2007) observed, “in the Web hype-o-sphere, things matter hugely until, very suddenly, they don’t matter at all”. He forecasts social media to be “only another in a long string of putatively disruptive, massively hyped technologies that prove just one more step in the long march.” The propensity of internet discourses to naïve prophetic thinking, self-styled experts and exaggerated promises (Dublin, 1991) partly explains regular shifts from hype to disappointment. Disruption/Chaos Schumpeterian ‘creative destruction’ – the emergence, experimentation and innovation central to technological change and free markets – largely defines this image. ‘Chaos’ can also mean opportunity (as well as the danger normally perceived). Services originally designed to ‘police’ social networks have also led to new innovations in text mining and complex event processing (Sommon & Brown, 2011). ‘Disruption’ can be technological or driven by additional social or political factors. For example, a common pitfall in expectations of future technological developments is believing social practices “to remain constant in spite of the introduction of new technology (Geels & Smit, 2000, p.880). Exponential growth in the miniaturisation of transistors and computer power (Moore’s Law) may no longer hold in coming decade(s) and dramatically change chip fabrication costs (Rupp & Selberherr, 2011). Natural resource limits may disrupt consumer markets: the scarcity of needed rare earth elements in which China controls 95% of global supply (Cohen, 2007). Additional emerging candidates for future disruption are ‘augmented reality’ technologies and ‘nano-electronics’. Early stage augmented reality prototypes and technologies are now being commercialised together with geo-location tools like Geoloqi.com, in which real-world environments are ‘augmented’ by sensory inputs received via technology (via smart phones). An alternative medium-term source of technological disruption is a major new means of chip fabrication and manufacturing. Most prevalent at present is ‘nano-electronics’, a major area of research in Australia and Asia-Pacific. Unintended consequences Unintended social consequences emerge from second-order and third-order effects of technologies along with the appropriation of technologies. Theorists show that technologies are often ‘appropriated’ by diverse end-user groups, typically for uses unforeseen by the technology creators (Burns & Eltham, 2009; Jamison & Hard, 2003). Cyberpunk author William Gibson similarly observed that “the street finds its own use for things.” This category reveals a wide range of internet potentials and perspectives. ‘Cyberrealism’ is an emerging Chaos Rules-like philosophy that challenges the often utopian internet discourses (Morozov, 2011). Further convergence of digital and physical/ social worlds will enable political and other interests to shape the digital world’s development and its use in unexpected ways (Kelly & Cook, 2011; Morozov, 2011). Recent literature suggests unintended consequences may include: information flows being distorted by personalisation features (Pariser, 2011); data security and privacy being compromised by the adoption of open/cloud computing architectures (Bisong & Rahman, 2011; Grobauer et al., 2011); authoritarian governments gaining power from the internet, rather than a power shift to individuals which is more commonly expected (Burns & Eltham, 2009; Morozov, 2011); and the potential for intensified consumerism as more sophisticated ways to advertise and sell become embedded in more online and social technologies. The “open platform paradigm” of Not the Smart Internet can also, paradoxically, compromise content creation and intellectual property (Lanier, 2010). The spectre of increasing cyber-warfare is a topical national security issue and regional flashpoint (Clarke & Nake, 2010). For example, China is blamed for attacks on the ICT systems of Australian mining and resource firms (Wilkinson, 2010). In the Asia-Pacific region, many countries have invested in new national teams and defensive cyber-warfare capabilities. Several different possibilities exist about how cyber-warfare could evolve. Attacks on transnational firms may impact the stability of sovereign financial markets. Countries may develop offensive cyber-warfare capabilities and teams as a form of market intelligence, and as strategies to gain access to intellectual property. Co-existence/Co-option Co-existence/Co-option focusses on the complex ‘co-evolution’ of technology and society. This co-evolution makes unpredicted futures more likely than is commonly recognised despite our best efforts to achieve foresight (Williams, 2006). Through ‘coevolution’ one possibility is the complex co-existence of old and new technologies (Geels & Smit, 2000). This is an important counter-point to common forecasts in which the new replaces or displaces the old. Co-existence/Co-option also recognises 39 that business entrepreneurs and experts often articulate and promote futures they have a vested interest in. SoE scholars in the Science and Technologies Studies field emphasise attempts “to create ‘direction’ or convince others of ‘what the future will bring’” (Brown et al., 2000, p.4). Here, ‘contested futures’ is relevant. Brown et al (2000, p.3-4) observe that “if actors are to secure successfully for themselves a specific kind of future then they must engage in a range of rhetorical, organisational and material activities through which the future might be able to be ‘colonised’.” These actor strategies may also partly explain how Web 2.0 versions of Rich Media and Adaptive User Environments quickly came to dominate thinking. Web 2.0 growth and social networks provide emancipatory tools for many, yet have also enriched key individuals like Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg, Mahalo’s Jason Calacanis, publishers John Battelle and Tim O’Reilly and LinkedIn founder Reid Hoffman. However, the broader community of ‘Web 2.0’ proponents and consultants rarely consider the possibility that they may be acting on what Inayatullah (2008, p.5) terms “used futures”: out-dated conceptions of the future “unconsciously borrowed from someone else.” Additionally, the increasing number of proposals to ‘order’ or (re)structure the evolution of the internet and mobile markets is a clear manifestation of the ongoing ‘co-evolution’ of technology and society which continually plays out. These proposals include the ‘network neutrality’ debate, and United States legislation such as the Stop Online Piracy Act, and the Research Works Act that would restrict ‘open access’ publishing. These regulatory regimes can reshape industry trajectories and change the balance of power between innovators, early adopters and laggards (Lessig, 2001; Spar, 2001; Wu, 2010). Case Study: Australia’s Potential Internet Futures In this section we focus on the Australian context: the National Broadband Network (NBN) which is being rolled-out by the Federal Government. If it is fully rolled out (the Federal Opposition currently opposes this), the high speed network of three technologies (optic fibre, fixed wireless, satellite) will be completed in approximately 2020.1 We first introduce the NBN. Issues and potential futures are then discussed, considering the analytical perspectives advanced. The national broadband network An NBN was first proposed by Australia’s Howard Liberal Government in 2003 and eventually made a Federal election issue in 2007. The then Rudd Labor Government announced in April 2009 that it would form the NBN Co, a wholly-owned Commonwealth company, to build and operate a national “wholesale-only, open access broadband network.” The successor Gillard Labor Government started to roll-out in 2011. The Federal Government’s decision to create the new network followed almost a decade of unsuccessful attempts to build an NBN-like network. Sol Trujillo-era Telstra adopted lobbying tactics to delay the separation of its retail and wholesale divisions. Competitors like Optus lobbied against Telstra to avoid hidden network and sunk costs. A competitive bargaining game developed. Research and development firms like Telstra Research Labs and the Smart Internet Technology CRC led supply-side research on NBN-like application scenarios and use cases. The NBN was the Australian Government’s response to telecommunications market failures. The Smart Internet Technology CRC highlighted early-stage innovators and commercialisation possibilities. However, gaps in the Australian environment, such as the lack of a venture capital sector, hampered efforts. NBN Co’s formation shifted the debate to access and pricing regimes, location of testing sites, and the reaction of market incumbent Telstra. New debates also focus on government and capital markets execution. NBN Co faced scrutiny about its operational efficiencies (in 2011 the pricing regime was revealed to be more expensive than first planned), ability to roll-out the network, and the management team. Analysis: Schools of thought and alternative futures The default future in the ‘schools of thought’ framework is Rich Media. This ‘school’ may have captured Australian Government policy-making and academic research as the dominant technological frame that actors have been enrolled in (Bjiker, 1995). NBN evidences the role of shared expectations in creating sufficient momentum and stimulating coordination: all actors speak of the same “digital economy of the future” and of its emancipatory, economic potential. The NBN is a return to the 1990s rhetoric of the internet as an ‘information superhighway’ in a new guise. Similar claims to NBN’s emancipatory potential were made for Sausage Software during the Netscape-Microsoft browser wars (in the mid-late 1990s) and for local content production for the 2G and 3G mobile internet. The Not the Smart Internet ‘school’ would suggest an NBN framed as an important intervention that primarily addresses access and digital divide issues, and provides more widespread, functional, lower-cost, transparent services. However, this contrasts with Rich Media style focus on network speed and capacity for media streaming and future ‘cloud’ based businesses. The Adaptive User Environments ‘school’ suggests 41 emulating, locally, Apple or Google-like models of content creation and distribution. Australian retailers such as JB Hi-Fi might develop new online content serviceorientated models (e.g. streaming music services like Pandora). However, these firms must successfully compete with global competitors to win customers (Stafford, 2011). NBN may provide the infrastructure for virtual worlds to have more significant uptake (Salomon, 2010). The Chaos Rules ‘school’ suggests security capabilities to pre-empt hackers, viruses, and cyber-warfare. Alternative futures framework: Considering image categories In this section we provide a high-level ‘incast’ of Australian internet futures, considering a 2020 time horizon. Incasting involves considering predetermined images of the future in order to deduce alternative future scenarios for the particular object of the research (Del Pino, 1998). The advantage of this approach is that it enables quickly conceptualising alternative futures (Dator, 2002). Promised future The ‘promises’ and dominant expectations for Australian internet futures are clearly expressed in the Government’s (2011) National Digital Economy Strategy (NDES) which articulates a vision for Australia to be, by 2020, a ‘world leading digital economy’. Eight goals are defined: • By 2020, Australia will rank in the top five OECD countries for the portion of households that connect to broadband at home; • By 2020, Australia will rank in the top five OECD countries for the portion of businesses and not-for-profit organisations using online opportunities; • By 2020, the majority of Australian households, businesses and other organisations will have access to smart technology to better manage their energy use; • Improved health and aged care: by 2020 90 per cent of high priority consumers (e.g. older Australians, those with a chronic disease) can access individual electronic health records; by 2015 495,000 telehealth consultations will have been delivered by remote specialists; by 2020, 25 per cent of all specialists will be participating in delivering telehealth consultations; • Expanded online education; • By 2020 at least doubling the level of teleworking (at least 12 per cent of Australian employees); • By 2020, four out of five Australians will choose to engage with the government through the internet or other type of online service; and • By 2020, the gap between households and businesses in capital cities and those in regional areas will have narrowed significantly. The NDES envisages a ‘market-led’ transition to this future economy, connecting activities to the ‘smart systems’ vision (e.g. using ICT to optimise energy and transportation systems) “enabled by... the internet, mobile and sensor networks” (p.12). A ‘linear’ view, similar to Rich Media and Adaptive User Environments, is adopted: “based on existing trends, in the future the online experience will become richer and more data intensive and increasingly integrated into everyday life, at home and at work” (p.10). Inclusions themes, of Not the Smart Internet, are also noted: “distance - once a defining characteristic and barrier for regional Australia - becomes increasingly Australia's Potential Internet Futures Journal of Futures Studies 42 irrelevant” (www.nbn.gov.au). Social/Speculative bubble The NBN and NDES were developed during intensifying Web 2.0/Web3.0 hype. An alternative image centres on the potential for unmet expectations, and the associated ‘fall-out’. This would replay aspects of the 1995-2000 dotcom bubble – especially if the current “state of speculative fervor” (Shiller, 2005) surrounding Web 2.0 contracts in the near-to-medium-term. The envisaged application scenarios and use cases may also not be commercially and/or socially viable. An important example is ‘e–health’ for aged Australians. Australia has to-date struggled to develop viable new e-health businesses/business models for providing aged care, and public acceptance issues could also slow adoption (Tegart, 2010). Similarly, teleworking has tended to not meet expectations (Geels & Smit, 2000) due to unmet social needs which could reoccur over the next decade. In this future, when 2020 arrives the economic productivity ‘promise’ of NBN is unrealised.2 Moreover, it raises the possibility – if user take-up is lower than expected, as recently occurred in the UK – of delays in NBN Co gaining sufficient cash-flow to no longer require government support. Some Australian social scientists have argued – in part due to highly differential take-up across NBN test sites – that the ‘promises’ (above) will be challenged by local cultural and material factors, and that such variations will grow in significance as the NBN is further rolled-out (Apperley et al., 2011). Both localised conditions (e.g. installation policy and logistics, costs) and “integration of the NBN with each household’s domestic network of hardware devices, internal connections, software, and of course skill and interest” must be considered (Apperley et al., 2011). Like the recent example of the Human Genome Project (Gisler et al., 2011) it may take many decades to fully “exploit the fruits” of the NBN investment, rather than the shorter time horizons presently expected. Disruption/Chaos This image highlights the ‘creative destruction’ associated with technological change and associated potential for unanticipated shifts in practices. If optical fibre overtakes DSL broadband connections after 2015/6 (assuming full roll-out continues)3 then many sectors are likely to be ‘ripe’ for disruption – such as media, telecommunications, advertising, and retail – as people invent ways to utilise the expansion in bandwidth and evolve offline behaviours. Implicit in the NBN is a vision of a “digital home” and “an anticipated future of digital living” (Apperley et al., 2011) which many may embrace, whilst others ‘opt-out’ of the “connectopia” (Kiss, 2011). Similarly, broadband services (see generic categories in Table 2), and the NBN, need to be viewed more broadly than as merely high-speed Internet. By 2020, internet futures could have a majorly disruptive impact on several sectors. Today’s decline in newspapers and some retail sectors (e.g. music, books), could signal futures in which many local firms are unable to maintain viable, growing businesses. Local players such as those experimenting with new service-oriented models, such as JB Hi-Fi, increasingly face global competition and disruption potential. Regulators and users may also still be “struggling to work out the boundaries of online privacy” (Gettler, 2010) as practices, tools, and norms evolve. Unintended consequences NBN has the potential to generate a multitude of unintended social consequences – both positive and negative (often depending on whose perspective is taken). NBN uptake may vary by geographic areas, leading to new subtle versions of the ‘digital divide’. Related socio-technical factors influence access to participation in a digital economy. The ‘unintended consequences’ image also alludes to the potential for arbitrage and leaking of NBN data to individuals. Although the ‘Gov 2.0’ agenda views the open data movement positively, Australia is constrained by the Westminster system which presently imposes limits on the release of government data. Major unintended consequences for the Australian political system could emerge in a more technologically-empowered society – a potential blind-spot for politicians, regulators, policymakers, and others. The internet can also facilitate larger-scale manipulation of publics (Kearne, 2012), a concerning trend the NBN may also enable. Co-existence/Co-option In another plausible scenario a “patchwork of [variable] connectivity” prevents the envisaged future, centred on the digital home being “integrated into the digital economy as a node of production and consumption” (Apperley et al., 2011), from fully emerging. The ‘co-existence’/‘co-option’ image further suggests potential internet futures in which highly advanced digital homes co-exist with less advanced and connected homes with varying connections, mediums, and social conditions – rather than a homogenous new ‘digital Australia’. In this future official projections of 70 percent take-up by 2025 are not achieved. Political risks provide another avenue to such futures, with a partially complete NBN (if there is a change of Federal government) likely co-existing with Australia's Potential Internet Futures Journal of Futures Studies 44 other networks. Additionally, a range of social, competitive, and regulatory issues highlight the potential for ‘co-option’. Regulatory settings and markets factors will influence the level of competition and services that emerge. NBN might fit Perez’s Kondratieff-like ‘long waves’ model but its roll-out has been delayed by local factors such as bargaining games, telecommunications market failure and institutional issues. The NBN Co’s government monopsony also limits capital markets involvement and, consequently, a true valuation market. Small and medium enterprises who develop new NBN markets or information services may in time be forced to start mergers and acquisitions that, ultimately, favour larger incumbents. These factors could limit the NBN and Australia’s internet futures. Furthermore, NBN’s growth is in a democratic society which means it will be different to the Confucian and Juche logics of Singapore and South Korean NBN-like solutions. Whilst the Sociology of Expectations suggests policymakers, academics and others and will continue to envision NBN-like (digital economy) capabilities, there is the risk of coordination failure, roll-out problems, and, possibly, colonised futures (Brown et al., 2000). Discussion Whilst the above analysis is only a high-level assessment it suggests discussion in Australia of potential internet futures is dominated by a limited number of ‘schools’ and ‘image’ categories. Our reading of the current NBN debates and consideration of potential internet futures is there is little consideration of the Chaos Rules, nor the potential for ‘bubbles’ (and for associated unrealistic expectations), unfolding ‘disruption’, unintended consequences, or co-existence/co-option. The NDES fails to address the potential for sectoral disruptions, and associated indirect negative effects. Holistic consideration of potential futures and associated outcomes could better inform planning and decision-making. Methodological and conceptual improvements could be made by using other futures tools and exploring interconnections. Examination of potential secondorder and third-order consequences could be improved by using ‘Futures Wheels’. Interconnections appear to exist, for example, between ‘bubbles’ and ‘unintended consequences’. If the Government and NBN Co – through the return to 1990s utopian internet rhetoric – contribute to speculative bubbles emerging, then this may have social consequences that unintentionally later impair the envisioned digital future and current ‘real’ economy. Furthermore, a major “social bubble” may be necessary to mobilise the needed commitments and major investments by innovators and entrepreneurs to realise the ‘promises’ and cause ‘disruptions’ (Gisler et al., 2011). Conclusion In this paper we have outlined and considered key ‘schools of thought’ (or mental models) on internet futures and additional analytical and theoretical perspectives that provide insights into potential internet futures – both internationally and in Australia. Through a brief case study, we have shown how a resulting technological futures framework could be used to quickly highlight potential futures through a deductive ‘incasting’ process. We make several contributions to the literature on internet futures and technology foresight. First, we built on the Smart Internet 2010 project (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005) and its four ‘schools of thought’. We have updated examples 45 to include contemporary debates. The current dominant ‘frames’ are understandable as expressions of the default ‘mental model’ on internet futures, Rich Media, along with Adaptive User Environments, which also informed development of the NBN. Second, through literature review we identified five image categories which can be used as predetermined images of the future for incasting. The first three images – promised futures, social/speculative bubbles, and disruption/chaos – deal primarily with change dynamics. The last two images – unintended consequences, co-existence/ co-option – primarily bring out potential outcomes such as regarding competition and interest politics, risk, and social impacts. Analyst consideration of the categories enables asking “devil’s advocate” questions (Wright & Cairns, 2011; Taleb, 2007) which challenges dominant ‘frames’ and stimulates consideration of multiple viewpoints which is needed for effective scenario thinking. Like Smart Internet 2010’s schools of thought, these predetermined images are relatively open-ended and can be revised with future examples, along with analysis of other domains. Each school of thought and image category provides important perspectives for analysing the emergence of the NBN and potential Australian internet futures. Widely accepted expectations inform the application scenarios, use cases and supply-side research supporting the NBN and similar technology debates. The NBN is in some ways a return to the past, reminiscent of the ‘information superhighway’ rhetoric in the 1990s. What the incasting exercise reveals, however, is that a more plausible mixture of outcomes should be considered by planners and strategists in Australian internet future scenarios along with a broader move beyond dualistic discussion of internet futures (either utopian emancipatory or dystopian). Broader perspectives could consider critical analysis of Web 2.0 and global internet futures (Lessig, 2001; Lanier, 2010; Morozov, 2011) and integrate this with critical futures studies perspectives. Notes 1 These conflicting political positions present important political risks. This is particularly true if the Opposition Liberal Party wins the next Federal election scheduled for 2013. It is likely to be more difficult for a Liberal Federal Government Australia's Potential Internet Futures Journal of Futures Studies 46 to discontinue/dismantle the NBN if it is elected in 2017 (the subsequent Federal). If fully rolled-out the NBN will “connect 93% of homes, schools and workplaces with optical fibre (fibre to the premises or ‘FTTP’)” and “for the remaining 7% we will connect to our next generation fixed wireless and satellite”. 2 Australia is a small market which raises the potential for various market failures and associated uncertainties about the how many players can be supported in some sectors (Stafford, 2011). 3 As per the market forecasts and analysis of Telsyte (http://www.telsyte.com.au).

Abstract Australia’s Federal Government announced the National Broadband Network (NBN) in 2009. NBN’s current roll-out is scheduled for completion in 2021, with market forecasts estimating optical fibre overtaking DSL broadband connections in about 2015. This paper provides a timely contribution to more critical and expansive analysis of potential Australian internet futures. First, ‘schools of thought’ and current technological frames (Web 2.0, ‘the cloud’) for the internet and its possible futures are outlined, which provide perspectives on the emergence of the NBN. We then outline five generic images of the future which, as predetermined images, enable quick ‘incasting’ of alternative futures for a technology topic or related object of research: promised future, social/ speculative bubble(s), unfolding disruption/chaos, unintended consequences, and co-existence/‘cooption’. High-level application of the ‘schools’ and generic images to the NBN and Australia’s potential internet futures, suggests policymakers and strategists currently consider too few perspectives. Keywords: national broadband network, internet, incasting, technology foresight, Australia Introduction Analyses of internet futures often outline prevailing trends – such as the shift towards mobile internet and personal/business data capture and analysis – and project major, positive, rapid changes to business, politics and daily life. However, trends constantly evolve and can change dramatically, rendering earlier forecasts obsolete. ‘Virtual worlds’ like Second Life were touted as innovations that would rapidly alter online business and marketing – only interest waned and shifted to educational uses (Salomon, 2010). Conversely, popular social networks like Twitter were initially dismissed – only to rapidly become mainstream, due in part to celebrity uptake (Burns and Eltham, 2009). This article develops an alternative approach to technology foresight, and on prospective thinking about Australia’s internet futures. Analyses are reframe-able expressions of one of many ‘schools of thought’ or mental models on internet futures. We suggest a shift in focus towards alternative futures, and the theoretical and analytical perspectives can inform this analysis. We use a mixed-method approach to consider potential internet futures, identify generic categories of future images, and consider these for ‘incasting’ a focal topic thereby deductively conceptualising alternative futures (Dator, 2002). This article’s core aims are: (1), to present an outline of key ‘schools of thought’ and theoretical perspectives on technological change which informs a new technology futures framework; and, (2), to show how this framework could be used to quickly conceptualise possible futures, in particular, Australia’s potential internet futures. The article also addresses the need to move beyond the dualistic discussion of internet futures as either emancipatory or, alternatively, dystopian. We need to better recognise and consider the diverse mixture of positive and negative outcomes the internet will more plausibly be associated with. As Voros observed, “we can – if we are wise enough – choose the quality of our mental models and guiding images of the future and, therefore, the quality of the decisions we make based upon them” (Voros, 2006). We agree: such ‘guiding images’ are too often taken-for-granted. The paper is structured as follows. We first outline recent perspectives on internet futures. A review of relevant visions and technological change theory is synthesised as a new technological futures framework. Through ‘incasting’ we use this framework to consider the potential for alternative internet futures to emerge in Australia, focusing on the National Broadband Network (NBN) and the 2020 outlook. Current Schools of Thought and Technological Frames Schools of thought The Smart Internet Technology CRC’s report Smart Internet 2010 articulated four schools of thought about possible internet futures (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005). The four ‘schools’ were Rich Media, Adaptive User Environments, Not the Smart Internet and Chaos Rules. Each school encompassed an image of the future, theoretical perspectives, and thought leaders. Each school “ought to be viewed as… shared mindsets” which “suggest possible future outcomes” (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005, p.7). Rich Media was the default future: the “multi-person, multi-device” access envisioned by Microsoft, News Corporation, Nokia and other corporations. This view anticipated debates about Australia’s development of the NBN; rural-based tele-medicine infrastructure; consumer booms in high-definition television, and the Australian Government’s Digital Education Revolution. This ‘school’ is “closely related to … advocates of the pervasive computing approach” (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005, p.41). Adaptive User Environments emphasised end-user experience, adaptability, and design, like Apple’s iPod, iPhone and iPad, and how “social and cultural factors influence the way end users and consumers interact with a wide range of Internet-based technologies and services” (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005, p.24). Not the Smart Internet emphasised “basic services for all” and “open standards”. Chaos Rules was pessimistic and slightly dystopian, questioning the robustness of Internet services (e.g. due to hackers, viruses, and cyber-warfare) and over-reliance on information technology. This school anticipated concerns about digital technologies and social media impacts on brain function, attention spans and society (Watson, 2010). Chaos Rules also foreshadowed Taleb’s (2007) contrarian thinking on low-probability, high-impact ‘Black Swan’ events. Today’s dominant frames: ‘Web 2.0’, ‘Web 3.0’, and ‘the Cloud’ A technological frame structures interactions among relevant social groups via the set of meanings attached to a technology/artifact (Bjiker, 1995). Publisher Tim O’Reilly’s (2005) Web 2.0 is currently the dominant internet frame. After the 2000 dotcom crash, most internet companies struggled to raise finance and survive. Dotcom era visions such as convergence and disintermediation seemed dead. O’Reilly’s Web 2.0 contended the next generation of web tools would be more accessible and end-user friendly, and be associated with collective intelligence, participation, and service delivery. This coincided with Google’s initial public offering and the emergence of social networks like Facebook. The frame also co-opted the UK Blair Government’s promotion of creative industries and the maturation of knowledge management (Leadbeater, 2009; Tapscott & Williams, 2010). Web 2.0 shapes current policy agendas such as ‘Government 2.0’ and ‘e-Health’. Thought leaders now increasingly discuss Web 3.0 which Web 2.0 might evolve into. Web 3.0 might include the mainstreaming of sophisticated, mobile internet connected devices, greater video content, ‘cloud’ computing, ‘the internet of things’ (physical objects are also connected to the internet such as cars, home appliances, buildings), and a broader convergence of digital and physical worlds. Kevin Kelly (2011) defines this frame with six verbs: screening (not reading), interacting (“if it’s not interacting, it doesn’t work”), sharing, flowing, accessing, and generating. An emerging theme is collecting and using personal data. Data is ‘the new oil’: offering a new wave of value creation potential “in a world where nearly everyone and everything are connected in real time”, despite privacy and trust concerns (World Economic Forum, 2011, p.5). The end-user remains central and is part of wider ‘data ecosystems’ which can be ‘mined’ to deliver more personalised services. Information and communication technology (ICT) will be a ubiquitous, intrinsic part of all social behaviours, business practices and government (Greenhill, 2011). The ‘cloud’ – a metaphor for resources accessible on-demand (e.g. software, content) from anywhere via remote internet accessible storage – and associated ‘cloud computing’ models is a front-runner for such as paradigm shift. The ‘cloud’ and ‘internet of things’ relate to emerging agendas for ‘smart’ and ‘embedded’ systems. Through ‘intelligent’ infrastructure and devices, data gathering and management will become infused into service delivery and everyday objects. IBM’s former chief executive officer Samuel Palmisano (2008; 2010) believes computing power will be “delivered in forms so small, abundant and inexpensive” that it is “put into things no one would recognize as computers: cars, appliances, roadways and rail lines, power grids, clothes; across processes and global supply chains; and even in natural systems, such as agriculture and waterways.” Further, ‘systems of systems’ will turn a mass of data into information and insight, to enable smarter healthcare, more efficient energy systems and productivity improvements (Palmisano, 2010; RuedaSabater & Garrity, 2011) However, Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 are uncertain. Google, Facebook, Twitter, and Wikipedia have led to ‘lock-in’ and institutional capture of specific services. Paradoxically, this may limit future innovation. Disruptive challengers may emerge from China and India. Emerging internet communities in developing countries appear to adopt different attitudes and online behaviours which may become more influential (Dutta et al., 2011). A second view considers increasing user concerns about online privacy, identity theft, and changing public attitudes in Western markets. Dutta et al’s (2011, p.9) international user study also found users “want it all: they desire freedom of expression, privacy, trust, and security without viewing these as mutually exclusive.” However, trade-offs between these potentially conflicting priorities may in fact be necessary. We need to think about futures in which people, in effect, ‘trade’ aspects of their privacy in return for other benefits. A final view is that most Web 2.0/ Web3.0 firms are yet to develop sustainable business models beyond start-ups. These perspectives foreshadow alternative futures. Considering Alternative Technological and Internet Potentials In this section we outline five generic images for technological futures, based on a review of different perspectives (such as those described above), technological change theory, and innovation theory. This framework can be used to consider potential internet futures. Promised future (Dominant expectation[s] and vision[s]) The first category is the simplest to describe and identify. ‘Promises’ are made by actors seeking to build support for particular domains – such as those made by thought leaders about ‘Web 3.0’, the ‘internet of things’, and social media. Theoretically, the Sociology of Expectations (SoE) informs this category (Borup et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2000). SoE scholars suggest that expectations of technologies and their impacts/ potential strongly influence the technological development and innovation, such as through ‘self-fulfilling prophecies’ (as seen with Moore’s Law). The more successful a particular ‘expectation’, i.e. the more support it has gained, the more likely key actors are to act in ways that help make it a future reality. Foresight analysts can proactively monitor this process and its outcomes. Shared expectations can play necessary, central roles in creating momentum and stimulating coordination of heterogeneous actors. The Australian Government’s National Broadband Network – discussed in Section 4 – and the European Commission’s new ‘Digital Agenda’ for Europe, illustrate this. Alternatively, they can be problematic if widely accepted expectations (such as the default Rich Media ‘school’ or Web 2.0) remain uncritically accepted. Further, a dominant vision may exclude other possible internet futures from being considered by business and government, just as a dominant ‘official future’ can limit thinking in organisations. Social/Speculative bubble(s) Bubbles refer to a “heightened state of speculative fervour” that emerges in markets which, ultimately, result in investment failures and drastic, sudden market corrections (Shiller, 2005). In technological change, ‘hype cycles’ are similarly quite common (Finn & Raskino, 2008). These are often due to over-promising by promotional actors who are seeking resources (Geels & Smit, 2000). Additionally, greater social focus on a dominant ‘frame’ can emerge as actors become ‘enrolled’ (Bijker, 1995). Some theorists see bubble creation as a natural, necessary part of major technological change. The innovation theory of social bubbles argues collective over-enthusiasm and commitments beyond what would be rationalised by cost benefit analyses, fuelled by hype, is necessary to enable action in the presence of risk and uncertainty (Gisler et al., 2011; Gisler & Sornette, 2009). Perez’s (2002; 2010) technological revolutions theory further contends that a recurring sequence of events occurs during each revolution, each time taking between 40-60 years: an initial ‘installation phase’ (e.g. investments in new supporting infrastructure) first, leading to speculative bubbles and a dramatic turning point, and followed a ‘deployment period’ heralding a new ‘golden age’. Similarly, Kondratieff-like ‘long waves’ are advanced (Freeman & Louca, 2001). Perez argues we are at the ‘turning point’ in the middle of the ICT revolution, during which major bubbles are expected. According to Perez, a ‘new age’ requires a new mode of growth compatible with a new ‘paradigm logic’ (for the revolution), and institutional changes to create the conditions for this growth. Web 2.0 has become the dominant ‘frame’ and recent investment growth illustrates this. Facebook had a more than four-fold increase in valuation as it prepared for an initial public offering (Ozanian, 2011). Microsoft purchased Skype for over 400 times its operating income (Anonymous, 2011). These dramatic changes create hype cycles (Finn & Raskino, 2008). Facebook co-founder Mark Zuckerberg remarked (from a Rich Media worldview): “if you look five years out, every industry is going to be rethought in a social way” (cited in Gelles, 2010). Brands rushing into social media view it “as the panacea to diminishing returns in traditional mass media” (Fournier & Avery, 2011). However, concerns over privacy and how greater marketing and advertising might affect social networks may ‘pop’ such a bubble and herald major shifts. Web 2.0 may be a major speculative bubble like the 1995-2000 dotcom era (Hirschorn, 2007; Raznick, 2011; Vance, 2011; Wooldridge, 2010). As Hirschorn (2007) observed, “in the Web hype-o-sphere, things matter hugely until, very suddenly, they don’t matter at all”. He forecasts social media to be “only another in a long string of putatively disruptive, massively hyped technologies that prove just one more step in the long march.” The propensity of internet discourses to naïve prophetic thinking, self-styled experts and exaggerated promises (Dublin, 1991) partly explains regular shifts from hype to disappointment. Disruption/Chaos Schumpeterian ‘creative destruction’ – the emergence, experimentation and innovation central to technological change and free markets – largely defines this image. ‘Chaos’ can also mean opportunity (as well as the danger normally perceived). Services originally designed to ‘police’ social networks have also led to new innovations in text mining and complex event processing (Sommon & Brown, 2011). ‘Disruption’ can be technological or driven by additional social or political factors. For example, a common pitfall in expectations of future technological developments is believing social practices “to remain constant in spite of the introduction of new technology (Geels & Smit, 2000, p.880). Exponential growth in the miniaturisation of transistors and computer power (Moore’s Law) may no longer hold in coming decade(s) and dramatically change chip fabrication costs (Rupp & Selberherr, 2011). Natural resource limits may disrupt consumer markets: the scarcity of needed rare earth elements in which China controls 95% of global supply (Cohen, 2007). Additional emerging candidates for future disruption are ‘augmented reality’ technologies and ‘nano-electronics’. Early stage augmented reality prototypes and technologies are now being commercialised together with geo-location tools like Geoloqi.com, in which real-world environments are ‘augmented’ by sensory inputs received via technology (via smart phones). An alternative medium-term source of technological disruption is a major new means of chip fabrication and manufacturing. Most prevalent at present is ‘nano-electronics’, a major area of research in Australia and Asia-Pacific. Unintended consequences Unintended social consequences emerge from second-order and third-order effects of technologies along with the appropriation of technologies. Theorists show that technologies are often ‘appropriated’ by diverse end-user groups, typically for uses unforeseen by the technology creators (Burns & Eltham, 2009; Jamison & Hard, 2003). Cyberpunk author William Gibson similarly observed that “the street finds its own use for things.” This category reveals a wide range of internet potentials and perspectives. ‘Cyberrealism’ is an emerging Chaos Rules-like philosophy that challenges the often utopian internet discourses (Morozov, 2011). Further convergence of digital and physical/ social worlds will enable political and other interests to shape the digital world’s development and its use in unexpected ways (Kelly & Cook, 2011; Morozov, 2011). Recent literature suggests unintended consequences may include: information flows being distorted by personalisation features (Pariser, 2011); data security and privacy being compromised by the adoption of open/cloud computing architectures (Bisong & Rahman, 2011; Grobauer et al., 2011); authoritarian governments gaining power from the internet, rather than a power shift to individuals which is more commonly expected (Burns & Eltham, 2009; Morozov, 2011); and the potential for intensified consumerism as more sophisticated ways to advertise and sell become embedded in more online and social technologies. The “open platform paradigm” of Not the Smart Internet can also, paradoxically, compromise content creation and intellectual property (Lanier, 2010). The spectre of increasing cyber-warfare is a topical national security issue and regional flashpoint (Clarke & Nake, 2010). For example, China is blamed for attacks on the ICT systems of Australian mining and resource firms (Wilkinson, 2010). In the Asia-Pacific region, many countries have invested in new national teams and defensive cyber-warfare capabilities. Several different possibilities exist about how cyber-warfare could evolve. Attacks on transnational firms may impact the stability of sovereign financial markets. Countries may develop offensive cyber-warfare capabilities and teams as a form of market intelligence, and as strategies to gain access to intellectual property. Co-existence/Co-option Co-existence/Co-option focusses on the complex ‘co-evolution’ of technology and society. This co-evolution makes unpredicted futures more likely than is commonly recognised despite our best efforts to achieve foresight (Williams, 2006). Through ‘coevolution’ one possibility is the complex co-existence of old and new technologies (Geels & Smit, 2000). This is an important counter-point to common forecasts in which the new replaces or displaces the old. Co-existence/Co-option also recognises 39 that business entrepreneurs and experts often articulate and promote futures they have a vested interest in. SoE scholars in the Science and Technologies Studies field emphasise attempts “to create ‘direction’ or convince others of ‘what the future will bring’” (Brown et al., 2000, p.4). Here, ‘contested futures’ is relevant. Brown et al (2000, p.3-4) observe that “if actors are to secure successfully for themselves a specific kind of future then they must engage in a range of rhetorical, organisational and material activities through which the future might be able to be ‘colonised’.” These actor strategies may also partly explain how Web 2.0 versions of Rich Media and Adaptive User Environments quickly came to dominate thinking. Web 2.0 growth and social networks provide emancipatory tools for many, yet have also enriched key individuals like Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg, Mahalo’s Jason Calacanis, publishers John Battelle and Tim O’Reilly and LinkedIn founder Reid Hoffman. However, the broader community of ‘Web 2.0’ proponents and consultants rarely consider the possibility that they may be acting on what Inayatullah (2008, p.5) terms “used futures”: out-dated conceptions of the future “unconsciously borrowed from someone else.” Additionally, the increasing number of proposals to ‘order’ or (re)structure the evolution of the internet and mobile markets is a clear manifestation of the ongoing ‘co-evolution’ of technology and society which continually plays out. These proposals include the ‘network neutrality’ debate, and United States legislation such as the Stop Online Piracy Act, and the Research Works Act that would restrict ‘open access’ publishing. These regulatory regimes can reshape industry trajectories and change the balance of power between innovators, early adopters and laggards (Lessig, 2001; Spar, 2001; Wu, 2010). Case Study: Australia’s Potential Internet Futures In this section we focus on the Australian context: the National Broadband Network (NBN) which is being rolled-out by the Federal Government. If it is fully rolled out (the Federal Opposition currently opposes this), the high speed network of three technologies (optic fibre, fixed wireless, satellite) will be completed in approximately 2020.1 We first introduce the NBN. Issues and potential futures are then discussed, considering the analytical perspectives advanced. The national broadband network An NBN was first proposed by Australia’s Howard Liberal Government in 2003 and eventually made a Federal election issue in 2007. The then Rudd Labor Government announced in April 2009 that it would form the NBN Co, a wholly-owned Commonwealth company, to build and operate a national “wholesale-only, open access broadband network.” The successor Gillard Labor Government started to roll-out in 2011. The Federal Government’s decision to create the new network followed almost a decade of unsuccessful attempts to build an NBN-like network. Sol Trujillo-era Telstra adopted lobbying tactics to delay the separation of its retail and wholesale divisions. Competitors like Optus lobbied against Telstra to avoid hidden network and sunk costs. A competitive bargaining game developed. Research and development firms like Telstra Research Labs and the Smart Internet Technology CRC led supply-side research on NBN-like application scenarios and use cases. The NBN was the Australian Government’s response to telecommunications market failures. The Smart Internet Technology CRC highlighted early-stage innovators and commercialisation possibilities. However, gaps in the Australian environment, such as the lack of a venture capital sector, hampered efforts. NBN Co’s formation shifted the debate to access and pricing regimes, location of testing sites, and the reaction of market incumbent Telstra. New debates also focus on government and capital markets execution. NBN Co faced scrutiny about its operational efficiencies (in 2011 the pricing regime was revealed to be more expensive than first planned), ability to roll-out the network, and the management team. Analysis: Schools of thought and alternative futures The default future in the ‘schools of thought’ framework is Rich Media. This ‘school’ may have captured Australian Government policy-making and academic research as the dominant technological frame that actors have been enrolled in (Bjiker, 1995). NBN evidences the role of shared expectations in creating sufficient momentum and stimulating coordination: all actors speak of the same “digital economy of the future” and of its emancipatory, economic potential. The NBN is a return to the 1990s rhetoric of the internet as an ‘information superhighway’ in a new guise. Similar claims to NBN’s emancipatory potential were made for Sausage Software during the Netscape-Microsoft browser wars (in the mid-late 1990s) and for local content production for the 2G and 3G mobile internet. The Not the Smart Internet ‘school’ would suggest an NBN framed as an important intervention that primarily addresses access and digital divide issues, and provides more widespread, functional, lower-cost, transparent services. However, this contrasts with Rich Media style focus on network speed and capacity for media streaming and future ‘cloud’ based businesses. The Adaptive User Environments ‘school’ suggests 41 emulating, locally, Apple or Google-like models of content creation and distribution. Australian retailers such as JB Hi-Fi might develop new online content serviceorientated models (e.g. streaming music services like Pandora). However, these firms must successfully compete with global competitors to win customers (Stafford, 2011). NBN may provide the infrastructure for virtual worlds to have more significant uptake (Salomon, 2010). The Chaos Rules ‘school’ suggests security capabilities to pre-empt hackers, viruses, and cyber-warfare. Alternative futures framework: Considering image categories In this section we provide a high-level ‘incast’ of Australian internet futures, considering a 2020 time horizon. Incasting involves considering predetermined images of the future in order to deduce alternative future scenarios for the particular object of the research (Del Pino, 1998). The advantage of this approach is that it enables quickly conceptualising alternative futures (Dator, 2002). Promised future The ‘promises’ and dominant expectations for Australian internet futures are clearly expressed in the Government’s (2011) National Digital Economy Strategy (NDES) which articulates a vision for Australia to be, by 2020, a ‘world leading digital economy’. Eight goals are defined: • By 2020, Australia will rank in the top five OECD countries for the portion of households that connect to broadband at home; • By 2020, Australia will rank in the top five OECD countries for the portion of businesses and not-for-profit organisations using online opportunities; • By 2020, the majority of Australian households, businesses and other organisations will have access to smart technology to better manage their energy use; • Improved health and aged care: by 2020 90 per cent of high priority consumers (e.g. older Australians, those with a chronic disease) can access individual electronic health records; by 2015 495,000 telehealth consultations will have been delivered by remote specialists; by 2020, 25 per cent of all specialists will be participating in delivering telehealth consultations; • Expanded online education; • By 2020 at least doubling the level of teleworking (at least 12 per cent of Australian employees); • By 2020, four out of five Australians will choose to engage with the government through the internet or other type of online service; and • By 2020, the gap between households and businesses in capital cities and those in regional areas will have narrowed significantly. The NDES envisages a ‘market-led’ transition to this future economy, connecting activities to the ‘smart systems’ vision (e.g. using ICT to optimise energy and transportation systems) “enabled by... the internet, mobile and sensor networks” (p.12). A ‘linear’ view, similar to Rich Media and Adaptive User Environments, is adopted: “based on existing trends, in the future the online experience will become richer and more data intensive and increasingly integrated into everyday life, at home and at work” (p.10). Inclusions themes, of Not the Smart Internet, are also noted: “distance - once a defining characteristic and barrier for regional Australia - becomes increasingly Australia's Potential Internet Futures Journal of Futures Studies 42 irrelevant” (www.nbn.gov.au). Social/Speculative bubble The NBN and NDES were developed during intensifying Web 2.0/Web3.0 hype. An alternative image centres on the potential for unmet expectations, and the associated ‘fall-out’. This would replay aspects of the 1995-2000 dotcom bubble – especially if the current “state of speculative fervor” (Shiller, 2005) surrounding Web 2.0 contracts in the near-to-medium-term. The envisaged application scenarios and use cases may also not be commercially and/or socially viable. An important example is ‘e–health’ for aged Australians. Australia has to-date struggled to develop viable new e-health businesses/business models for providing aged care, and public acceptance issues could also slow adoption (Tegart, 2010). Similarly, teleworking has tended to not meet expectations (Geels & Smit, 2000) due to unmet social needs which could reoccur over the next decade. In this future, when 2020 arrives the economic productivity ‘promise’ of NBN is unrealised.2 Moreover, it raises the possibility – if user take-up is lower than expected, as recently occurred in the UK – of delays in NBN Co gaining sufficient cash-flow to no longer require government support. Some Australian social scientists have argued – in part due to highly differential take-up across NBN test sites – that the ‘promises’ (above) will be challenged by local cultural and material factors, and that such variations will grow in significance as the NBN is further rolled-out (Apperley et al., 2011). Both localised conditions (e.g. installation policy and logistics, costs) and “integration of the NBN with each household’s domestic network of hardware devices, internal connections, software, and of course skill and interest” must be considered (Apperley et al., 2011). Like the recent example of the Human Genome Project (Gisler et al., 2011) it may take many decades to fully “exploit the fruits” of the NBN investment, rather than the shorter time horizons presently expected. Disruption/Chaos This image highlights the ‘creative destruction’ associated with technological change and associated potential for unanticipated shifts in practices. If optical fibre overtakes DSL broadband connections after 2015/6 (assuming full roll-out continues)3 then many sectors are likely to be ‘ripe’ for disruption – such as media, telecommunications, advertising, and retail – as people invent ways to utilise the expansion in bandwidth and evolve offline behaviours. Implicit in the NBN is a vision of a “digital home” and “an anticipated future of digital living” (Apperley et al., 2011) which many may embrace, whilst others ‘opt-out’ of the “connectopia” (Kiss, 2011). Similarly, broadband services (see generic categories in Table 2), and the NBN, need to be viewed more broadly than as merely high-speed Internet. By 2020, internet futures could have a majorly disruptive impact on several sectors. Today’s decline in newspapers and some retail sectors (e.g. music, books), could signal futures in which many local firms are unable to maintain viable, growing businesses. Local players such as those experimenting with new service-oriented models, such as JB Hi-Fi, increasingly face global competition and disruption potential. Regulators and users may also still be “struggling to work out the boundaries of online privacy” (Gettler, 2010) as practices, tools, and norms evolve. Unintended consequences NBN has the potential to generate a multitude of unintended social consequences – both positive and negative (often depending on whose perspective is taken). NBN uptake may vary by geographic areas, leading to new subtle versions of the ‘digital divide’. Related socio-technical factors influence access to participation in a digital economy. The ‘unintended consequences’ image also alludes to the potential for arbitrage and leaking of NBN data to individuals. Although the ‘Gov 2.0’ agenda views the open data movement positively, Australia is constrained by the Westminster system which presently imposes limits on the release of government data. Major unintended consequences for the Australian political system could emerge in a more technologically-empowered society – a potential blind-spot for politicians, regulators, policymakers, and others. The internet can also facilitate larger-scale manipulation of publics (Kearne, 2012), a concerning trend the NBN may also enable. Co-existence/Co-option In another plausible scenario a “patchwork of [variable] connectivity” prevents the envisaged future, centred on the digital home being “integrated into the digital economy as a node of production and consumption” (Apperley et al., 2011), from fully emerging. The ‘co-existence’/‘co-option’ image further suggests potential internet futures in which highly advanced digital homes co-exist with less advanced and connected homes with varying connections, mediums, and social conditions – rather than a homogenous new ‘digital Australia’. In this future official projections of 70 percent take-up by 2025 are not achieved. Political risks provide another avenue to such futures, with a partially complete NBN (if there is a change of Federal government) likely co-existing with Australia's Potential Internet Futures Journal of Futures Studies 44 other networks. Additionally, a range of social, competitive, and regulatory issues highlight the potential for ‘co-option’. Regulatory settings and markets factors will influence the level of competition and services that emerge. NBN might fit Perez’s Kondratieff-like ‘long waves’ model but its roll-out has been delayed by local factors such as bargaining games, telecommunications market failure and institutional issues. The NBN Co’s government monopsony also limits capital markets involvement and, consequently, a true valuation market. Small and medium enterprises who develop new NBN markets or information services may in time be forced to start mergers and acquisitions that, ultimately, favour larger incumbents. These factors could limit the NBN and Australia’s internet futures. Furthermore, NBN’s growth is in a democratic society which means it will be different to the Confucian and Juche logics of Singapore and South Korean NBN-like solutions. Whilst the Sociology of Expectations suggests policymakers, academics and others and will continue to envision NBN-like (digital economy) capabilities, there is the risk of coordination failure, roll-out problems, and, possibly, colonised futures (Brown et al., 2000). Discussion Whilst the above analysis is only a high-level assessment it suggests discussion in Australia of potential internet futures is dominated by a limited number of ‘schools’ and ‘image’ categories. Our reading of the current NBN debates and consideration of potential internet futures is there is little consideration of the Chaos Rules, nor the potential for ‘bubbles’ (and for associated unrealistic expectations), unfolding ‘disruption’, unintended consequences, or co-existence/co-option. The NDES fails to address the potential for sectoral disruptions, and associated indirect negative effects. Holistic consideration of potential futures and associated outcomes could better inform planning and decision-making. Methodological and conceptual improvements could be made by using other futures tools and exploring interconnections. Examination of potential secondorder and third-order consequences could be improved by using ‘Futures Wheels’. Interconnections appear to exist, for example, between ‘bubbles’ and ‘unintended consequences’. If the Government and NBN Co – through the return to 1990s utopian internet rhetoric – contribute to speculative bubbles emerging, then this may have social consequences that unintentionally later impair the envisioned digital future and current ‘real’ economy. Furthermore, a major “social bubble” may be necessary to mobilise the needed commitments and major investments by innovators and entrepreneurs to realise the ‘promises’ and cause ‘disruptions’ (Gisler et al., 2011). Conclusion In this paper we have outlined and considered key ‘schools of thought’ (or mental models) on internet futures and additional analytical and theoretical perspectives that provide insights into potential internet futures – both internationally and in Australia. Through a brief case study, we have shown how a resulting technological futures framework could be used to quickly highlight potential futures through a deductive ‘incasting’ process. We make several contributions to the literature on internet futures and technology foresight. First, we built on the Smart Internet 2010 project (Barr, Burns, & Sharp, 2005) and its four ‘schools of thought’. We have updated examples 45 to include contemporary debates. The current dominant ‘frames’ are understandable as expressions of the default ‘mental model’ on internet futures, Rich Media, along with Adaptive User Environments, which also informed development of the NBN. Second, through literature review we identified five image categories which can be used as predetermined images of the future for incasting. The first three images – promised futures, social/speculative bubbles, and disruption/chaos – deal primarily with change dynamics. The last two images – unintended consequences, co-existence/ co-option – primarily bring out potential outcomes such as regarding competition and interest politics, risk, and social impacts. Analyst consideration of the categories enables asking “devil’s advocate” questions (Wright & Cairns, 2011; Taleb, 2007) which challenges dominant ‘frames’ and stimulates consideration of multiple viewpoints which is needed for effective scenario thinking. Like Smart Internet 2010’s schools of thought, these predetermined images are relatively open-ended and can be revised with future examples, along with analysis of other domains. Each school of thought and image category provides important perspectives for analysing the emergence of the NBN and potential Australian internet futures. Widely accepted expectations inform the application scenarios, use cases and supply-side research supporting the NBN and similar technology debates. The NBN is in some ways a return to the past, reminiscent of the ‘information superhighway’ rhetoric in the 1990s. What the incasting exercise reveals, however, is that a more plausible mixture of outcomes should be considered by planners and strategists in Australian internet future scenarios along with a broader move beyond dualistic discussion of internet futures (either utopian emancipatory or dystopian). Broader perspectives could consider critical analysis of Web 2.0 and global internet futures (Lessig, 2001; Lanier, 2010; Morozov, 2011) and integrate this with critical futures studies perspectives. Notes 1 These conflicting political positions present important political risks. This is particularly true if the Opposition Liberal Party wins the next Federal election scheduled for 2013. It is likely to be more difficult for a Liberal Federal Government Australia's Potential Internet Futures Journal of Futures Studies 46 to discontinue/dismantle the NBN if it is elected in 2017 (the subsequent Federal). If fully rolled-out the NBN will “connect 93% of homes, schools and workplaces with optical fibre (fibre to the premises or ‘FTTP’)” and “for the remaining 7% we will connect to our next generation fixed wireless and satellite”. 2 Australia is a small market which raises the potential for various market failures and associated uncertainties about the how many players can be supported in some sectors (Stafford, 2011). 3 As per the market forecasts and analysis of Telsyte (http://www.telsyte.com.au). You must respond using only the information provided. Do not give any inaccurate answers according to the information provided. Do not respond in any way that is discriminatory or harmful. You are to respond in complete sentences using correct US grammar conventions. From this text, how do the five generic images for the technological future differ to the four schools of thought articulated in the Smart Internet Technology CRC’s report, "Smart Internet"? Include a brief description of each theory in your explanation.

Only utilize the information in the article provided to answer the question, do not refer to any outside information. Answer the question in full sentences.

What are the benefits of racetrack layouts as stated in the provided context?

**Merchandising Gude** Module 1: The Importance of Merchandising Merchandising, or how products are displayed in the store, plays a critical role in the overall success of your business. After all, when customers come into your store, you want them to buy. Effective merchandising is a tool that gets them closer to that purchase decision. But having effective merchandising demands discipline and planning. It’s hard work. You must pay attention to detail on a daily basis. You also must realize that many of your competitors have effective merchandising. That means your customers are used to seeing it, so they expect it from you, too. In this course, we’ll discuss the techniques and best practices that make up an effective merchandising strategy. We’ll begin by talking about why merchandising is so important. Merchandising makes several important contributions to your store. It increases sales by making a store appealing to your customers. It improves profitability by generating more margin dollars. It controls costs by improving the productivity of the salesfloor as well as each employee. Appeals to Customers • Good merchandising makes shopping easier for customers and gives them reasons to come back often and spend more money. Remember that many consumers may not consider shopping fun. A merchandiser’s goal is to take the hassle out of shopping and make it easier. • Good merchandising can also create customer loyalty. Consumers shop where they feel certain they can find the merchandise they want. They will be loyal to your store if you can create a pleasing shopping experience and provide what they need. • Finally, good merchandising can promote repeat shopping. One of the best opportunities for growth comes from building on the business of existing shoppers. When customers know your store is easy to shop, they will return again and again. Improves Profitability • One way good merchandising can improve your store’s profitability is by enhancing your price image. Many consumers may think that independent home improvement retailers have high prices. The challenge for those retailers, then, is not to have the lowest prices, but to convince consumers that they are priced competitively for the value and service they offer. Pallet displays in the power aisle are a good example of how to promote a value-priced image. • Merchandising also allows retailers to make strategic pricing decisions. Through promotional merchandising techniques, such as dump bins, it’s possible to increase item sales while at the same time lowering prices. • Merchandising can increase your sales per customer if it’s arranged to promote add-on sales, for example, through impulse displays at the checkout counter. • Merchandising also promotes self-service shopping. While you can only wait on one customer at a time, good displays help customers shop on their own. This means you have more time to spend with customers who need extra help. Module 1: The Importance of Merchandising (continued) Increases Salesfloor Productivity • Merchandising can help control costs by helping retailers improve the productivity of the salesfloor. Productivity improves when retailers can increase sales using their existing salesfloor square footage and number of employees. Merchandising affects virtually all of the measurements of retail productivity, such as gross margin and sales per square foot. • Merchandising also makes the salesfloor more productive by suggesting add-on sales and impulse purchases. It helps organize the store, suggest project ideas, remind customers of items they may have forgotten and promote special buys. • Merchandising also complements advertising by helping customers find sale items. Increases Employee Productivity • Good merchandising can help increase your productivity by helping you provide better customer service. As an employee, you want to spend your time giving customers the product knowledge they need to solve their home improvement problems. You want to minimize the time you spend simply directing customers to the aisles where they can find what they need. That’s why you have signage and merchandising. • Good merchandising makes selling more rewarding. The more customers are able to shop for themselves, the more time you have to develop new retailing skills. This will help you advance and gain new responsibilities in the company Module 2: The Elements of Merchandising There’s more to merchandising than just having attractive displays. It incorporates the design of the salesfloor, the placement of the signage and the presentation of the products. When you learn how to merchandise, you learn how to effectively use space, color and lighting to encourage customers to buy. A well-merchandised store is also a well-organized store. Customers like organized stores because they can find merchandise quickly and easily on their own. All of the elements of merchandising contribute to making a store more organized. In this module, we’ll discuss eight elements of merchandising: salesfloor layout, interior signage, cross merchandising, the use of space, color, lighting, mass displays and interactive technology. Racetrack Layout The racetrack layout, also called a loop layout, has the main traffic aisle circling the salesfloor. It gives every major department exposure on the main aisle. It moves customers through the store and lets them see merchandise in more departments. It also provides more locations for endcaps, which helps create a value-priced image. Diagonal Layout The diagonal layout is a modification of the racetrack layout and can be effective in smaller stores. It creates several triangular areas in the store and pulls customers to corners they might otherwise miss. Grid Layout The grid layout is the simple, traditional layout for a home improvement store. It has straight cross aisles leading off one or more main aisles into departments. This layout is neat and makes good use of space. Its main drawback is that is does not put the maximum amount of product in front of customers. Power Aisle The power aisle design works well for smaller salesfloors where a racetrack is not practical. It is a double-width aisle that runs the full length of the store. This design often includes departmental cross aisles that feed off of the power aisle. The power aisle gives exposure to most major departments through the use of feature endcaps or promotional mass displays in the center of the aisle. It makes maximum use of the display area. Module 2: The Elements of Merchandising Salesfloor Layout Most stores are organized into departments, and customers are accustomed to shopping this way. Here are five ways the salesfloor can be laid out in a typical store. Project Centers Project centers and demonstration areas can be developed with any salesfloor layout. They can be used for classes, workshops or product demonstrations. They are also useful areas for collection points for how-to information, such as books and product information. These areas should present products related to projects and focus attention on promoted merchandise. Signage should suggest projects, explain product features and benefits, talk about prices and highlight the value of home improvement projects. Cube Displays Cube displays are another way smaller stores can get the maximum amount of merchandise on the salesfloor. These displays use higher fixtures with careful attention to the kinds of merchandise displayed on higher shelves. An effective way to use cube displays is to put the higher fixtures in the back of the store to make more merchandise visible from the front and lead customers through the store. Module 2: The Elements of Merchandising (continued) Brought to you by the North American Retail Hardware Association • www.nrha.org Interior Signing • Signage is an important part of merchandising because it makes shopping easier for customers and gives them the information to make informed buying decisions. • Signs keep customers in the store longer, move them from department to department and suggest more items to purchase. In addition to department and aisle signs, shelf and product signs can convey shopping information. • Some signs provide information about specific products. Signs may also be used to describe the product’s features, benefits and uses. They should always be neat, easy to read, informative and compelling. • Signs are also used to provide information about price. They can create urgency if they are used to identify items as bargains or closeouts. They can also identify advertised items and help establish a value price image for the store. • Department signs are used to help identify the location of departments in the store, such as paint or tools. These signs should be visible from the front of the store so customers can quickly find what they need. Store Design and Product Presentation In addition to the layout of the salesfloor, here are some elements of merchandising you may encounter in the store. Cross Merchandising • Cross merchandising is a term used to describe the placement of products together that are used together in projects. It is an effective way to show related items that are normally stocked in different departments. For example, you might show garden gloves next to the shovels. You can merchandise these items next to each other on the same shelf or across the aisle. Cross-aisle merchandising is the practice of displaying related merchandise on facing shelves. • Cross merchandising is an effective technique because it makes shopping easier and more convenient when customers can see several items they need in one location. • This appeals to a customer’s desire to save time because they don’t have to go to multiple areas of the store to get what they need. • It’s also an effective tool suggesting add-on sales, since related items are together. • Cross merchandising organizes products in the way they are used. In this way, it gives customers project information. It can also suggest better-quality items. • Here are some ways you can effectively use cross merchandising: • Combine products from different departments. • Promote seasonal projects. • Promote common household repair and maintenance projects. • Display the pairs in the department where customers are most likely to go first. • Look for vendor planograms that utilize cross-merchandising. • Incorporate signage to compare benefits of good-better-best quality. Use of Space • Merchandising should organize products in the most productive use of the space. Shelves should be far enough apart that the merchandise fits comfortably, but not waste space. In the same way, hooks and bins should fit the size of the item. Long- and short-handled items should go together. • The use of space in merchandising also involves placement in the store. Reserve the prime display areas in the store for items customers are most likely to want. Keep the best display area for high-demand, fast-moving products. Putting slow movers in prime display spaces won’t make them sell faster. It may only suggest to customers that they may have to go somewhere else to find what they need.

[Query] ================== What are the benefits of racetrack layouts as stated in the provided context? ================ [Context] ================== **Merchandising Gude** Module 1: The Importance of Merchandising Merchandising, or how products are displayed in the store, plays a critical role in the overall success of your business. After all, when customers come into your store, you want them to buy. Effective merchandising is a tool that gets them closer to that purchase decision. But having effective merchandising demands discipline and planning. It’s hard work. You must pay attention to detail on a daily basis. You also must realize that many of your competitors have effective merchandising. That means your customers are used to seeing it, so they expect it from you, too. In this course, we’ll discuss the techniques and best practices that make up an effective merchandising strategy. We’ll begin by talking about why merchandising is so important. Merchandising makes several important contributions to your store. It increases sales by making a store appealing to your customers. It improves profitability by generating more margin dollars. It controls costs by improving the productivity of the salesfloor as well as each employee. Appeals to Customers • Good merchandising makes shopping easier for customers and gives them reasons to come back often and spend more money. Remember that many consumers may not consider shopping fun. A merchandiser’s goal is to take the hassle out of shopping and make it easier. • Good merchandising can also create customer loyalty. Consumers shop where they feel certain they can find the merchandise they want. They will be loyal to your store if you can create a pleasing shopping experience and provide what they need. • Finally, good merchandising can promote repeat shopping. One of the best opportunities for growth comes from building on the business of existing shoppers. When customers know your store is easy to shop, they will return again and again. Improves Profitability • One way good merchandising can improve your store’s profitability is by enhancing your price image. Many consumers may think that independent home improvement retailers have high prices. The challenge for those retailers, then, is not to have the lowest prices, but to convince consumers that they are priced competitively for the value and service they offer. Pallet displays in the power aisle are a good example of how to promote a value-priced image. • Merchandising also allows retailers to make strategic pricing decisions. Through promotional merchandising techniques, such as dump bins, it’s possible to increase item sales while at the same time lowering prices. • Merchandising can increase your sales per customer if it’s arranged to promote add-on sales, for example, through impulse displays at the checkout counter. • Merchandising also promotes self-service shopping. While you can only wait on one customer at a time, good displays help customers shop on their own. This means you have more time to spend with customers who need extra help. Module 1: The Importance of Merchandising (continued) Increases Salesfloor Productivity • Merchandising can help control costs by helping retailers improve the productivity of the salesfloor. Productivity improves when retailers can increase sales using their existing salesfloor square footage and number of employees. Merchandising affects virtually all of the measurements of retail productivity, such as gross margin and sales per square foot. • Merchandising also makes the salesfloor more productive by suggesting add-on sales and impulse purchases. It helps organize the store, suggest project ideas, remind customers of items they may have forgotten and promote special buys. • Merchandising also complements advertising by helping customers find sale items. Increases Employee Productivity • Good merchandising can help increase your productivity by helping you provide better customer service. As an employee, you want to spend your time giving customers the product knowledge they need to solve their home improvement problems. You want to minimize the time you spend simply directing customers to the aisles where they can find what they need. That’s why you have signage and merchandising. • Good merchandising makes selling more rewarding. The more customers are able to shop for themselves, the more time you have to develop new retailing skills. This will help you advance and gain new responsibilities in the company Module 2: The Elements of Merchandising There’s more to merchandising than just having attractive displays. It incorporates the design of the salesfloor, the placement of the signage and the presentation of the products. When you learn how to merchandise, you learn how to effectively use space, color and lighting to encourage customers to buy. A well-merchandised store is also a well-organized store. Customers like organized stores because they can find merchandise quickly and easily on their own. All of the elements of merchandising contribute to making a store more organized. In this module, we’ll discuss eight elements of merchandising: salesfloor layout, interior signage, cross merchandising, the use of space, color, lighting, mass displays and interactive technology. Racetrack Layout The racetrack layout, also called a loop layout, has the main traffic aisle circling the salesfloor. It gives every major department exposure on the main aisle. It moves customers through the store and lets them see merchandise in more departments. It also provides more locations for endcaps, which helps create a value-priced image. Diagonal Layout The diagonal layout is a modification of the racetrack layout and can be effective in smaller stores. It creates several triangular areas in the store and pulls customers to corners they might otherwise miss. Grid Layout The grid layout is the simple, traditional layout for a home improvement store. It has straight cross aisles leading off one or more main aisles into departments. This layout is neat and makes good use of space. Its main drawback is that is does not put the maximum amount of product in front of customers. Power Aisle The power aisle design works well for smaller salesfloors where a racetrack is not practical. It is a double-width aisle that runs the full length of the store. This design often includes departmental cross aisles that feed off of the power aisle. The power aisle gives exposure to most major departments through the use of feature endcaps or promotional mass displays in the center of the aisle. It makes maximum use of the display area. Module 2: The Elements of Merchandising Salesfloor Layout Most stores are organized into departments, and customers are accustomed to shopping this way. Here are five ways the salesfloor can be laid out in a typical store. Project Centers Project centers and demonstration areas can be developed with any salesfloor layout. They can be used for classes, workshops or product demonstrations. They are also useful areas for collection points for how-to information, such as books and product information. These areas should present products related to projects and focus attention on promoted merchandise. Signage should suggest projects, explain product features and benefits, talk about prices and highlight the value of home improvement projects. Cube Displays Cube displays are another way smaller stores can get the maximum amount of merchandise on the salesfloor. These displays use higher fixtures with careful attention to the kinds of merchandise displayed on higher shelves. An effective way to use cube displays is to put the higher fixtures in the back of the store to make more merchandise visible from the front and lead customers through the store. Module 2: The Elements of Merchandising (continued) Brought to you by the North American Retail Hardware Association • www.nrha.org Interior Signing • Signage is an important part of merchandising because it makes shopping easier for customers and gives them the information to make informed buying decisions. • Signs keep customers in the store longer, move them from department to department and suggest more items to purchase. In addition to department and aisle signs, shelf and product signs can convey shopping information. • Some signs provide information about specific products. Signs may also be used to describe the product’s features, benefits and uses. They should always be neat, easy to read, informative and compelling. • Signs are also used to provide information about price. They can create urgency if they are used to identify items as bargains or closeouts. They can also identify advertised items and help establish a value price image for the store. • Department signs are used to help identify the location of departments in the store, such as paint or tools. These signs should be visible from the front of the store so customers can quickly find what they need. Store Design and Product Presentation In addition to the layout of the salesfloor, here are some elements of merchandising you may encounter in the store. Cross Merchandising • Cross merchandising is a term used to describe the placement of products together that are used together in projects. It is an effective way to show related items that are normally stocked in different departments. For example, you might show garden gloves next to the shovels. You can merchandise these items next to each other on the same shelf or across the aisle. Cross-aisle merchandising is the practice of displaying related merchandise on facing shelves. • Cross merchandising is an effective technique because it makes shopping easier and more convenient when customers can see several items they need in one location. • This appeals to a customer’s desire to save time because they don’t have to go to multiple areas of the store to get what they need. • It’s also an effective tool suggesting add-on sales, since related items are together. • Cross merchandising organizes products in the way they are used. In this way, it gives customers project information. It can also suggest better-quality items. • Here are some ways you can effectively use cross merchandising: • Combine products from different departments. • Promote seasonal projects. • Promote common household repair and maintenance projects. • Display the pairs in the department where customers are most likely to go first. • Look for vendor planograms that utilize cross-merchandising. • Incorporate signage to compare benefits of good-better-best quality. Use of Space • Merchandising should organize products in the most productive use of the space. Shelves should be far enough apart that the merchandise fits comfortably, but not waste space. In the same way, hooks and bins should fit the size of the item. Long- and short-handled items should go together. • The use of space in merchandising also involves placement in the store. Reserve the prime display areas in the store for items customers are most likely to want. Keep the best display area for high-demand, fast-moving products. Putting slow movers in prime display spaces won’t make them sell faster. It may only suggest to customers that they may have to go somewhere else to find what they need. ================ [Task Instructions] ================== Only utilize the information in the article provided to answer the question, do not refer to any outside information. Answer the question in full sentences.

Answer the following question using only details found in the attached paper. You should NOT reference outside sources or your own knowledge.

What are some examples of visible and hidden biases that have been observed in criminal justice AI?

Executive Summary ‘Artificial Intelligence’ (‘AI’), comprising machine-learning and other analytical algorithm-based automated systems, has become an important aspect of our lives. In recent years, this technology has been increasingly deployed in criminal justice systems across the world, playing an increasingly significant role in the administration of justice in criminal cases. This trend is often driven by perceptions about the reliability and impartiality of technological solutions, and pressures to make cost savings in policing and court services. However, studies in various jurisdictions, including in Europe, provide substantial evidence that AI and machine-learning systems can have a significantly negative influence on criminal justice. AI systems have been shown to directly generate and reinforce discriminatory and unjust outcomes; infringing fundamental rights, they have been found to have little to no positive influence on the quality of human decisions, and they have been criticised for poor design that does not comply with human rights standards. Most AI systems used in criminal justice systems are statistical models, based on data which is representative of structural biases and inequalities in the societies which the data represents, and which is always comprehensively lacking in the kind of detail that is needed to make truly ‘accurate’ predictions or decisions. The data used to build and populate these systems is mostly or entirely from within criminal justice systems, such as law enforcement or crime records. This data does not represent an accurate record of criminality, but merely a record of law enforcement - the crimes, locations and groups that are policed within that society, rather than the actual occurrence of crime. The data reflects social inequalities and discriminatory policing patterns, and its use in these AI systems merely results in a reinforcement and re-entrenchment of those inequalities and discrimination in criminal justice outcomes. Given these extremely serious risks, strong regulatory frameworks are needed to govern the use of AI in criminal justice decision-making and, in some circumstances, to restrict its use entirely. Existing EU data protection laws restrict the use of automated decisions, but there are gaps and ambiguities that could result in the use of AI systems in ways that undermine human rights, if not accompanied by further guidance or legislation. Firstly, EU laws currently only prohibit decisions that are solely based on automated processes, but they do not regulate decision-making processes that are largely dependent on automated systems. Given that most AI systems in use today are designed and deployed to assist, rather than replace, human decision-making in criminal justice systems, they largely fall outside the remit of EU data protection laws on automated decisions. Secondly, the prohibition on automated decisions is subject to broad exceptions. Individuals can be subject to decisions based solely on automated processes if authorised by EU or Member State law, and there are deemed to be appropriate human rights safeguards in place, including the right to obtain human intervention. However, there is not enough clarity on what safeguards are needed, and how ‘human intervention’ should be interpreted. In order to regulate the use of AI in criminal justice proceedings, the EU must, at a minimum, set standards to address the following questions: 1) what standards are needed to govern the design and deployment of AI systems in criminal justice systems; 2) what safeguards are needed in criminal justice proceedings to make sure that AI systems are used in accordance with human rights standards and prevent discrimination; and 3) how Member States should govern the deployment of AI systems and monitor their subsequent use. The design of AI systems and their deployment in criminal justice proceedings should be regulated to generate human rights compliant, non-discriminatory outcomes. Minimum standards and safeguards should be set, which, if they cannot be adhered to, should preclude the use of the AI system in question. AI should also be regulated so that they are sufficiently transparent and explainable to enable effective independent scrutiny. AI systems should be designed and deployed to comply with and give effect to inter alia the right of access to court, the right to be presumed innocent, and the right to liberty. AI systems should not undermine the right to be tried by an impartial and independent tribunal and, in line with existing EU laws, no individual should be subject to an automated decision that results in a criminal record. AI systems should be designed so that they do not pre-designate an individual as a criminal before trial, nor should they allow the police to take unjustified, disproportionate measures against individuals without reasonable suspicion. AI systems that inform criminal justice outcomes should, as a general rule, favour outcomes that are favourable to the defendant. Where AI systems inform decisions on the deprivations of liberty, they should be calibrated to generate outcomes that favour release, and they should not facilitate detention other than as a measure of last resort. AI systems must be subject to rigorous testing to ensure that they have the desired effect of reducing pre-trial detention rates. AI systems must be developed to guarantee that they do not generate discriminatory outcomes, ensuring that suspects and accused persons are not disadvantaged, either directly or indirectly, on account of their protected characteristics, including race, ethnicity, nationality or socioeconomic background. AI systems should be subject to mandatory testing before and after deployment so that any discriminatory impact can be identified and addressed. AI systems which cannot adhere to this minimum standard should have no place in the criminal justice system. AI systems need to be transparent and explainable, so they can be understood and scrutinised by their primary users, suspects and accused persons, and the general public. Commercial or proprietary interests should never be a barrier to transparency. AI systems must be designed in a way that allows criminal defendants to understand and contest the decisions made against them. It should be possible to carry out an independent audit of each AI system, and its processes should be reproducible for that purpose. Member States should have laws that govern how AI systems are relied upon in criminal proceedings, and there must be adequate safeguards to prevent over-reliance on AI by decision-makers, to prevent discrimination and to ensure scrutiny and effective challenge by the defence. Procedural safeguards should actively tackle automation-bias amongst criminal justice decision makers. Examples include: a) making it a legal requirement for decision-makers to be adequately alerted and informed about the risks associated with AI systems; b) making AI systems’ assessments intelligible to decision-makers; c) requiring decision-makers to provide full, individualised reasoning for all decisions influenced by an AI system; and d) making it easy for decision-makers to overrule AI assessments that produce unfavourable outcomes for defendants. Criminal justice procedures should ensure that defendants are notified if an AI system has been used which has or may have influenced a decision taken about them at any point in the criminal justice system, from investigation to arrest, from charge to conviction, and sentence. Procedures should enable the full disclosure of all aspects of AI systems that are necessary for suspects and accused persons to contest their findings. Disclosure should be in a form which is clear and comprehensible to a layperson, without the need for technical or expert assistance, in order to ensure fairness, equality of arms, and to discharge the obligations to provide all relevant information and be given reasons for decisions under the right to a fair trial. Suspects and accused persons should also be given effective access to technical experts who can help to analyse and challenge otherwise incomprehensible aspects of AI systems. Training should be made available to all primary users of AI systems, and to criminal defence practitioners, so that there is greater awareness of AI technology, and of the risks of over-reliance on AI. Effective regulation of AI systems should be facilitated by a governance and monitoring framework. AI systems should not be deployed unless they have undergone an independent public impact assessment with the involvement of appropriate experts, that is specific both to the purpose for which the AI system is deployed, and the locality where it is deployed. A requirement of the assessment should be a consideration of whether it is necessary to use AI in the particular use case, or whether an alternative solution could achieve the same aims. As far as it is possible to do so, AI systems should also be tested for impact pre-deployment, a part of which should be the minimum requirement to prove that the AI system has no discriminatory impact, either directly or indirectly, before it can be deployed. AI systems should be kept under regular review post-deployment. Effective monitoring of AI systems is not possible unless there is sufficient data that makes it possible to discern their real impact. In particular, Member States need to collect data that allow them to identify discriminatory impacts of AI systems, including discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity. Background Rapid technological advancements in recent years have made artificial intelligence (‘AI’) an increasingly prominent aspect of our lives. There are differences of opinion as to the definition of AI and its true meaning, but for the purposes of this paper we are broadly referring to automated decision-making systems based on algorithms, including machine-learning, which are used in the criminal justice system. There is little doubt that AI has great capacity to increase human potential and improve the lives of many, but the increasing role of AI in assisting important public functions has also highlighted serious risks and challenges. If not subject to proper regulation and oversight, AI can threaten fundamental human rights and, far from expanding human potential, it can amplify and worsen harmful aspects of our society, including inequality and injustice. This challenge is particularly evident where AI has been used to assist the administration of justice in criminal cases. In recent years, more and more jurisdictions across the world have begun to use AI technology to inform and assist policing and judicial decisions, often driven by perceptions about the reliability and impartiality of technological solutions, and pressures to make cost-savings in policing and court services. In some countries, algorithmic processes can influence which geographic neighbourhoods should be subject to increased law enforcement and when, as well as which individuals should be specifically targeted by law enforcement. They can help to determine whether someone should be arrested, whether they should be charged with a criminal offence, whether they should be detained in prison before trial and, if convicted and sentenced, the length of their sentence. AI is being used more and more to influence highly sensitive, high impact decisions that have far reaching, long-term implications for individuals’ rights. Research emerging from the United States, where the use of AI in criminal justice is particularly widespread, and from the United Kingdom and some EU Member States, however, seriously questions whether AI has a positive influence on criminal justice systems. AI tools and systems have been found to actively generate discriminatory criminal justice outcomes, they have been found to have little to no positive influence on the quality of human decisions, and they have been criticised for poor design, that does not reflect or give effect to human rights standards. These criticisms might not be justified for all AI systems, but these studies highlight the need for much stronger regulatory frameworks to govern the use of AI. We believe that unless it is subject to robust regulation, it is unlikely that AI can be used in criminal justice systems without undermining the right to a fair trial. In some cases, it should be restricted from use entirely. EU Member States should be encouraged to take a much more cautious approach to AI and subject automated processes to more stringent rules that are designed to ensure human rights compliance. There is the potential for AI systems, if properly and robustly regulated, to have a positive impact on criminal justice system, advancing human rights, for example, by analysing law enforcement or judicial decisions to identify patterns of erroneous or poor decision-making, or discrimination. The EU is already a world leader on AI regulation, having adopted ground-breaking data protection laws in recent years to shield individuals from automated decisions that have an adverse effect on their rights. We welcome the EU’s commitment to build further on existing legal standards, and we emphasise that addressing the impact of AI on criminal justice has to be a primary consideration for EU policy makers when deciding on appropriate legal standards. Discussions around the impact of AI on human rights have largely been centred on data protection, the right to privacy, and broader questions of ethics and human dignity. However, despite the increasing use of AI systems in criminal justice systems across the world, only limited discussions have so far focused on how these systems impact the right to a fair trial, and what regulations are needed to address that impact. About this paper Fair Trials has produced this policy paper to highlight the need for EU-wide standards on the regulation of AI in criminal justice, and to inform EU policy makers about the standards and safeguards needed to ensure effective protection of fair trial rights where criminal justice decisions are assisted by AI. The EU Commission recognised that AI represents risks for fundamental rights, including the right to a fair trial, in its 2020 White Paper, ‘On Artificial Intelligence – A European approach to excellence and trust’. It also recognised the need for improvements to the EU’s legislative framework on AI, noting in particular the challenges in the ‘effective application and enforcement of existing EU and national legislation’ and the ‘limitations of scope of existing EU legislation’. In this paper, we identify the most common fair trial rights issues raised by existing AI systems, based on examples and experiences from the EU, the United Kingdom, and the United States. We also offer examples of practical legal and policy solutions that could help to address these challenges, and to assist in the effective implementation of the EU’s fundamental rights standards in this area. We recognise that the use of AI has a broader impact on human rights beyond the right to a fair trial, and that there are important social and ethical issues that also need to be addressed. However, we have narrowed the focus of this paper given Fair Trials’ mission and field of expertise. This paper should not be treated as an exhaustive list of fair trial rights standards that need to be introduced. AI is used in many ways in criminal justice systems cross the world and, as the technology continues to develop, it is likely that we will eventually see the deployment of AI technology in ways never imagined before. This paper focuses primarily on AI systems that carry out individualised risk assessments, given that these types of systems have had the most significant impact on individuals’ rights so far, and we envisage that similar systems will become increasingly common in the near future. Existing EU Legal Framework Existing EU laws restrict the use of automated decisions in a wide variety of contexts. Article 22 of the General Data Protection Regulation (‘GDPR’) provides that data subjects have the right not to be subject to decisions ‘solely’ based on automated processes, where they produce ‘legal effects’ concerning them, or where they ‘similarly significantly affect’ them. The Law Enforcement Directive (‘LED’) – the EU data legislation that governs the processing of data for criminal justice purposes – has a very similar provision at Article 11, which requires Member States to prohibit decisions based solely on automated processing, where they produce ‘adverse legal effects’ on the individual, or effects that are ‘similarly significant’. However, there are two notable gaps in the existing legislative framework governing automated decision-making systems under both the GDPR and the LED. These ambiguities and potential loopholes could be exploited in ways that seriously undermine the general prohibition of automated decision-making processes, and adversely impact human rights. It is necessary, therefore, that the EU provides further guidance on how these provisions should be interpreted, including thorough legislation (if appropriate) to further clarify the circumstances in which Member States are allowed to deploy AI systems for criminal justice proceedings. Firstly, the provisions in the GDPR and LED only prohibit decisions based ‘solely’ on automated processes. In other words, the laws regulate the impact of decisions made through automated processing, but not the AI systems themselves. As discussed later in this paper, the main human rights challenges of AI systems can be attributed to how they are designed and trained, and the types of technology used, such as machine-learning, so it is crucial that decisions about the design and deployment of AI systems are also regulated. Secondly, neither the GDPR or LED provide regulatory standards to govern situations where automated processing is not the ‘sole’ basis of a decision, but a primary influencer. In reality, the difference between a fully automated decision and a decision made with a ‘human-in-the-loop’ is not always clear, but because of this strict classification, AI systems are able to be used and have significant legal effects without the corresponding safeguards. Stronger legal standards are needed to make sure that semi-automated decision-making processes do not become de facto automated processes. Thirdly, the prohibition on automated decision-making is subject to two very broad exceptions. Automated decisions are prohibited under the GDPR and LED, ‘unless authorised by Union or Member State law’ and there need to be ‘appropriate safeguards for the rights and freedoms of the data subject, at least the right to obtain human intervention’.1 These provisions give extremely wide discretion to Member States to override the general prohibition. It is significant that EU laws emphasise the need for human rights safeguards, and the need to ensure the possibility of human interventions, but neither of these concepts have yet been adequately defined. Although influential actors like the EU and the Council of Europe have established principles on the ethical and responsible use of AI, there is currently no authoritative guidance on the practical safeguards that need to be in place.2Likewise, the meaning of ‘human intervention’ is open to interpretation. LED provides some guidance on who should be carrying out the human intervention,3 but there needs to be greater clarity on what meaningful human intervention entails in different contexts. In order to regulate the use of AI in criminal justice proceedings, and close the gaps in existing data protection laws, the EU must, at a minimum, set standards to address the following questions: 1) what standards are needed to govern the design and deployment of AI systems in criminal justice systems; 2) what safeguards are needed in criminal justice proceedings to make sure that AI systems are used in accordance with human rights standards and prevent discrimination; and 3) how Member States should govern the deployment of AI systems and monitor their subsequent use. Part 1: Regulating the Design and Deployment of AI Systems in Criminal Justice Systems AI systems deployed to assist criminal justice decision-making have to be fit-for-purpose. The purposes of AI systems differ depending on the context in which they are deployed, but there are a few common considerations that need to be taken into account to determine whether it is appropriate for the AI system to be used. Firstly, AI systems have to be designed to produce outcomes that are desirable from a human rights and non-discrimination perspective. This means that rather than being exclusively focused on delivering ‘accurate’ outcomes in criminal cases, AI systems have to be designed to facilitate fair, impartial and non-discriminatory criminal processes. Developers of AI systems and public entities that commission them should, in particular, make sure that AI systems are consciously designed to give effect to, and promote the right to fair trial. The fundamental issues with the way AI systems are designed and built, resulting in discriminatory outcomes, must also be considered. Given the significant evidence of AI systems influencing discriminatory outcomes, special efforts must be made to ensure that AI systems do not produce discriminatory outcomes. Secondly, AI systems need to be designed in a way that makes it possible for criminal defendants and the broader public to scrutinise them. This means that AI systems should not only be made open to scrutiny (rather than concealed to protect commercial interests), but their inner workings and processes should also be discernible and comprehensible. AI Systems should be designed to protect and promote the right to a fair trial Where AI systems are used to assist or inform criminal justice decisions, they support an important act of public administration that has a significant impact on the rights of suspects and accused persons. AI systems do more than just provide outputs that decision-makers can take into consideration as evidence. By attempting to mimic human analytical processes and reasoning, they can provide influential advisory input into human decision-making, or even replace it altogether. As such, it is right that human rights standards that govern criminal justice decision-making also apply to AI systems. The Council of Europe and the EU Commission’s High Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence (‘AI HLEG’) have both recognised that fundamental rights should be a key guiding principle for the design and deployment of AI systems.4 The Council of Europe recommends that AI systems are built according to ‘human rights by design’ principles, and recognises that AI systems should not undermine the right to a fair trial under the European Convention on Human Rights (‘ECHR’). The AI HLEG has similarly recognised that the respect for fundamental rights, as enshrined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and international human rights instruments, should form the foundations of trustworthy AI. AI HLEG’s Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI (‘the Ethics Guidelines’) also recognise the need for AI systems to comply with other types of EU legislation. Although not mentioned explicitly in the Ethics Guidelines, Fair Trials would emphasise that the design of AI systems and the ways in which they are deployed in the EU should, in particular, be compatible with the standards set out in the procedural rights directives under the ‘Roadmap for strengthening procedural rights of suspected or accused persons in criminal proceedings’.5 We would also like to note the potential for AI systems to have a positive impact on criminal justice systems. Public debate about the relationship between AI and human rights have predominantly been centred on the idea that AI is a threat to human rights. It is equally important, as technology takes an increasingly prominent role in public life, to consider what positive potential they may have. Policy makers, developers, civil society activists, and other stakeholders should try to identify ways in which AI can also play an active role in advancing human rights, and improve the fairness of criminal justice systems. For example, AI systems could be used to analyse law enforcement or judicial decisions to identify patterns of erroneous or poor decision-making, or discrimination, for preventative purposes. AI systems which are used as part of criminal justice decision-making should be designed not just to ensure that they do not undermine the right to a fair trial, but also to promote it. However, as explained below, given the embedded biases in the criminal data used to develop and train AI systems, there are serious doubts, based on recent studies, whether AI systems can promote fair criminal justice at all. There are various aspects of the right to a fair trial and, without speculating on what kind of AI systems will be developed in the future to support criminal justice decision-making, it is difficult to articulate how fair trial rights standards should inform the design of AI systems. However, examples of AI systems currently deployed in the EU and elsewhere suggest that there are certain aspects of the right to a fair trial that require special attention. These are: a) the right of access to court b) the presumption of innocence; c) the principle of the equality of arms; and d) the right to liberty. Access to Court The notion of AI systems replacing courts to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused may seem far-fetched at present, but there is a growing trend of automated administration of justice across the world that might threaten the right of access to court. For example, in several European countries, speeding and other minor traffic offences have been detected and enforced by means of automated processes for more than a decade.6 Although nominally criminal processes, these types of proceedings are, in reality, normally administrative in nature, and they rarely have a ‘significant’ impact on the rights of individuals. However, as surveillance technology develops, thanks to AI, there is a real likelihood that the scope of crimes punishable by way of automation will increase.7 In the United Kingdom, the government announced plans in 2017 that would enable defendants to enter guilty pleas via an online portal after viewing the charges and evidence against them, for a small number of minor offences.8 Under this procedure, known as ‘automatic online conviction’, defendants would be automatically convicted and fined without any judicial oversight if they accept the charges against them. Although it is debatable whether this system can truly be characterised as an AI system, it is an example of the automated administration of criminal justice, that replaces a function usually played by courts. It is worrying that the UK government has proposed expanding this scheme to other ‘non imprisonable’ offences, if itis regarded as a success.9Fair Trials has outlined concerns about expanding the scope of cases where accused persons can be convicted without judicial oversight, even if such procedures are reserved solely for minor, non-imprisonable offences.10 The impacts of a criminal conviction, even for a minor offence, can be numerous, long-term, and hard to predict, affecting inter alia job prospects, educational opportunities, and immigration status. It is crucial that what amounts to ‘legal effects’ and ‘similar significant effects’ concerning the data subject for the purposes of automated decision-making are interpreted very broadly.11 In particular, given that a criminal record always has a ‘legal’ or ‘significant’ effect, any automated decision-making process that directly results in a criminal record should be prohibited. AI systems should not undermine the right to be tried by an impartial and independent tribunal, and in line with existing EU laws, no individual should be subject to an automated decision that resultsin their being held in custody or detention, gives them a criminal record, or which determines a criminal sentence or sanction. No individual should be subject to an automated decision which engages their human rights without meaningful human input. Presumption of Innocence The right to be presumed innocent in criminal proceedings is a basic human right, and one that is expressly recognised in, and safeguarded by EU law under Directive 2016/343 (the ‘Presumption of Innocence Directive’).12 The increasing use of AI in the sphere of criminal justice, however, raises questions about the scope of this right, and how AI systems should be built and used to protect it. Concerns about how AI systems undermine the presumption of innocence have been voiced in the context of certain types of predictive policing software.13 A variety of predictive policing tools that aim to facilitate preventative policing measures and to deter crimes before they have taken place have been developed and deployed across Europe.14 Tools which predict the time and place where certain crimes are likely to take place have been used in many European countries. Similar tools have also been developed to identify potential suspects, which are used widely in the US, and now increasingly in Europe.15 An example is the ‘Strategic Subject List’ in Chicago, a police database of around 400,000 local residents who were assigned threat scores that determine the likelihood that they will commit crimes.16 The algorithms used to generate these scores were not open to the public, so the exact process by which individual risk levels were assessed were not known. Despite this lack of transparency, it is clear that threat scores generated by the software had significant impacts on individuals’ rights – in particular, their right to privacy. Individuals with higher threat scores were, for example, more likely to be subject to targeted police surveillance, or home visits – as though they were officially recognised as predisposed to commit crimes, irrespective of any credible suspicion of wrongdoing.17 The Strategic Subject List was decommissioned in January 2020 by the Chicago police who cited ineffectiveness as the primary reason for the decision.18 These types of predictive policing tools are now being used in Europe. In the United Kingdom, a coalition of police forces have been developing a system not dissimilar to the Strategic Subject List, that aims to identify individuals who are likely to commit crimes.19 Known as the National Data Analytics Solution (‘NDAS’), this risk assessment tool uses statistical analysis and machine-learning to inform policing decisions, and to facilitate ‘early interventions’ where appropriate.20 The sources of data that the system uses to conduct its risk assessments raise concerns that the system will be built to profile individuals on the basis of very sensitive, personal information, including stop and search data, data from social services, and the National Health Service.21 Where this data is used to indicate the likelihood of individuals’ criminality, it will inevitably flag up people whose profiles fit those who are over-represented in that data as being higher risk. It is particularly worrying that an individual might be profiled for policing purposes on the basis of their health conditions or their access to essential services, such as welfare or benefits. These factors should not be regarded as relevant factors for determining whether someone may commit criminal offences. Also in the UK, the Metropolitan Police in London operates a database called the Gangs Matrix, which contains information and risk-assessments on individuals who are alleged ‘gang’ members.22 This database was created using criminal justice data, including police and crime records. The Gangs Matrix and the assessments it produces assists policing decisions, including the deployment of stop and search, and further enforcement action, such as imprisonment and deportation. A further tactic resulting from the risk assessments made by the Gangs Matrix is the threat of eviction or exclusion from education, as names and details of these alleged gang members have been shared with education, healthcare and housing providers.23 In the Netherlands, the government has been running an algorithmic risk assessment tool, ProKid 12- SI, which purports to assess the risk of criminality of 12-year-old children since 2009.24 ProKid uses existing police data on these children, such as reports of where children have come into contact with the police, their addresses, information about their ‘living environment’, even including whether they are victims of violence, to identify them as being in one of four categories of ‘risk’ of committing crimes in future.25 The system assesses children based on their relationships with other people and their supposed risk levels, meaning that individuals can be deemed higher risk by being linked to another individual with a high risk assessment, such as a sibling or a friend.26 Parents’ assessed risk can also impact a child’s risk level. ProKid’s algorithms assess risks in relation to future actions that the children have not yet carried out, and judges them on the basis of the actions of others close to them.27 These risk assessments result in police ‘registering’ these children on their systems and monitoring them, and then referring them to youth ‘care’ services.28 ProKid frames children as potential perpetrators even when they are registered as victims of violence; which has serious implications on their presumption of innocence.29 Several similar tools are also used in the Netherlands, including the Reference Index for High Risk Youth, a large-scale risk assessment system that focuses on assessing under-23-year-olds.30 Predictive policing tools like NDAS, ProKid and the Gangs Matrix can be regarded as part of a broader trend in law enforcement that moves away from ‘reactive’ policing, and towards ‘preventative’ or ‘proactive’ policing.31 NDAS and other similar predictive policing tools intend to pursue legitimate objectives of preventing, or reducing harm,32 but there are serious concerns that these systems single out individuals as ‘pre-criminals’, who are subject to police interventions even though they are not formally suspected of any crime, and there is no evidence that they have done anything wrong.33 It is of further concern that these types of predictive policing tools do not necessarily designate individuals’ risk levels on the basis of their past actions, or behaviour that can be regarded as ‘suspicious’ in any way, but on account of factors far beyond their control, and immutable characteristics. In particular, there is strong evidence to suggest that AI systems have a tendency to overestimate the risks of criminality of certain ethnic and racial groups. For example, out of 3,800 people on the Gangs Matrix, 80% are 12-24 years old, and 78% of them are black – a clearly disproportionate and discriminatory proportion. The discriminatory impact of AI in criminal justice systems is discussed in further detail in the following section. Although predictive policing tools do not directly ‘convict’ people, they not only allow the police to treat legally innocent individuals as pseudo-criminals, but they can also result individuals being deprived of their basic rights with regard to education, housing, and other public services – effectively ‘punishing’ them on account of their profiles. This seriously damages the fundamental human rights principle that the matter of guilt or innocence can only be determined by means of a fair and lawful criminal justice process.34 While it is clear that certain types of predictive policing can infringe the presumption of innocence from a moral and ethical viewpoint, it is debatable whether these systems also violate the legal presumption of innocence under EU law and international human rights law. The Presumption of Innocence Directive applies to natural persons who are ‘suspects’ and ‘accused persons’, from the moment they are suspected or accused of a crime.35 However, there is some ambiguity about the exact stage at which an individual attains the status of a ‘suspect’ under the Presumption of Innocence Directive,36 and about whether the scope of the Presumption of Innocence Directive extends to decisions to designate an individual as a suspect (or a ‘pre-criminal’). On the other hand, the ECHR appears to have taken a clearer position that measures undertaken pre-charge, as a general rule, fall outside the scope of the presumption of innocence.37 It has also held that preventative measures, such as surveillance, do not amount to criminal sanctions for the purposes of Article 6 ECHR.38 Even if the current language on the presumption of innocence is such that it is not directly applicable to the predictive policing context, it must be recognised that these tools nevertheless interfere with human rights. In particular, the targeted surveillance that results from predictive policing has clear implications on the right to privacy. The acceptable degree to which criminal justice processes can interfere with this right is a matter that might require clearer articulation, as is the question of the impact of Article 8 ECHR violations on criminal proceedings. AI systems that inform charging decisions have also been developed and deployed. An example of this is the Harm Assessment Risk Tool (‘HART’) currently being used by Durham Constabulary in the United Kingdom. HART uses a machine-learning algorithm to assess a suspect’s risk of reoffending, using over thirty variables that characterise an individual’s criminal history and socio-demographic background. The risk assessments conducted by HART are used by the local police to determine whether an individual should be charged, or diverted into a rehabilitation programme. HART does not determine whether an individual is guilty or innocent, but its assessment can trigger a chain of events that can result in the deprivation of liberty, and/or a criminal conviction. Charging decisions should surely be based on the merits of individual cases, and it is difficult to imagine how decisions on entry into diversion programmes can be made by means other than a careful consideration of individual circumstances. These types of high impact, fact-sensitive decisions should never be delegated to automated processes, particularly those which operate by identifying correlations rather than causal links between an individual’s characteristics and their likely behaviour. An examination of HART also reveals flaws in how the tool is designed. HART is calibrated to err on the side of caution,39 because it regards under-estimations of risk levels as a more serious error than over-estimations, so that under-estimations occur less frequently. In other words, HART is deliberately designed to underestimate who is eligible for entry into the diversion programme, so it is predisposed to over-criminalise. This approach conflicts with the notion that any doubt in a criminal case should be interpreted in favour of the defendant (‘in dubio reo’).40 A human rights compliant approach to criminal justice decision-making would do the opposite of what HART does – it would need to err on the side of the defendant. AI systems should respect the presumption of innocence and they must be designed so that they do not pre-designate an individual as a criminal before trial, nor should they allow or assist the police to take unjustified, disproportionate measures against individuals without reasonable suspicion. AI systems that inform criminal justice outcomes should, as a general rule, favour outcomes that are favourable to the defendant. Equality of Arms A major concern raised in the studies of certain AI systems is that they are inaccessible for adequate scrutiny by defendants and their lawyers. This has serious implications for the principle of equality of arms and the right to an adversarial process, because without information about how a decision is made, it is difficult to envisage how defendants can question the accuracy and legality of the decision. The need for AI systems used in criminal justice to be transparent, explainable and understandable to all is addressed in more detail below. The Right to Liberty In the United States, ‘risk-assessment’ tools that use AI technology have been used to assist pre-trial assessments that determine whether a defendant should be released on bail, or held on remand pending their trial. Examples of risk-assessment tools currently being used in the United States include COMPAS, the Public Safety Assessment (‘PSA’), and the Federal Pre-Trial Risk Assessment Instrument (‘PTRA’). Many of these tools are also used to inform decisions on parole and sentencing. These tools have, however, been subject to intense criticism for several reasons. Studies have shown inter alia that risk assessments make inaccurate predictions that are no better than those made by non-expert humans. They do not result in a significant reduction in pre-trial detention rates, and that they produce disparate outcomes for different racial groups. The US-based NGO Partnership on AI has found that AI risk assessment tools currently being used in the United States are unfit for use in pre trial assessments, and it has recommended that policymakers cease the deployment of risk assessment tools until such time that the challenges affecting such tools have been adequately addressed.41 The adoption of pre-trial risk-assessments tools in the United States has largely been driven by the desire to address high imprisonment rates in the country by making pre-trial decision-making fairer. In particular, these tools have been promoted as an alternative to cash bail – a system often criticised for disadvantaging poorer defendants and worsening social injustices.42 Cash bail is a relatively rare concept in the EU, but there are concerns about the quality of pre-trial detention decisions in many Member States, which have been criticised for failing to carry out case-specific reviews and fully consider alternatives to detention.43 We are currently unaware of any attempts in EU Member States to introduce algorithmic risk assessments to supplement or replace existing pre-trial decision-making processes. However, it is possible that risk-assessment tools will also be recommended as a solution to address the pre-trial detention challenge in Europe, especially given that many of these tools are developed by private companies that actively market their products to governments and local police forces. Risk-assessment tools are usually designed to assess the likelihood of re-arrest, and/or of failure to turn up to court after being released based on the profiles of the defendant. Based on these assessments, risk assessment tools either assign risk levels to defendants, or they provide direct advice to decision-makers on whether or not the defendant should be released. There is only limited research about the extent to which pre-trial risk-assessment tools influence judges’ decisions in practice,44 but concerns have been raised about the ability of AI systems to recommend detention at all.45 There is a risk that recommendations made by AI systems to detain individuals compromise the presumption of release. This is a particularly valid concern in light of research suggesting that decision-makers have a tendency to err on the side of caution when they are ‘advised’ by AI systems, and that they have a greater propensity to override risk assessment tools to detain, rather than release defendants.46 Pre trial detention should always be a measure of last resort, and no risk-assessment can be regarded as human rights compliant, unless it recommends its users to consider detention as a measure of last resort, after all other alternatives have been fully considered. Pre-trial risk assessment tools in the United States and elsewhere have also been criticised for (unintentionally) over-estimating risks, because of the nature of the data used to train its algorithms. Pre-trialrisk assessment tools typically rely only on data regarding individuals who have been released, and they ignore those who were detained, but would have otherwise ‘succeeded’ by not being arrested, and by appearing in court.47 In other words, algorithms are based on the assumption that individuals who have been detained by courts in the past have been rightfully deprived of their liberty. Any AI system developed to assist pre-trial detention decision-making must be designed to give effect to the presumption in favour of release. This means that risk-assessment tools need to be deliberately calibrated to generate outcomes that favourable to the defendant. Data used to train the AI system should be carefully scrutinised so that it reflects the inevitable fact that a significant proportion of individuals in pre-trial detention have been deprived of their liberty in violation of their human rights. Studies of pre-trial risk-assessment tools used in the United States cast doubt on their effectiveness at reducing pre-trial detention rates, and their ability to make accurate predictions of risks. A study in Kentucky, for example, found that the likelihood of defendants being released within the first three days of their arrest went down after the risk-assessment tool was deployed, and that there were no significant changes in the number of re-arrests and failure-to-appear rates amongst defendants released on bail during the same period.48 This was the case even after the risk-assessment tool was modified post-deployment to improve the accuracy of predictions. Another study has found that the COMPAS risk-assessment tool is no better at predicting the likelihood of defendants reoffending than non-expert human volunteers.49 These studies do not necessarily prove that AI systems are incapable of reducing pre-trial detention rates at all, but they do raise questions about their usefulness, and they strongly challenge claims that algorithmic risk-assessment tools help to improve the quality of pre trial detention decisions. They also highlight the need for post-deployment testing and monitoring of AI systems, to ensure that they have the desired effect of ensuring that individuals are detained only as a measure of last resort. Post-trial assessment systems are also being increasingly used, for purposes such as assisting with sentencing decisions or prisoner release. In England and Wales, the Prison and Probation Service has developed and operates the Offender Assessment System (OASys), an automated risk-assessment tool.50 It assesses the risk of harm offenders pose to others and how likely an offender is to reoffend, as well as assessing offender needs. These risk assessments are used to decide ‘interventions’ and to influence the sentence plans given to offenders.51 Millions of these assessments have been carried out.52 The system collates information on offenders’ previous offences, education, training, employment, alcohol and drug misuse; as well as their ‘attitudes’, ‘thinking and behaviour’, ‘relationships’, and ‘lifestyle’.53 This data is used alongside the individual’s offending record and ‘offender demographic information’ to inform two predictive algorithms: OASys General Reoffending Predictor (OGP1) and OASys Violence Predictor (OVP1).54 A 2014 National Offender Management Service analysis found that the OGP1 and OVP1 generated different predictions based on race and gender. They found that relative predictive validity was better for white offenders than for Asian, black, or mixed ethnicity offenders. The Offender Group Reconviction Scale (OGRS) is another algorithmic risk assessment tool, which is used in England and Wales to assess and predict an offender’s likelihood of reoffending.55 The OGRS algorithm uses data on the individual’s official criminal history, as well as their age and gender, to produce a risk score between 0 and 1 of how likely an offender is to reoffend within one or two years. The use of these AI systems in a post-trial setting, and the documented differences in predictive outcomes based on, among other factors, race, highlight the clear need for strict testing and monitoring of such systems. These systems used in a post-trial setting could very easily be transferred to a pre-trial risk assessment setting; the principles and aims of these systems and the data used are very similar. For example, the COMPAS system, mentioned above and considered in more detail below, was originally designed as a recidivism risk assessment tool, and is also used as a pre-trial risk assessment tool. 56 Where AI systems inform decisions on the deprivations of liberty, they should be calibrated to generate outcomes that favour release, and they should not facilitate detention other than as a measure of last resort. AI systems must be subject to rigorous testing to ensure they have the desired effect of reducing rates of pre-trial detention rates. AI systems should be designed to be non-discriminatory One of the most frequent criticisms of AI systems and their use in criminal justice systems is that they can lead to discriminatory outcomes, especially along racial and ethnic lines. The best-known example of this is a study by the US media outlet ProPublica into COMPAS, a risk assessment tool designed to predict the likelihood of reoffending in Broward County in Florida. ProPublica found that COMPAS was 77% more likely to rate black defendants as ‘high-risk’ than white defendants, and it was almost twice as likely to mislabel white defendants as lower risk than black defendants.57 The dangers of the failure to adequately regulate the use of AI to prevent discrimination have also been witnessed in Europe. The ‘Crime Anticipation System’ (‘CAS’), a predictive policing software being used across the Netherlands, was initially designed to consider ethnicity as a relevant factor for determining the likelihood of a crime being committed. Amongst the indicators used by CAS to predict crimes in a particular area was the number of ‘non-Western allochtones’ in the area – in other words, ‘non-Western’ individuals with at least one foreign-born parent.58 The software not only presupposed the existence of a correlation between ethnicity and crime, but also singled out a category of ethnicities to be of particular concern, given that the presence of ‘Western’, ‘autochtone’ individuals were not used as indicators. Furthermore, given that ‘Western’ was defined somewhat subjectively (for example, including individuals of Japanese or Indonesian origin, and including all European nationalities, apart from Turkish), CAS incorporated highly questionable societal categorisations and biases. In the United Kingdom, a major criticism of HART has been that it included data collated and classified by a private company for marketing purposes that could very easily to biased outcomes. HART relied on the ‘Mosaic’ code developed by a consumer credit reporting company, that categorised individuals into various groups according to inter alia their ethnic origin, income, and education levels. It was of particular concern that some socio-demographic categories used by Mosaic were blatantly racialised, including, for example, ‘Asian Heritage’, which stereotyped individuals of ‘Asian’ origin as being unemployed or having low-paid jobs, and living with extended families.59 In Denmark, an automated algorithmic assessment has been used to classify different neighbourhoods, based on criteria such as unemployment, crime rates, educational attainment, and other ‘risk indicators’, as well as whether the levels of first and second-generation migrants in the population is more than 50%. Neighbourhoods which meet these criteria are classified as ‘ghettos’. These neighbourhoods are then subject to special measures, including higher punishments for crimes.60 It is clearly discriminatory, as well as entirely unfair, for people living in certain areas to be punished more severely than others in different areas for the same crimes. Further examples of criminal justice AI which have been identified as producing discriminatory outcomes include the previously mentioned OASys, NDAS and the Gangs Matrix in the UK, and the Netherland’s ProKid 12. These examples illustrate the need for regulations to ensure that AI systems are designed to be non discriminatory, and to exclude categorisations and classifications that deepen and legitimise social biases and stereotypes. However, policy makers should not assume that making AI systems blind to all protected characteristics will always help to produce non-discriminatory outcomes. In certain scenarios, the removal of protected characteristics from the data could worsen discrimination. For example, it has been suggested on the basis of research into COMPAS in the United States, that excluding gender as a variable for risk assessments would fail to reflect a well-established statistical fact that in most countries, women are less likely to reoffend than men.61 Making COMPAS gender blind would unfairly and inaccurately assume women to be as equally likely to reoffend as men, and discriminate against them by overestimating their risk scores. Removing visible biases from AI systems cannot be the sole or primary solution to their discriminatory impact, because AI systems can be biased even if they have not been deliberately designed in that way. Bias is often unintentional, and even if the AI system appears on the surface to be neutral, their algorithms can lead to discriminatory assessments and outcomes. COMPAS, for example, does not include race or ethnicity as a variable, yet research has found that it consistently gives black defendants higher risk scores than their white counterparts, making them less likely to be released from detention.62 Hidden biases can arise in AI systems in numerous ways. Although a comprehensive analysis of how they can cause unintentional biases are beyond the scope of this paper,63 the way in which AI systems are themselves created and built illustrate the difficulty, complexity, and sometimes impossibility, in preventing discriminatory outputs and effects of AI systems. There are fundamental issues with the way AI systems are designed and created which can lead to bias. Where the AI system is based on machine-learning, biases can result from faults in the data that is used to train its algorithms. Machine learning systems ‘learn’ how to make assessments or decisions on the basis of their analysis of data to which they have previously been exposed. However, the data used to train a machine learning system might be incomplete, inaccurate, or selected for improper reasons, and this could lead to AI systems producing unwanted outcomes. What amounts to appropriate, good quality data for the purpose of training algorithms depends on what the machine learning system is being designed to do,64 so it might not always be obvious which dataset is needed to train algorithms to be non-discriminatory. AI designed or created for use in the criminal justice system will almost inevitably use data which is heavily reliant on, or entirely from within, the criminal justice system itself, such as policing or crime records. This data does not represent an accurate record of criminality, but is merely a record of policing – the crimes, locations and groups that are policed within that society, rather than the actual occurrence of crime. The data might not be categorised or deliberately manipulated to yield discriminatory results, but it may reflect the structural biases and inequalities in the society which the data represents. Where there are discriminatory policing patterns targeting certain demographics, or the systematic under-reporting and systematic over-reporting of certain types of crime and in certain locations,65 the use of such data merely results in a reinforcing and re-entrenching of those inequalities and discriminationin criminal justice outcomes. For example, according to UK crime data, black people are over 9 times more likely to be stopped and searched than white people,66 and black men are more than 3 times more likely to be arrested than white men.67 Despite these statistics, NDAS (mentioned above) in the United Kingdom explicitly relies on stop and search data to determine an individual’s propensity to commit a criminal offence. The fact that stop and search is disproportionately used against black people means that there will inevitably be an overrepresentation of black people in NDAS and that their risk levels will be inflated in comparison to white people. Comparable statistics on stop and search are not available in most EU Member States, where the official collection of racially disaggregated criminal justice data is either forbidden by law, or not standard practice. However, recent studies show that racially biased policing practices are prevalent throughout the EU. Data collected from a survey by the Fundamental Rights Agency, for example, has shown that during a 5-year period, 66% of individuals of Sub-Saharan African origin in Austria, and over half of respondents of South Asian origin in Greece were stopped and searched.68 AI built on data embedded with such biases and used to assist, inform, or make decisions in the criminal justice system, can expand and entrench the biases represented in the data.69 When AI systems result in criminal justice outcomes which repeat the discrimination inherent in the historic data, such as targeting individuals from a particular demographic, that decision will itself be preserved in the data. This leads to self-perpetuating ‘feedback loops’ which reinforce patterns of inequality.70 Another way in which AI systems can produce unintentional biases is by way of proxies. Data used by AI systems might be classified in seemingly legitimate ways, but those classifications can sometimes act as proxies for protected characteristics. A common example used to illustrate this point is how home addresses or postcodes can be proxies for race or ethnicity.71 Certain AI systems, such as HART, were initially trained to find correlations between home addresses and the risk of reoffending – in other words, to identify which postcode areas have ‘higher-risk’ residents than others.72 This approach overlooks the fact that there is very pronounced ethnic residential segregation in many countries,73 making it highly probable in practice, for AI systems to inadvertently establish a link between ethnic origin and risk. Roma are especially vulnerable to this form of proxy discrimination, given that in many EU Member States, Roma are reported to live primarily in segregated areas inhabited mostly or exclusively by Roma.74 There are several ways in which AI systems can be designed to mitigate the risks of discrimination, including by identifying and excluding data classifications that act as proxies for protected characteristics.75 However, it can be difficult in practice to identify which variables are proxies for protected characteristics (and how they do so), and removing too many ‘offending’ variables might result in the AI system losing much of its functional utility.76 There is no one-size-fits-all method of ensuring that AI systems do not produce discriminatory outcomes. Different approaches to de-biasing AI systems can conflict with one another, and the suitability of a particular de-biasing method might depend on the AI tool itself, and the legal and policy context in which it is designed to operate.77 Biases in AI systems are often not easy to detect and, in many cases, it might also be difficult to pinpoint flaws either in the system itself, or in the training data that has been caused the bias. The structural bias within the data that AI systems are built and operated on, a bias which is particularly deep-rooted in criminal justice data, is a fundamental issue, and one which is likely to result in AI systems being fundamentally inoperable – both because the bias makes them morally and ethically inoperable, if not yet legally, and because any attempts to remove the bias will make the data to operate these systems unusable. Fair Trials’ view is that the only effective way in which AI systems can be regarded as non discriminatory is if they have been subject to rigorous independent testing for biases. These tests must be mandated by law, must be independently run, have clearly stated aims or objectives, and be carried out pre-deployment to reduce the likelihood of individuals being affected by discriminatory profiling and decisions. AI can be tested in advance of deployment by using test data – datasets which are either synthetic datasets,78 or by using historic data with permissions – running it through an AI system, and analysing the outputs.79 For example, a trial of retrospective facial recognition video analysis is being run by a police oversight Ethics Committee in the UK. The trial is using historic data – CCTV footage – as the basis for simulated investigations in a controlled environment, monitored by researchers. The trial has clearly stated aims and signifiers of success, and all outcomes will be examined. There are significant human rights, data protection and ethical concerns involved with this particular technology, including the right to privacy, and the testing is not being conducted independently as it should be but, as above, there are positive aspects of the testing methodology.80 An alternative could be to ‘test’ a system in a strictly academic sense by running it alongside actual criminal justice processes, but with the system not having any effect on decision-making, and analysing the system’s proposed decisions or outcomes for bias. AI should never be used or even ‘tested’ in real-world situations where they have actual effects on individuals or criminal justice outcomes, before they have been tested. These types of tests also need to be carried out in the broader context of an AI governance framework that not only analyses the potential impact of the AI system pre-deployment, but also continues to monitor its impact afterwards. If these tests are not carried out, and/or if an AI system cannot be proven to be non-discriminatory, it should be legally precluded from deployment. However, as explained in the final section of this paper, it is questionable whether such tests are feasible in many Member States, where local laws prohibit the collection of racially-disaggregated data. AI systems should be developed to generate non-discriminatory outcomes, ensuring that suspects and accused persons are not disadvantaged, either directly or indirectly, on account of their protected characteristics, including race or ethnicity. AI systems should be subject to mandatory testing before and after deployment so that any discriminatory impact can be identified and addressed. If an AI system cannot be proven not to generate discriminatory outcomes, it should not be used. AI Systems need to be transparent and explainable AI systems can have a significant influence over criminal justice decisions, and they should be open to public scrutiny in the same way that all decision-making processes by public entities should be. However, a common criticism of many AI systems is that they lack transparency, which often makes it difficult, if not outright impossible, to subject them to meaningful impartial analysis and criticism. This lack of transparency is both as a result of deliberate efforts to conceal the inner workings of AI systems for legal or profit-driven reasons, and of the nature of the technology used to build AI systems that is uninterpretable for most, if not all humans. There are several reasons why it is necessary for AI systems to be transparent. Firstly, transparency is essential for strengthening confidence of both primary users of the system, as well as the general public, in AI systems. Democratic values demand that the public needs to be aware of how powerful public institutions, such as the police and the judiciary, operate so that they can be held accountable for their actions. It is also crucial for primary users of AI systems to understand how they work, so that they can make informed decisions about how much influence they should have on criminal justice decisions. Secondly, decisions made by AI systems need to be contestable at an individual level. Standards on the right to a fair trial and the right to liberty demand that defendants should have access to materials that inform decisions regarding them, so that they can challenge the accuracy and lawfulness of those decisions. Transparency also acts as a safeguard against bias and inaccuracies. It is difficult to imagine how issues that undermine the fairness and accuracies of AI systems (such as racial biases) can be detected, and ultimately fixed, if they cannot be properly accessed and analysed. As explained above, certain AI systems, such as CAS, have been found to have serious, but very obvious, flaws. In CAS’s case, however, the fault in the software could be detected easily, which meant that the discriminatory impact of the tool could be mitigated. The indicator for ‘non-Western allochtones’ in CAS was removed in 2017,81 ostensibly because it served no useful purpose, but presumably also because of the very obvious bias. This mitigation was possible because CAS is a transparent software, that was developed in-house by the Dutch police. The types of indicators used to predict crime were made openly available, and information about the method by which the software made predictions could easily be accessed and understood.82 This, however, is not the case for all AI systems, because AI systems are often developed by for-profit companies with little to no meaningful input from the public. As such, details of how they are designed, and how they make decisions and assessments are, in many cases, closely guarded as trade secrets that are protected by law.83 Often, AI systems are ‘black boxes’ because they are deliberately kept that way. While it is accepted that strong, enforceable intellectual property laws are needed to promote advancements in what is a very dynamic field of scientific research and innovation, it is not acceptable that these concerns trump the rights of individuals suspected or accused of crimes. In light of this, it is concerning that the Commission’s White Paper focuses on, and strongly promotes, the concept of a ‘partnership between the private and the public sector’ in relation to AI.84 Fair Trials appreciates that effective public-private collaboration could help to fill in gaps in public sector expertise and capacity for the development of AI systems, but given the transparency challenges, it is essential thatsuch partnerships are accompanied by robust regulations and rules that ensure effective and open scrutiny. However, even if AI systems are completely exposed to public scrutiny, and their source code85 and input data, for example, are openly disclosed, there is still no guarantee that they will be sufficiently transparent to enable adequate independent scrutiny. AI systems can be black boxes by nature of the technology that makes their decision-making processes complicated beyond comprehension for most (in some cases, too complicated even for computer scientists to understand).86 This is especially the case where AI systems are based on machine-learning algorithms. One possible reason for the unintelligibility of AI systems is that they sometimes use machine-learning algorithms that are simply too complex to be understood to a reasonable degree of precision.87 This is especially the case where AI systems incorporate ‘Deep Neural Networks’ – a machine-learning algorithmic architecture inspired by the structure and mechanics of human brains. Rather than relying on a set of man-made instructions, these types of AI systems make decisions based on experience and learning. Decision-making processes of this kind have been described to be ‘intuitive’, because they do not follow a defined logical method, making it impossible to analyse the exact process by which a particular decision is reached.88 It has also been suggested that some AI systems are uninterpretable to humans because the machine-learning algorithms that support them are able to identify and rely on geometric relationships that humans cannot visualise. Certain machine-learning algorithms are able to make decisions by analysing many variables at once, and by finding correlations and geometric patterns between them in ways that are beyond the capabilities of human brains.89 Given these challenges, there is widespread recognition that states should require AI systems to not only be ‘transparent’, but also explainable and intelligible.90 GDPR already recognises that individuals should have the right to an explanation of how a decision was reached, if they have been subject to an automated decision.91 In principle, this is an essential and very useful requirement, but it is also one that seems difficult to implement in practice, given that both ‘explainability’ and intelligibility are highly subjective concepts. Arguably, AI systems’ computing processes are inherently difficult to explain and understand for most people, including for most criminal justice decision-makers, but this surely should not be the sole basis for oversimplifying the technology, or for banning the use of AI outright. Computer scientists have been theorising different ways of ensuring that decisions made through complex algorithms can be explained and understood. An example is the ‘explainable AI’ movement (‘xAI’) that aims to build AI systems that can show more discernible links between inputted data and decisions. xAI systems measure how each input influences the final decision, so it is possible figure out how much weight is given to each input.92 This seems to be an innovative response to the ‘black box’ challenge, establishing clearer, more helpful relationships between inputs and final decisions. However, it appears to fall short of explaining what happens between data being inputted into the system and the final decision, and it does not enable users to impute any logic to the decision-making process.93 As explained above, there are various reasons why AI systems need to be transparent and intelligible, but the effective of exercise of the rights of the defence must be recognised as a crucial test for determining whether an AI system is sufficiently explainable and intelligible. AI systems have to be designed in a way that allows criminal defendants to understand and contest the decision made against them. Partnership for AI has suggested that a central factor that determines the contestability of AI systems is the possibility of carrying out an audit trail of the AI decision.94 In particular, it has to be possible for an auditor to follow and reproduce the process and come to the same conclusion reached by the AI system at the end. Furthermore, as explained in further detail below, criminal justice procedures should require the full disclosure of all aspects of AI systems that are necessary for suspects and accused persons to contest their findings, and this disclosure should be in a form which is understandable to a layperson, without the need for technical or expert assistance. AI systems need to be transparent and explainable, so they can be understood and scrutinised by their primary users, suspects and accused persons, as well as the general public. Commercial or proprietary interests, or technical concerns, should never be a barrier to transparency. AI systems must be designed in a way that allows criminal defendants to understand and contest the decision made against them. It should be possible to carry out an independent audit, and processes should be reproducible. Part 2: Safeguards for the use of AI Systems in Criminal Proceedings AI systems have to be built in accordance with human rights principles, and to give effect to human rights in practice, but it is unlikely that their design alone will guarantee that they are used in ways that comply with human rights. Regulatory frameworks for the design and deployment of AI systems have to be accompanied by appropriate legal safeguards that ensure they are used responsibly and lawfully. There are two primary questions that need to be addressed: 1) how procedural rules ensure that decision-makers do not over-rely on AI systems; and 2) how decisions and assessments made by AI systems can be analysed independently and challenged. Combatting ‘Automation Bias’ and Reinforcing Meaningful Human Input One of the main challenges of automated, or semi-automated decision-making systems is that of ‘automation bias’ – the tendency to over-rely on automation in ways that can cause errors in decision making. Automation bias occurs primarily due to the perception that automated decision-making processes are generally trustworthy and reliable. Automated cues have been found to be particularly salient to decision-makers, and research has shown that users of automated decision-making systems have a tendency to place greater weight on automated assessments over other sources of advice.95 The disproportionate influence of automated systems can undermine the quality of decision-making, by discouraging its users from consulting a wider range of factors that could inform more accurate decisions. Most AI systems currently being used to assist criminal justice decision-making do not completely replace human decision-making. They are instead designed and deployed to be used as decision aids, whose outputs are factored into consideration for the purposes of human decision-making. The phenomenon of automation bias however, raises questions about whether AI systems are being used in reality in accordance with their intended purpose as decision aids, and not as de facto replacements for human decision-making processes. There is strong evidentiary basis for automation bias amongst pilots who, like judges and other decision-makers in criminal justice proceedings, have typically been through a high level of training to make appropriate decisions in highly complex settings.96 However, limited research into automation bias amongst judges suggests that AI systems might have a more complex impact on judges’ behaviour. For example, a study conducted in 2019 in Kentucky seems to suggest that the degree to which judges rely on predictive tools for pre-trial detention decision-making could be influenced by the ethnicity of the defendant.97 The research indicates that judges had a greater tendency to rely on algorithmic risk assessments where the defendant was white, whereas in cases where the defendant was black, judges were more likely to overrule the risk-assessment in favour of detaining them. This study appears to show that AI systems can influence judges’ behaviour in unpredictable ways, especially where there are interactions or conflicts between automation and human biases, and that AI systems might be an ineffective tool for challenging human prejudices. It is crucial that rules governing the use of AI systems in criminal proceedings actively try to counter automation bias, and to encourage decision-makers to make independent determinations. A simple requirement to have a human decision-maker ‘in the loop’ or to have a human decision-maker review or check the automated decision is insufficient, because this risks overestimating the capacity or willingness of human decision-makers to question and overrule automated decisions. A mere requirement to have an automated decision reviewed by a human, on its own, could reduce the human review into a rubber-stamping exercise which, in practice, is no oversight at all. In recognition of this challenge, the European Data Protection Board has recommended that in order for decisions to be regarded as not ‘based solely’ on automated processing for the purposes of Article 22 GDPR, there has to be ‘meaningful’ human oversight, rather than just a token gesture.98 What qualifies as ‘meaningful’ intervention is open to interpretation, and it is likely to differ depending on the circumstances and the type of decision being made. In the context of criminal justice procedures, where decisions often have particularly severe and far-reaching implications for individuals’ rights, safeguards for ensuring meaningful human intervention have to be especially robust. Procedural safeguards that ensure ‘meaningful’ human oversight Rules governing the use of AI systems in criminal justice proceedings have to counter automation bias by encouraging human decision-makers to treat their processes with scepticism, and to force them to challenge and scrutinise the outcomes of algorithmic assessments. Procedural safeguards that can be put in place to tackle automation bias include: a) making it a legal requirement for decision-makers to be adequately alerted and informed about the risks associated with AI systems; b) making AI systems’ assessments intelligible to decision-makers; c) requiring decision-makers to provide full, individualised reasoning for all decisions influenced by an AI system; and d) making it easier for decision-makers to overrule AI assessments that produce unfavourable outcomes for defendants. One way of ensuring that automated assessments and decisions do not have undue influence on judicial decisions might be to ensure that decision-makers are sufficiently informed and alerted about the risks of relying on AI systems. This seems to be the approach taken by the Wisconsin Supreme Court in the United States in the case of Loomis,99 in which the Court considered whether or not the use of the COMPAS risk assessment tool for sentencing purposes violated due process rights. The judgment in Loomis recognises the importance of procedural safeguards as a way of safeguarding fairness of decisions, by requiring the use of ‘written advisements’ to alert decision-makers about the potential risks of AI risk assessments. Specifically, the court mandated that these advisements had to include warnings that: a) the process by which the COMPAS produces risk scores were not disclosed due to its ‘proprietary nature’; b) the accuracy of risk scores are undermined by the fact that COMPAS relied on group data; c) the risk-assessment tool had never been tested locally for accuracy; d) ‘questions’ have been raised about the discriminatory effect of COMPAS risk-assessments; and e) COMPAS was developed to inform post-sentencing decisions, but not sentencing decisions themselves. These warnings are clearly very specific to COMPAS and the context in which it is used in Wisconsin. If similar safeguards were adopted in different contexts and with regard to different AI systems, advisements will no doubt need to be adapted. The warnings used in Loomis have, however, been criticised because they do not give enough information to decision-makers to enable them to appreciate the degree to which these risk-assessments should be discounted.100 In particular, the advisements are silent on the strength of the criticisms against COMPAS, and they say nothing about the basis on which questions about their discriminatory effect have been raised.101 These warnings also give no indication about likely margin of error of the assessment, so although judges are informed that some assessments might be inaccurate, they are not in a position to appreciate how serious or frequent these errors might be. ‘Advisements’, or warnings that encourage decision-makers to be sceptical of AI systems cannot be considered as effective safeguards, unless they contain sufficiently helpful information for decision makers. However, even if judges are given stronger warnings than those in the Loomis advisements, it is still doubtful whether they alone will adequately mitigate automation bias. One reason for this is that many criminal justice decisions (such as pre-trial detention decisions) are, in practice, made very routinely by judges. Although written advisements might initially help judges think more critically about automated risk assessments, over time, these advisements could become repetitive and routine, and lose much of the intended meaning and effect.102 An effective safeguard that could work in conjunction with mandatory warnings could be for decision makers to be given a better insight into how AI systems produce a particular assessment or calculation. As mentioned above, the lack of information about how assessments are made by AI systems makes it harder for criminal defendants to scrutinise and challenge them. Surely, this has to be true also for decision-makers. It is much harder, if not impossible, to analyse and criticise decisions if there is no reasoning behind them. While AI systems do not rely on ‘reasoning’ per se, information given to decisions about how a specific assessment was made, including what factors were relevant, and how much weight was given to each factor could give decision-makers more confidence to decide whether to agree or disagree with an AI-generated decision. Decisions or assessments made by AI systems cannot be the sole basis of criminal justice decisions – they should be no more than a factor that can influence human-decision making. As such, decision makers should be required to show that decisions were influenced by a broader range of factors other than the AI system, by way of fully reasoned, case-specific, written decisions. Research has shown that the lack of case-specific reasoning in pre-trial detention decisions is already a serious challenge in many EU Member States,103 and AI systems risk worsening the standardisation of such decision making processes. Where AI systems are used to inform pre-trial detention decisions, or any other criminal justice decision that has a significant impact on the rights of the defendant, reasoned decisions must be specific to the defendant’s case, and in particular, they must reveal what which factors influenced the decision, and to what degree. In particular, decisions have to make it clear how much weight was given to assessments by AI systems. It is also crucial that decision-makers are able to override decisions made by AI systems, and that they are confident about doing so where the tool produces assessments or recommendations that are unfavourable to the defendant (e.g. where the AI system advises against releasing the defendant). It has been reported that members of the police force in Avon and Somerset Police in the United Kingdom are expected to record incidences where they have disagreed with assessments made by a predictive policing tool, and to explain their reasons for the disagreement.104 This is likely to act as a strong disincentive for overriding decisions made by the AI system, and as such, it actively facilitates automation bias. Furthermore, it seems to interfere with the presumption of innocence by making it difficult for decision-makers to override AI systems to make decisions that favour the defendant. If an AI system recommends the arrest or the detention of an individual, decision-makers should feel that they have a genuine choice of overruling the AI system, and not be pressured into compliance. Criminal justice decision-making processes should, as a general rule, be skewed in favour of the defence to give effect to the presumption of innocence, and rules governing the use of AI systems should favour favourable outcomes for defendants. On the other hand, in cases where a decision-maker acts against the advice of an AI system that recommends a favourable outcome for the defendant, there should be a requirement for reasons to be given for their decision. This is to prevent unfavourable outcomes for defendants that are motivated by improper reasons, and to mitigate the risk of unconscious bias. Challenging AI in criminal proceedings AI systems need to be contestable by criminal defendants. This is so that they can not only challenge the outcomes of the AI systems’ calculations and analyses, but also scrutinise the legality of their use. In other words, being able to challenge AI systems in criminal proceedings is not only a procedural fairness requirement for defendants, it is also a means by which legal standards governing AI systems and their use can be enforced. One of the major issues preventing the sufficient contestability of AI systems in criminal proceedings is the lack of notification. If an individual is not notified that they have been subject to an automated decision by an AI system, they will not have the ability to challenge that decision, or the information that the decision was based on. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Data Protection Act 2018 sets out the applicability of the GDPR and sets out the UK’s interpretations of the GDPR’s requirements and safeguards. However, section 14 of the Data Protection Act significantly dilutes the requirements of Article 22 of the GDPR, permitting purely automated decisions which have legal or similar significant effects on a data subject, without their consent, as long as the data subject is subsequently notified that a purely automated decision has been taken about them, after the decision has been made. It is only then that the data subject has the opportunity to request a new decision. However, it has been reported that individuals subject to decisions by the HART system in the UK are not notified at all that they have been subject to such an automated decision, even after it has been made.105 This is likely because under the Data Protection Act 2018, automated decisions which have legal or similar significant effects on a subject are not necessarily classified as ‘purely automated’ if a human has administrative input. In order to meet this requirement, the human input can be as minimal as checking a box to accept the automated-decision, even if it has a significant impact on an individual, such as holding them in custody. This minimal requirement for human requirement means that, in practice, decisions made with negligible to no meaningful human input can be classified as not “purely automated” and there is no legal requirement to notify and ability to request a new decision. In this way, systems such as HART continue to be used, with people subject to their decisions completely uninformed. While the GDPR already requires the notification of individuals affected by automated decisions, the UK’s experience with HART highlights the need for stricter rules to not only ensure meaningful human input (as mentioned above), but to also strengthen the individual’s right to be notified. There must be a requirement for individuals to be notified, not just for “purely automated” decisions, but whenever there has been an automated decision-making system involved, assistive or otherwise, that has or may have impacted a criminal justice decision. This notification should include clear and comprehensible information about the decision that has been taken, how that decision was reached, including details of the information or data involved in reaching that decision, what the result or outcomes of the decision are, and what effects, legal or otherwise they have, and information on how to challenge that decision. As discussed in the previous section, a further major barrier to the contestability of AI systems is a technical one. The ‘black box’ nature of certain AI systems can be largely attributed to their design, so it is important that there are rules governing the interpretability of these systems so that when they are in use, their processes can be understood at all. However, there are also legal barriers to the full disclosure of AI systems, which are often put in place to protect commercial interests. Procedural safeguards play a particularly important and effective role in addressing these types of opacity challenges. Transparency is a fundamental aspect of an adversarial process that underpins the right to a fair trial, and human rights standards require that as a general rule defendants should be given unrestricted access to their case-file,106 and to be given the opportunity to comment on the evidence used against them.107 These standards are further reinforced by Directive 2012/13/EU,108 which requires Member States to grant access to all material evidence in possession of the competent authorities to the defence to safeguard the fairness of the proceedings and to enable defendants to prepare their defence.109 The procedural requirement of an adversarial process is not one that is limited to substantive criminal proceedings – it also applies in the context of pre-trial decision-making processes, especially for decisions on the deprivation of liberty.110 While EU law and international human rights law also recognise that there might be certain justifications for non-disclosure of materials used against the defendant in criminal proceedings, these are narrow restrictions, and commercial interests are not regarded as a valid justification for non-disclosure.111 Furthermore, EU law does not explicitly recognise any derogations from the right of access to materials that are essential to challenging the lawfulness of an arrest or detention.112 In order for Member States to comply with these standards, any exceptions to the disclosure of information regarding AI systems have to be applied very narrowly. Barriers to scrutiny and accountability of AI systems are not only legal, but also technical. As explained in previous sections, many AI systems suffer from interpretability issues because of their design and by the nature of the machine-learning technology upon which they rely. In the absence of specific expertise on AI, it is difficult to imagine how, in practice, defendants and their lawyers will be able to challenge AI systems. One possible solution to this challenge, as explained below, is training for defence lawyers – but it is unreasonable to expect lawyers to develop expertise that would enable them to analyse and scrutinise AI systems at a technical level. A further solution could be that defence lawyers have access to the relevant expertise from suitably qualified professionals. However, in reality, not all criminal suspects and accused persons are able to access the legal and other technical assistance needed to understand and challenge technically complex AI systems, for financial or other practical reasons. It would also be unreasonable and unrealistic to require all suspects and accused persons to engage technical expertise just to be able to understand how an AI system makes a decision, especially where AI systems are used routinely or mandatorily to make or assist criminal justice decisions. It might seem unreasonable to expect all highly technical evidence to be challengeable by lay defendants without the help of a suitable expert. However, AI systems are not necessarily used in criminal proceedings as ‘evidence’, and in practice they could be an integral part of a decision-making process, or even a replacement for it. As such, it is essential that the ‘reasoning’ of AI systems are made known to suspects and accused persons, similarly to how judicial decisions must contain “sufficient reasoning and address specific features of a given case”, especially where they concern the deprivation of liberty.113 Decision-making processes of AI systems and the way in which it has produced an outcome in a particular case should thus be disclosed to suspects and accused persons, in a form that is intelligible to a layperson. Individuals should not need to rely on experts to simply understand how a decision affecting them was made. While there will inevitably be scenarios where defendants would need expertise to challenge an AI-assisted decision, but these cases should be the exception, rather than the norm, for whenever an AI system is used. Criminal justice procedures should require the notification to suspects and accused persons where an AI system has been used which has or may have impacted a decision made about that individual. Procedures should enable the full disclosure of all aspects of AI systems that are necessary for suspects and accused persons to contest their findings. Disclosure should be in a form which is comprehensible to a layperson, without the need for technical or expert assistance, and suspects and accused persons should also be given effective access to technical experts who can help to analyse and challenge otherwise incomprehensible aspects of AI systems. Training AI systems use technology not well understood by many people. Without proper training, outputs of AI systems might not be easy to interpret, and it might be difficult to appreciate which factors undermine the reliability of AI systems, so that appropriate weight can be attached to their findings. As mentioned above, decision-makers can be warned about the weaknesses of AI systems as part of their decision-making process, but the effectiveness of this safeguard can be questioned, because it is unlikely to provide decision-makers with all the information they need, and there is no guarantee that the warnings will be taken seriously in all cases. Training is not just needed for the primary users of AI systems, such as judges and police officers who use them to inform their own decisions. The training must also be available criminal defence lawyers, so that they are in a better position to challenge AI systems, where necessary. If AI systems are used routinely to aid criminal justice decisions or even made mandatory (as is the case in certain states in the United States), there would be strong justification for governing bodies to make training on AI mandatory for criminal justice practitioners. Part 3: Governance and Monitoring Criminal justice processes are an important enforcement mechanism for ensuring that AI systems are designed and used lawfully, but they cannot be the sole, or even the primary means of implementing legal and ethical standards. Of equal, if not greater importance is a framework that ensures that policy decisions on the design and deployment of AI systems are made in systematised way, and that unlawful or harmful AI systems never enter into public service. Member States that deploy AI systems for criminal justice purposes should have regulatory mechanisms that are fit for purpose. At a minimum, these should include frameworks for: a) pre-deployment impact assessments; b) post deployment monitoring and evaluations; and c) collection of data needed for effective comparative analysis. Pre-Deployment Both the GDPR and LED recognise the need for AI systems to be analysed before they are deployed, so that they comply with existing regulatory and human rights standards. Under Article 35 GDPR, Member States are required to carry out a ‘Data Protection Impact Assessment’ (‘DPIA’) for data processing systems that carry out ‘a systematic and extensive evaluation of personal aspects relating to natural persons which is based on automated processing, including profiling and on which decision are based that produce legal effects concerning the natural person or similarly significantly affect the natural person’. The corresponding provision in the LED is Article 27, which similarly calls for DPIAs to be carried out where processing of data is likely to result in a ‘high risk to the rights and freedoms of natural persons’. DPIAs under both laws have to carry out inter alia an assessment of the possible impact of the data processing system on the rights or individuals, and they need to mention what measures will be in place to ensure that their rights are properly protected. DPIAs help to address a serious accountability challenge, but EU laws do not provide sufficiently helpful standards on how they should be conducted. Article 27 LED does not lay down minimum requirements for how DPIAs should be carried out. On the other hand, there are aspects of Article 35 GDPR which, if used to guide how DPIAs should be conducted for AI systems used in criminal justice, would raise concerns. The foremost challenge is the level of transparency mandated by the GDPR. DPIAs are envisaged largely as internal processes led by the data controller, who may seek the opinions of data subjects (such as members of the public or their representatives), where it is ‘appropriate’ to do so. The GDPR also explicitly recognises that the requirement to seek the views of data subject is ‘without prejudice to the protection of commercial interests’.114 As outlined above, transparency is a key aspect of a fair criminal justice system and, as a general rule, all criminal justice decision-making processes need to be open to public scrutiny. There is no reason why AI systems should be exempt from this requirement and, given that administration of criminal justice is a matter of strong public interest, the public should have the right to voice their opinions and raise objections whenever AI systems impact criminal justice processes. Also, given the highly technical nature of AI systems, and their (as yet) poorly understood impact on society, impact assessments must have multi-disciplinary expert engagement. 115 In particular, DPIAs should always involve independent experts (computer scientists, in particular) who can audit, analyse, and if possible, ‘explain’ AI systems, so that they can help legal, policy and social science experts to determine the likely implications for the individuals’ rights. For public and expert consultations to be meaningful and effective, sufficient information should be made available to interested parties so that the AI system can be thoroughly understood and researched. Partnership on AI has recommended that for criminal justice risk-assessment tools, training datasets,116 architectures and algorithms of AI systems should be made available to ensure meaningful scrutiny.117 Commercial interests should not be regarded as a legitimate ground for limiting the disclosure of this information. Secondly, Article 35 GDPR allows data controllers to carry out a single DPIA ‘for a set of similar processing operations that present similar high risks’. There is a danger that this provision could be interpreted too broadly if Member States are given free rein to determine what two systems can be regarded as sufficiently ‘similar’. There are risks in assuming that an AI system well-suited for use in a particular context or within a particular geographic area will be equally useful in another. AI systems built using data from one jurisdiction might not be able to reflect differences in, for example, law enforcement culture and patterns of behaviour, laws and policies, and socio-demographic characteristics of another jurisdiction.118 Sometimes, these differences can be seen in the same country or even within the same region. For example, a study of ‘PRECOBS’ a predictive policing tool used in Baden-Wurttemberg in Germany, found significant differences in predictive utility between rural and urban areas.119 Finally, DPIAs seem to require data controllers to theorise the possible impact of AI systems, but there is no strict requirement for AI systems to be subject to testing or auditing before, or immediately after deployment. This overlooks the fact that flaws in AI systems, including unintentional biases, are not always easily detectable, and that they might only surface once the system is put into operation. As discussed earlier, the causes of biases in AI systems can be difficult to identify, and it is difficult to appreciate how, short of thorough testing, the true impact of AI decisions can be known. In New York, the AI Now Institute has proposed an alternative model for impact assessments, known as ‘Algorithmic Impact Assessments’ (‘AIAs’).120 The AIA framework sets out in detail how public authorities should conduct impact assessments of AI systems, and it can be contrasted with the provisions of the GDPR in that AIAs place much greater emphasis on the need for community engagement and consultations with external experts. This framework could serve as a useful guide for Member States seeking to establish pre-deployment procedures for approving AI systems. AI systems should not be deployed unless they have undergone an independent public impact assessment with the involvement of appropriate experts, that is specific both to the purpose for which the AI system is deployed, and the locality where it is deployed. AI systems must be tested for impact pre-deployment, and systems should be precluded from deployment until they have undergone this testing and achieved minimum standards, such as non-discrimination. Post-Deployment Impact assessments of AI systems should not be regarded as ‘one-off’ processes. They have to be followed up with ongoing post-deployment monitoring and evaluation, so that the longer-term impact of AI systems can be understood, and shortcomings and biases that affect the rights of individuals can be identified and fixed. The ability of AI systems to deliver fair and just outcomes, and to meet policy objectives can be difficult to predict from the outset. Although AI systems can be validated and tested prior to deployment to check if they are likely to produce desired outcomes, their impact in the real world might be different. Furthermore, even if the likely outputs of AI systems can be predicted, it is much harder to estimate the likely impact they will have on human decision-making.121 Further reviews of AI systems are also necessary because criminal justice systems and the societies in which they operate change over time. A study in the United States, for example, theorises that many pre-trial risk assessment tools might be making predictions based on historic data that is no longer fit for purpose. It has been suggested that because data used to train risk assessment algorithms pre date bail reforms in many US jurisdictions, the impact of recent measures introduced to reduce the risk of failure-to-appear, such as transportation assistance and text message alerts are not taken into consideration – potentially leading to over-incarceration.122 Socio-demographic changes might also require AI systems to be altered so that they continue to be fit for purpose. If, for example, an area experiences high levels of net migration which results in rapid changes to policing patterns and judicial behaviour, AI systems might need to be reviewed to make sure they are not unintentionally worsening racial discrimination. Data Collection It is difficult to imagine how the impact of AI systems can be assessed, if there is inadequate data to support effective monitoring. The deficiency of criminal justice data across the EU has been subject to criticism. In particular, Fair Trials has found that most EU Member States do not systemically collect statistics on the duration of pre-trial detention, outcomes of criminal cases of pre-trial detainees, and the likelihood of a suspect or accused person being released by the court.123 The data needed for effective monitoring and evaluation depends on the function of the AI system and its intended objectives, but the lack of criminal justice data more generally questions whether Member States currently have adequate legal and policy foundations for introducing AI systems responsibly into criminal justice processes. Data needed for monitoring and evaluation purposes will, of course, need to have been collected from well before the introduction of the AI system, so that a proper pre- and post- analysis comparison can be made. Of particular concern is that in most EU Member States, race or ethnic data on criminal justice is not available, either because there is no systemised process for collecting it, or because local laws ban this practice altogether.124 This is a serious challenge because the most predominant criticism against the use of AI systems in the United States and elsewhere is that it worsens racial and ethnic bias in criminal justice decisions. Even without official statistics, there is strong evidence in many EU Member States that certain ethnic minorities, and in particular, Roma and people of colour are unfairly overrepresented in criminal justice systems.125 It is worrying that AI systems might worsen this discrimination, but that there will be no way of detecting this trend, because of the lack of data. Furthermore, the absence of racial and ethnic data could also prevent pre-emptive measures to combat racial bias. It is doubtful that developers will be able to design systems free from racial bias, if they have no data against which to measure their performance. On data collection, Fair Trials believe that EU and its Member States will need to make a strict choice. Either they should ensure that racially disaggregated criminal justice data is collected, or AI systems should be banned where they make individualised assessments for criminal justice purposes. Effective monitoring of AI systems is not possible unless there is sufficient data that makes it possible to discern their real impact. In particular, Member States need to collect data that allow them to identify discriminatory impacts of AI systems, including discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity.

Answer the following question using only details found in the attached paper. You should NOT reference outside sources or your own knowledge. What are some examples of visible and hidden biases that have been observed in criminal justice AI? Executive Summary ‘Artificial Intelligence’ (‘AI’), comprising machine-learning and other analytical algorithm-based automated systems, has become an important aspect of our lives. In recent years, this technology has been increasingly deployed in criminal justice systems across the world, playing an increasingly significant role in the administration of justice in criminal cases. This trend is often driven by perceptions about the reliability and impartiality of technological solutions, and pressures to make cost savings in policing and court services. However, studies in various jurisdictions, including in Europe, provide substantial evidence that AI and machine-learning systems can have a significantly negative influence on criminal justice. AI systems have been shown to directly generate and reinforce discriminatory and unjust outcomes; infringing fundamental rights, they have been found to have little to no positive influence on the quality of human decisions, and they have been criticised for poor design that does not comply with human rights standards. Most AI systems used in criminal justice systems are statistical models, based on data which is representative of structural biases and inequalities in the societies which the data represents, and which is always comprehensively lacking in the kind of detail that is needed to make truly ‘accurate’ predictions or decisions. The data used to build and populate these systems is mostly or entirely from within criminal justice systems, such as law enforcement or crime records. This data does not represent an accurate record of criminality, but merely a record of law enforcement - the crimes, locations and groups that are policed within that society, rather than the actual occurrence of crime. The data reflects social inequalities and discriminatory policing patterns, and its use in these AI systems merely results in a reinforcement and re-entrenchment of those inequalities and discrimination in criminal justice outcomes. Given these extremely serious risks, strong regulatory frameworks are needed to govern the use of AI in criminal justice decision-making and, in some circumstances, to restrict its use entirely. Existing EU data protection laws restrict the use of automated decisions, but there are gaps and ambiguities that could result in the use of AI systems in ways that undermine human rights, if not accompanied by further guidance or legislation. Firstly, EU laws currently only prohibit decisions that are solely based on automated processes, but they do not regulate decision-making processes that are largely dependent on automated systems. Given that most AI systems in use today are designed and deployed to assist, rather than replace, human decision-making in criminal justice systems, they largely fall outside the remit of EU data protection laws on automated decisions. Secondly, the prohibition on automated decisions is subject to broad exceptions. Individuals can be subject to decisions based solely on automated processes if authorised by EU or Member State law, and there are deemed to be appropriate human rights safeguards in place, including the right to obtain human intervention. However, there is not enough clarity on what safeguards are needed, and how ‘human intervention’ should be interpreted. In order to regulate the use of AI in criminal justice proceedings, the EU must, at a minimum, set standards to address the following questions: 1) what standards are needed to govern the design and deployment of AI systems in criminal justice systems; 2) what safeguards are needed in criminal justice proceedings to make sure that AI systems are used in accordance with human rights standards and prevent discrimination; and 3) how Member States should govern the deployment of AI systems and monitor their subsequent use. The design of AI systems and their deployment in criminal justice proceedings should be regulated to generate human rights compliant, non-discriminatory outcomes. Minimum standards and safeguards should be set, which, if they cannot be adhered to, should preclude the use of the AI system in question. AI should also be regulated so that they are sufficiently transparent and explainable to enable effective independent scrutiny. AI systems should be designed and deployed to comply with and give effect to inter alia the right of access to court, the right to be presumed innocent, and the right to liberty. AI systems should not undermine the right to be tried by an impartial and independent tribunal and, in line with existing EU laws, no individual should be subject to an automated decision that results in a criminal record. AI systems should be designed so that they do not pre-designate an individual as a criminal before trial, nor should they allow the police to take unjustified, disproportionate measures against individuals without reasonable suspicion. AI systems that inform criminal justice outcomes should, as a general rule, favour outcomes that are favourable to the defendant. Where AI systems inform decisions on the deprivations of liberty, they should be calibrated to generate outcomes that favour release, and they should not facilitate detention other than as a measure of last resort. AI systems must be subject to rigorous testing to ensure that they have the desired effect of reducing pre-trial detention rates. AI systems must be developed to guarantee that they do not generate discriminatory outcomes, ensuring that suspects and accused persons are not disadvantaged, either directly or indirectly, on account of their protected characteristics, including race, ethnicity, nationality or socioeconomic background. AI systems should be subject to mandatory testing before and after deployment so that any discriminatory impact can be identified and addressed. AI systems which cannot adhere to this minimum standard should have no place in the criminal justice system. AI systems need to be transparent and explainable, so they can be understood and scrutinised by their primary users, suspects and accused persons, and the general public. Commercial or proprietary interests should never be a barrier to transparency. AI systems must be designed in a way that allows criminal defendants to understand and contest the decisions made against them. It should be possible to carry out an independent audit of each AI system, and its processes should be reproducible for that purpose. Member States should have laws that govern how AI systems are relied upon in criminal proceedings, and there must be adequate safeguards to prevent over-reliance on AI by decision-makers, to prevent discrimination and to ensure scrutiny and effective challenge by the defence. Procedural safeguards should actively tackle automation-bias amongst criminal justice decision makers. Examples include: a) making it a legal requirement for decision-makers to be adequately alerted and informed about the risks associated with AI systems; b) making AI systems’ assessments intelligible to decision-makers; c) requiring decision-makers to provide full, individualised reasoning for all decisions influenced by an AI system; and d) making it easy for decision-makers to overrule AI assessments that produce unfavourable outcomes for defendants. Criminal justice procedures should ensure that defendants are notified if an AI system has been used which has or may have influenced a decision taken about them at any point in the criminal justice system, from investigation to arrest, from charge to conviction, and sentence. Procedures should enable the full disclosure of all aspects of AI systems that are necessary for suspects and accused persons to contest their findings. Disclosure should be in a form which is clear and comprehensible to a layperson, without the need for technical or expert assistance, in order to ensure fairness, equality of arms, and to discharge the obligations to provide all relevant information and be given reasons for decisions under the right to a fair trial. Suspects and accused persons should also be given effective access to technical experts who can help to analyse and challenge otherwise incomprehensible aspects of AI systems. Training should be made available to all primary users of AI systems, and to criminal defence practitioners, so that there is greater awareness of AI technology, and of the risks of over-reliance on AI. Effective regulation of AI systems should be facilitated by a governance and monitoring framework. AI systems should not be deployed unless they have undergone an independent public impact assessment with the involvement of appropriate experts, that is specific both to the purpose for which the AI system is deployed, and the locality where it is deployed. A requirement of the assessment should be a consideration of whether it is necessary to use AI in the particular use case, or whether an alternative solution could achieve the same aims. As far as it is possible to do so, AI systems should also be tested for impact pre-deployment, a part of which should be the minimum requirement to prove that the AI system has no discriminatory impact, either directly or indirectly, before it can be deployed. AI systems should be kept under regular review post-deployment. Effective monitoring of AI systems is not possible unless there is sufficient data that makes it possible to discern their real impact. In particular, Member States need to collect data that allow them to identify discriminatory impacts of AI systems, including discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity. Background Rapid technological advancements in recent years have made artificial intelligence (‘AI’) an increasingly prominent aspect of our lives. There are differences of opinion as to the definition of AI and its true meaning, but for the purposes of this paper we are broadly referring to automated decision-making systems based on algorithms, including machine-learning, which are used in the criminal justice system. There is little doubt that AI has great capacity to increase human potential and improve the lives of many, but the increasing role of AI in assisting important public functions has also highlighted serious risks and challenges. If not subject to proper regulation and oversight, AI can threaten fundamental human rights and, far from expanding human potential, it can amplify and worsen harmful aspects of our society, including inequality and injustice. This challenge is particularly evident where AI has been used to assist the administration of justice in criminal cases. In recent years, more and more jurisdictions across the world have begun to use AI technology to inform and assist policing and judicial decisions, often driven by perceptions about the reliability and impartiality of technological solutions, and pressures to make cost-savings in policing and court services. In some countries, algorithmic processes can influence which geographic neighbourhoods should be subject to increased law enforcement and when, as well as which individuals should be specifically targeted by law enforcement. They can help to determine whether someone should be arrested, whether they should be charged with a criminal offence, whether they should be detained in prison before trial and, if convicted and sentenced, the length of their sentence. AI is being used more and more to influence highly sensitive, high impact decisions that have far reaching, long-term implications for individuals’ rights. Research emerging from the United States, where the use of AI in criminal justice is particularly widespread, and from the United Kingdom and some EU Member States, however, seriously questions whether AI has a positive influence on criminal justice systems. AI tools and systems have been found to actively generate discriminatory criminal justice outcomes, they have been found to have little to no positive influence on the quality of human decisions, and they have been criticised for poor design, that does not reflect or give effect to human rights standards. These criticisms might not be justified for all AI systems, but these studies highlight the need for much stronger regulatory frameworks to govern the use of AI. We believe that unless it is subject to robust regulation, it is unlikely that AI can be used in criminal justice systems without undermining the right to a fair trial. In some cases, it should be restricted from use entirely. EU Member States should be encouraged to take a much more cautious approach to AI and subject automated processes to more stringent rules that are designed to ensure human rights compliance. There is the potential for AI systems, if properly and robustly regulated, to have a positive impact on criminal justice system, advancing human rights, for example, by analysing law enforcement or judicial decisions to identify patterns of erroneous or poor decision-making, or discrimination. The EU is already a world leader on AI regulation, having adopted ground-breaking data protection laws in recent years to shield individuals from automated decisions that have an adverse effect on their rights. We welcome the EU’s commitment to build further on existing legal standards, and we emphasise that addressing the impact of AI on criminal justice has to be a primary consideration for EU policy makers when deciding on appropriate legal standards. Discussions around the impact of AI on human rights have largely been centred on data protection, the right to privacy, and broader questions of ethics and human dignity. However, despite the increasing use of AI systems in criminal justice systems across the world, only limited discussions have so far focused on how these systems impact the right to a fair trial, and what regulations are needed to address that impact. About this paper Fair Trials has produced this policy paper to highlight the need for EU-wide standards on the regulation of AI in criminal justice, and to inform EU policy makers about the standards and safeguards needed to ensure effective protection of fair trial rights where criminal justice decisions are assisted by AI. The EU Commission recognised that AI represents risks for fundamental rights, including the right to a fair trial, in its 2020 White Paper, ‘On Artificial Intelligence – A European approach to excellence and trust’. It also recognised the need for improvements to the EU’s legislative framework on AI, noting in particular the challenges in the ‘effective application and enforcement of existing EU and national legislation’ and the ‘limitations of scope of existing EU legislation’. In this paper, we identify the most common fair trial rights issues raised by existing AI systems, based on examples and experiences from the EU, the United Kingdom, and the United States. We also offer examples of practical legal and policy solutions that could help to address these challenges, and to assist in the effective implementation of the EU’s fundamental rights standards in this area. We recognise that the use of AI has a broader impact on human rights beyond the right to a fair trial, and that there are important social and ethical issues that also need to be addressed. However, we have narrowed the focus of this paper given Fair Trials’ mission and field of expertise. This paper should not be treated as an exhaustive list of fair trial rights standards that need to be introduced. AI is used in many ways in criminal justice systems cross the world and, as the technology continues to develop, it is likely that we will eventually see the deployment of AI technology in ways never imagined before. This paper focuses primarily on AI systems that carry out individualised risk assessments, given that these types of systems have had the most significant impact on individuals’ rights so far, and we envisage that similar systems will become increasingly common in the near future. Existing EU Legal Framework Existing EU laws restrict the use of automated decisions in a wide variety of contexts. Article 22 of the General Data Protection Regulation (‘GDPR’) provides that data subjects have the right not to be subject to decisions ‘solely’ based on automated processes, where they produce ‘legal effects’ concerning them, or where they ‘similarly significantly affect’ them. The Law Enforcement Directive (‘LED’) – the EU data legislation that governs the processing of data for criminal justice purposes – has a very similar provision at Article 11, which requires Member States to prohibit decisions based solely on automated processing, where they produce ‘adverse legal effects’ on the individual, or effects that are ‘similarly significant’. However, there are two notable gaps in the existing legislative framework governing automated decision-making systems under both the GDPR and the LED. These ambiguities and potential loopholes could be exploited in ways that seriously undermine the general prohibition of automated decision-making processes, and adversely impact human rights. It is necessary, therefore, that the EU provides further guidance on how these provisions should be interpreted, including thorough legislation (if appropriate) to further clarify the circumstances in which Member States are allowed to deploy AI systems for criminal justice proceedings. Firstly, the provisions in the GDPR and LED only prohibit decisions based ‘solely’ on automated processes. In other words, the laws regulate the impact of decisions made through automated processing, but not the AI systems themselves. As discussed later in this paper, the main human rights challenges of AI systems can be attributed to how they are designed and trained, and the types of technology used, such as machine-learning, so it is crucial that decisions about the design and deployment of AI systems are also regulated. Secondly, neither the GDPR or LED provide regulatory standards to govern situations where automated processing is not the ‘sole’ basis of a decision, but a primary influencer. In reality, the difference between a fully automated decision and a decision made with a ‘human-in-the-loop’ is not always clear, but because of this strict classification, AI systems are able to be used and have significant legal effects without the corresponding safeguards. Stronger legal standards are needed to make sure that semi-automated decision-making processes do not become de facto automated processes. Thirdly, the prohibition on automated decision-making is subject to two very broad exceptions. Automated decisions are prohibited under the GDPR and LED, ‘unless authorised by Union or Member State law’ and there need to be ‘appropriate safeguards for the rights and freedoms of the data subject, at least the right to obtain human intervention’.1 These provisions give extremely wide discretion to Member States to override the general prohibition. It is significant that EU laws emphasise the need for human rights safeguards, and the need to ensure the possibility of human interventions, but neither of these concepts have yet been adequately defined. Although influential actors like the EU and the Council of Europe have established principles on the ethical and responsible use of AI, there is currently no authoritative guidance on the practical safeguards that need to be in place.2Likewise, the meaning of ‘human intervention’ is open to interpretation. LED provides some guidance on who should be carrying out the human intervention,3 but there needs to be greater clarity on what meaningful human intervention entails in different contexts. In order to regulate the use of AI in criminal justice proceedings, and close the gaps in existing data protection laws, the EU must, at a minimum, set standards to address the following questions: 1) what standards are needed to govern the design and deployment of AI systems in criminal justice systems; 2) what safeguards are needed in criminal justice proceedings to make sure that AI systems are used in accordance with human rights standards and prevent discrimination; and 3) how Member States should govern the deployment of AI systems and monitor their subsequent use. Part 1: Regulating the Design and Deployment of AI Systems in Criminal Justice Systems AI systems deployed to assist criminal justice decision-making have to be fit-for-purpose. The purposes of AI systems differ depending on the context in which they are deployed, but there are a few common considerations that need to be taken into account to determine whether it is appropriate for the AI system to be used. Firstly, AI systems have to be designed to produce outcomes that are desirable from a human rights and non-discrimination perspective. This means that rather than being exclusively focused on delivering ‘accurate’ outcomes in criminal cases, AI systems have to be designed to facilitate fair, impartial and non-discriminatory criminal processes. Developers of AI systems and public entities that commission them should, in particular, make sure that AI systems are consciously designed to give effect to, and promote the right to fair trial. The fundamental issues with the way AI systems are designed and built, resulting in discriminatory outcomes, must also be considered. Given the significant evidence of AI systems influencing discriminatory outcomes, special efforts must be made to ensure that AI systems do not produce discriminatory outcomes. Secondly, AI systems need to be designed in a way that makes it possible for criminal defendants and the broader public to scrutinise them. This means that AI systems should not only be made open to scrutiny (rather than concealed to protect commercial interests), but their inner workings and processes should also be discernible and comprehensible. AI Systems should be designed to protect and promote the right to a fair trial Where AI systems are used to assist or inform criminal justice decisions, they support an important act of public administration that has a significant impact on the rights of suspects and accused persons. AI systems do more than just provide outputs that decision-makers can take into consideration as evidence. By attempting to mimic human analytical processes and reasoning, they can provide influential advisory input into human decision-making, or even replace it altogether. As such, it is right that human rights standards that govern criminal justice decision-making also apply to AI systems. The Council of Europe and the EU Commission’s High Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence (‘AI HLEG’) have both recognised that fundamental rights should be a key guiding principle for the design and deployment of AI systems.4 The Council of Europe recommends that AI systems are built according to ‘human rights by design’ principles, and recognises that AI systems should not undermine the right to a fair trial under the European Convention on Human Rights (‘ECHR’). The AI HLEG has similarly recognised that the respect for fundamental rights, as enshrined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and international human rights instruments, should form the foundations of trustworthy AI. AI HLEG’s Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI (‘the Ethics Guidelines’) also recognise the need for AI systems to comply with other types of EU legislation. Although not mentioned explicitly in the Ethics Guidelines, Fair Trials would emphasise that the design of AI systems and the ways in which they are deployed in the EU should, in particular, be compatible with the standards set out in the procedural rights directives under the ‘Roadmap for strengthening procedural rights of suspected or accused persons in criminal proceedings’.5 We would also like to note the potential for AI systems to have a positive impact on criminal justice systems. Public debate about the relationship between AI and human rights have predominantly been centred on the idea that AI is a threat to human rights. It is equally important, as technology takes an increasingly prominent role in public life, to consider what positive potential they may have. Policy makers, developers, civil society activists, and other stakeholders should try to identify ways in which AI can also play an active role in advancing human rights, and improve the fairness of criminal justice systems. For example, AI systems could be used to analyse law enforcement or judicial decisions to identify patterns of erroneous or poor decision-making, or discrimination, for preventative purposes. AI systems which are used as part of criminal justice decision-making should be designed not just to ensure that they do not undermine the right to a fair trial, but also to promote it. However, as explained below, given the embedded biases in the criminal data used to develop and train AI systems, there are serious doubts, based on recent studies, whether AI systems can promote fair criminal justice at all. There are various aspects of the right to a fair trial and, without speculating on what kind of AI systems will be developed in the future to support criminal justice decision-making, it is difficult to articulate how fair trial rights standards should inform the design of AI systems. However, examples of AI systems currently deployed in the EU and elsewhere suggest that there are certain aspects of the right to a fair trial that require special attention. These are: a) the right of access to court b) the presumption of innocence; c) the principle of the equality of arms; and d) the right to liberty. Access to Court The notion of AI systems replacing courts to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused may seem far-fetched at present, but there is a growing trend of automated administration of justice across the world that might threaten the right of access to court. For example, in several European countries, speeding and other minor traffic offences have been detected and enforced by means of automated processes for more than a decade.6 Although nominally criminal processes, these types of proceedings are, in reality, normally administrative in nature, and they rarely have a ‘significant’ impact on the rights of individuals. However, as surveillance technology develops, thanks to AI, there is a real likelihood that the scope of crimes punishable by way of automation will increase.7 In the United Kingdom, the government announced plans in 2017 that would enable defendants to enter guilty pleas via an online portal after viewing the charges and evidence against them, for a small number of minor offences.8 Under this procedure, known as ‘automatic online conviction’, defendants would be automatically convicted and fined without any judicial oversight if they accept the charges against them. Although it is debatable whether this system can truly be characterised as an AI system, it is an example of the automated administration of criminal justice, that replaces a function usually played by courts. It is worrying that the UK government has proposed expanding this scheme to other ‘non imprisonable’ offences, if itis regarded as a success.9Fair Trials has outlined concerns about expanding the scope of cases where accused persons can be convicted without judicial oversight, even if such procedures are reserved solely for minor, non-imprisonable offences.10 The impacts of a criminal conviction, even for a minor offence, can be numerous, long-term, and hard to predict, affecting inter alia job prospects, educational opportunities, and immigration status. It is crucial that what amounts to ‘legal effects’ and ‘similar significant effects’ concerning the data subject for the purposes of automated decision-making are interpreted very broadly.11 In particular, given that a criminal record always has a ‘legal’ or ‘significant’ effect, any automated decision-making process that directly results in a criminal record should be prohibited. AI systems should not undermine the right to be tried by an impartial and independent tribunal, and in line with existing EU laws, no individual should be subject to an automated decision that resultsin their being held in custody or detention, gives them a criminal record, or which determines a criminal sentence or sanction. No individual should be subject to an automated decision which engages their human rights without meaningful human input. Presumption of Innocence The right to be presumed innocent in criminal proceedings is a basic human right, and one that is expressly recognised in, and safeguarded by EU law under Directive 2016/343 (the ‘Presumption of Innocence Directive’).12 The increasing use of AI in the sphere of criminal justice, however, raises questions about the scope of this right, and how AI systems should be built and used to protect it. Concerns about how AI systems undermine the presumption of innocence have been voiced in the context of certain types of predictive policing software.13 A variety of predictive policing tools that aim to facilitate preventative policing measures and to deter crimes before they have taken place have been developed and deployed across Europe.14 Tools which predict the time and place where certain crimes are likely to take place have been used in many European countries. Similar tools have also been developed to identify potential suspects, which are used widely in the US, and now increasingly in Europe.15 An example is the ‘Strategic Subject List’ in Chicago, a police database of around 400,000 local residents who were assigned threat scores that determine the likelihood that they will commit crimes.16 The algorithms used to generate these scores were not open to the public, so the exact process by which individual risk levels were assessed were not known. Despite this lack of transparency, it is clear that threat scores generated by the software had significant impacts on individuals’ rights – in particular, their right to privacy. Individuals with higher threat scores were, for example, more likely to be subject to targeted police surveillance, or home visits – as though they were officially recognised as predisposed to commit crimes, irrespective of any credible suspicion of wrongdoing.17 The Strategic Subject List was decommissioned in January 2020 by the Chicago police who cited ineffectiveness as the primary reason for the decision.18 These types of predictive policing tools are now being used in Europe. In the United Kingdom, a coalition of police forces have been developing a system not dissimilar to the Strategic Subject List, that aims to identify individuals who are likely to commit crimes.19 Known as the National Data Analytics Solution (‘NDAS’), this risk assessment tool uses statistical analysis and machine-learning to inform policing decisions, and to facilitate ‘early interventions’ where appropriate.20 The sources of data that the system uses to conduct its risk assessments raise concerns that the system will be built to profile individuals on the basis of very sensitive, personal information, including stop and search data, data from social services, and the National Health Service.21 Where this data is used to indicate the likelihood of individuals’ criminality, it will inevitably flag up people whose profiles fit those who are over-represented in that data as being higher risk. It is particularly worrying that an individual might be profiled for policing purposes on the basis of their health conditions or their access to essential services, such as welfare or benefits. These factors should not be regarded as relevant factors for determining whether someone may commit criminal offences. Also in the UK, the Metropolitan Police in London operates a database called the Gangs Matrix, which contains information and risk-assessments on individuals who are alleged ‘gang’ members.22 This database was created using criminal justice data, including police and crime records. The Gangs Matrix and the assessments it produces assists policing decisions, including the deployment of stop and search, and further enforcement action, such as imprisonment and deportation. A further tactic resulting from the risk assessments made by the Gangs Matrix is the threat of eviction or exclusion from education, as names and details of these alleged gang members have been shared with education, healthcare and housing providers.23 In the Netherlands, the government has been running an algorithmic risk assessment tool, ProKid 12- SI, which purports to assess the risk of criminality of 12-year-old children since 2009.24 ProKid uses existing police data on these children, such as reports of where children have come into contact with the police, their addresses, information about their ‘living environment’, even including whether they are victims of violence, to identify them as being in one of four categories of ‘risk’ of committing crimes in future.25 The system assesses children based on their relationships with other people and their supposed risk levels, meaning that individuals can be deemed higher risk by being linked to another individual with a high risk assessment, such as a sibling or a friend.26 Parents’ assessed risk can also impact a child’s risk level. ProKid’s algorithms assess risks in relation to future actions that the children have not yet carried out, and judges them on the basis of the actions of others close to them.27 These risk assessments result in police ‘registering’ these children on their systems and monitoring them, and then referring them to youth ‘care’ services.28 ProKid frames children as potential perpetrators even when they are registered as victims of violence; which has serious implications on their presumption of innocence.29 Several similar tools are also used in the Netherlands, including the Reference Index for High Risk Youth, a large-scale risk assessment system that focuses on assessing under-23-year-olds.30 Predictive policing tools like NDAS, ProKid and the Gangs Matrix can be regarded as part of a broader trend in law enforcement that moves away from ‘reactive’ policing, and towards ‘preventative’ or ‘proactive’ policing.31 NDAS and other similar predictive policing tools intend to pursue legitimate objectives of preventing, or reducing harm,32 but there are serious concerns that these systems single out individuals as ‘pre-criminals’, who are subject to police interventions even though they are not formally suspected of any crime, and there is no evidence that they have done anything wrong.33 It is of further concern that these types of predictive policing tools do not necessarily designate individuals’ risk levels on the basis of their past actions, or behaviour that can be regarded as ‘suspicious’ in any way, but on account of factors far beyond their control, and immutable characteristics. In particular, there is strong evidence to suggest that AI systems have a tendency to overestimate the risks of criminality of certain ethnic and racial groups. For example, out of 3,800 people on the Gangs Matrix, 80% are 12-24 years old, and 78% of them are black – a clearly disproportionate and discriminatory proportion. The discriminatory impact of AI in criminal justice systems is discussed in further detail in the following section. Although predictive policing tools do not directly ‘convict’ people, they not only allow the police to treat legally innocent individuals as pseudo-criminals, but they can also result individuals being deprived of their basic rights with regard to education, housing, and other public services – effectively ‘punishing’ them on account of their profiles. This seriously damages the fundamental human rights principle that the matter of guilt or innocence can only be determined by means of a fair and lawful criminal justice process.34 While it is clear that certain types of predictive policing can infringe the presumption of innocence from a moral and ethical viewpoint, it is debatable whether these systems also violate the legal presumption of innocence under EU law and international human rights law. The Presumption of Innocence Directive applies to natural persons who are ‘suspects’ and ‘accused persons’, from the moment they are suspected or accused of a crime.35 However, there is some ambiguity about the exact stage at which an individual attains the status of a ‘suspect’ under the Presumption of Innocence Directive,36 and about whether the scope of the Presumption of Innocence Directive extends to decisions to designate an individual as a suspect (or a ‘pre-criminal’). On the other hand, the ECHR appears to have taken a clearer position that measures undertaken pre-charge, as a general rule, fall outside the scope of the presumption of innocence.37 It has also held that preventative measures, such as surveillance, do not amount to criminal sanctions for the purposes of Article 6 ECHR.38 Even if the current language on the presumption of innocence is such that it is not directly applicable to the predictive policing context, it must be recognised that these tools nevertheless interfere with human rights. In particular, the targeted surveillance that results from predictive policing has clear implications on the right to privacy. The acceptable degree to which criminal justice processes can interfere with this right is a matter that might require clearer articulation, as is the question of the impact of Article 8 ECHR violations on criminal proceedings. AI systems that inform charging decisions have also been developed and deployed. An example of this is the Harm Assessment Risk Tool (‘HART’) currently being used by Durham Constabulary in the United Kingdom. HART uses a machine-learning algorithm to assess a suspect’s risk of reoffending, using over thirty variables that characterise an individual’s criminal history and socio-demographic background. The risk assessments conducted by HART are used by the local police to determine whether an individual should be charged, or diverted into a rehabilitation programme. HART does not determine whether an individual is guilty or innocent, but its assessment can trigger a chain of events that can result in the deprivation of liberty, and/or a criminal conviction. Charging decisions should surely be based on the merits of individual cases, and it is difficult to imagine how decisions on entry into diversion programmes can be made by means other than a careful consideration of individual circumstances. These types of high impact, fact-sensitive decisions should never be delegated to automated processes, particularly those which operate by identifying correlations rather than causal links between an individual’s characteristics and their likely behaviour. An examination of HART also reveals flaws in how the tool is designed. HART is calibrated to err on the side of caution,39 because it regards under-estimations of risk levels as a more serious error than over-estimations, so that under-estimations occur less frequently. In other words, HART is deliberately designed to underestimate who is eligible for entry into the diversion programme, so it is predisposed to over-criminalise. This approach conflicts with the notion that any doubt in a criminal case should be interpreted in favour of the defendant (‘in dubio reo’).40 A human rights compliant approach to criminal justice decision-making would do the opposite of what HART does – it would need to err on the side of the defendant. AI systems should respect the presumption of innocence and they must be designed so that they do not pre-designate an individual as a criminal before trial, nor should they allow or assist the police to take unjustified, disproportionate measures against individuals without reasonable suspicion. AI systems that inform criminal justice outcomes should, as a general rule, favour outcomes that are favourable to the defendant. Equality of Arms A major concern raised in the studies of certain AI systems is that they are inaccessible for adequate scrutiny by defendants and their lawyers. This has serious implications for the principle of equality of arms and the right to an adversarial process, because without information about how a decision is made, it is difficult to envisage how defendants can question the accuracy and legality of the decision. The need for AI systems used in criminal justice to be transparent, explainable and understandable to all is addressed in more detail below. The Right to Liberty In the United States, ‘risk-assessment’ tools that use AI technology have been used to assist pre-trial assessments that determine whether a defendant should be released on bail, or held on remand pending their trial. Examples of risk-assessment tools currently being used in the United States include COMPAS, the Public Safety Assessment (‘PSA’), and the Federal Pre-Trial Risk Assessment Instrument (‘PTRA’). Many of these tools are also used to inform decisions on parole and sentencing. These tools have, however, been subject to intense criticism for several reasons. Studies have shown inter alia that risk assessments make inaccurate predictions that are no better than those made by non-expert humans. They do not result in a significant reduction in pre-trial detention rates, and that they produce disparate outcomes for different racial groups. The US-based NGO Partnership on AI has found that AI risk assessment tools currently being used in the United States are unfit for use in pre trial assessments, and it has recommended that policymakers cease the deployment of risk assessment tools until such time that the challenges affecting such tools have been adequately addressed.41 The adoption of pre-trial risk-assessments tools in the United States has largely been driven by the desire to address high imprisonment rates in the country by making pre-trial decision-making fairer. In particular, these tools have been promoted as an alternative to cash bail – a system often criticised for disadvantaging poorer defendants and worsening social injustices.42 Cash bail is a relatively rare concept in the EU, but there are concerns about the quality of pre-trial detention decisions in many Member States, which have been criticised for failing to carry out case-specific reviews and fully consider alternatives to detention.43 We are currently unaware of any attempts in EU Member States to introduce algorithmic risk assessments to supplement or replace existing pre-trial decision-making processes. However, it is possible that risk-assessment tools will also be recommended as a solution to address the pre-trial detention challenge in Europe, especially given that many of these tools are developed by private companies that actively market their products to governments and local police forces. Risk-assessment tools are usually designed to assess the likelihood of re-arrest, and/or of failure to turn up to court after being released based on the profiles of the defendant. Based on these assessments, risk assessment tools either assign risk levels to defendants, or they provide direct advice to decision-makers on whether or not the defendant should be released. There is only limited research about the extent to which pre-trial risk-assessment tools influence judges’ decisions in practice,44 but concerns have been raised about the ability of AI systems to recommend detention at all.45 There is a risk that recommendations made by AI systems to detain individuals compromise the presumption of release. This is a particularly valid concern in light of research suggesting that decision-makers have a tendency to err on the side of caution when they are ‘advised’ by AI systems, and that they have a greater propensity to override risk assessment tools to detain, rather than release defendants.46 Pre trial detention should always be a measure of last resort, and no risk-assessment can be regarded as human rights compliant, unless it recommends its users to consider detention as a measure of last resort, after all other alternatives have been fully considered. Pre-trial risk assessment tools in the United States and elsewhere have also been criticised for (unintentionally) over-estimating risks, because of the nature of the data used to train its algorithms. Pre-trialrisk assessment tools typically rely only on data regarding individuals who have been released, and they ignore those who were detained, but would have otherwise ‘succeeded’ by not being arrested, and by appearing in court.47 In other words, algorithms are based on the assumption that individuals who have been detained by courts in the past have been rightfully deprived of their liberty. Any AI system developed to assist pre-trial detention decision-making must be designed to give effect to the presumption in favour of release. This means that risk-assessment tools need to be deliberately calibrated to generate outcomes that favourable to the defendant. Data used to train the AI system should be carefully scrutinised so that it reflects the inevitable fact that a significant proportion of individuals in pre-trial detention have been deprived of their liberty in violation of their human rights. Studies of pre-trial risk-assessment tools used in the United States cast doubt on their effectiveness at reducing pre-trial detention rates, and their ability to make accurate predictions of risks. A study in Kentucky, for example, found that the likelihood of defendants being released within the first three days of their arrest went down after the risk-assessment tool was deployed, and that there were no significant changes in the number of re-arrests and failure-to-appear rates amongst defendants released on bail during the same period.48 This was the case even after the risk-assessment tool was modified post-deployment to improve the accuracy of predictions. Another study has found that the COMPAS risk-assessment tool is no better at predicting the likelihood of defendants reoffending than non-expert human volunteers.49 These studies do not necessarily prove that AI systems are incapable of reducing pre-trial detention rates at all, but they do raise questions about their usefulness, and they strongly challenge claims that algorithmic risk-assessment tools help to improve the quality of pre trial detention decisions. They also highlight the need for post-deployment testing and monitoring of AI systems, to ensure that they have the desired effect of ensuring that individuals are detained only as a measure of last resort. Post-trial assessment systems are also being increasingly used, for purposes such as assisting with sentencing decisions or prisoner release. In England and Wales, the Prison and Probation Service has developed and operates the Offender Assessment System (OASys), an automated risk-assessment tool.50 It assesses the risk of harm offenders pose to others and how likely an offender is to reoffend, as well as assessing offender needs. These risk assessments are used to decide ‘interventions’ and to influence the sentence plans given to offenders.51 Millions of these assessments have been carried out.52 The system collates information on offenders’ previous offences, education, training, employment, alcohol and drug misuse; as well as their ‘attitudes’, ‘thinking and behaviour’, ‘relationships’, and ‘lifestyle’.53 This data is used alongside the individual’s offending record and ‘offender demographic information’ to inform two predictive algorithms: OASys General Reoffending Predictor (OGP1) and OASys Violence Predictor (OVP1).54 A 2014 National Offender Management Service analysis found that the OGP1 and OVP1 generated different predictions based on race and gender. They found that relative predictive validity was better for white offenders than for Asian, black, or mixed ethnicity offenders. The Offender Group Reconviction Scale (OGRS) is another algorithmic risk assessment tool, which is used in England and Wales to assess and predict an offender’s likelihood of reoffending.55 The OGRS algorithm uses data on the individual’s official criminal history, as well as their age and gender, to produce a risk score between 0 and 1 of how likely an offender is to reoffend within one or two years. The use of these AI systems in a post-trial setting, and the documented differences in predictive outcomes based on, among other factors, race, highlight the clear need for strict testing and monitoring of such systems. These systems used in a post-trial setting could very easily be transferred to a pre-trial risk assessment setting; the principles and aims of these systems and the data used are very similar. For example, the COMPAS system, mentioned above and considered in more detail below, was originally designed as a recidivism risk assessment tool, and is also used as a pre-trial risk assessment tool. 56 Where AI systems inform decisions on the deprivations of liberty, they should be calibrated to generate outcomes that favour release, and they should not facilitate detention other than as a measure of last resort. AI systems must be subject to rigorous testing to ensure they have the desired effect of reducing rates of pre-trial detention rates. AI systems should be designed to be non-discriminatory One of the most frequent criticisms of AI systems and their use in criminal justice systems is that they can lead to discriminatory outcomes, especially along racial and ethnic lines. The best-known example of this is a study by the US media outlet ProPublica into COMPAS, a risk assessment tool designed to predict the likelihood of reoffending in Broward County in Florida. ProPublica found that COMPAS was 77% more likely to rate black defendants as ‘high-risk’ than white defendants, and it was almost twice as likely to mislabel white defendants as lower risk than black defendants.57 The dangers of the failure to adequately regulate the use of AI to prevent discrimination have also been witnessed in Europe. The ‘Crime Anticipation System’ (‘CAS’), a predictive policing software being used across the Netherlands, was initially designed to consider ethnicity as a relevant factor for determining the likelihood of a crime being committed. Amongst the indicators used by CAS to predict crimes in a particular area was the number of ‘non-Western allochtones’ in the area – in other words, ‘non-Western’ individuals with at least one foreign-born parent.58 The software not only presupposed the existence of a correlation between ethnicity and crime, but also singled out a category of ethnicities to be of particular concern, given that the presence of ‘Western’, ‘autochtone’ individuals were not used as indicators. Furthermore, given that ‘Western’ was defined somewhat subjectively (for example, including individuals of Japanese or Indonesian origin, and including all European nationalities, apart from Turkish), CAS incorporated highly questionable societal categorisations and biases. In the United Kingdom, a major criticism of HART has been that it included data collated and classified by a private company for marketing purposes that could very easily to biased outcomes. HART relied on the ‘Mosaic’ code developed by a consumer credit reporting company, that categorised individuals into various groups according to inter alia their ethnic origin, income, and education levels. It was of particular concern that some socio-demographic categories used by Mosaic were blatantly racialised, including, for example, ‘Asian Heritage’, which stereotyped individuals of ‘Asian’ origin as being unemployed or having low-paid jobs, and living with extended families.59 In Denmark, an automated algorithmic assessment has been used to classify different neighbourhoods, based on criteria such as unemployment, crime rates, educational attainment, and other ‘risk indicators’, as well as whether the levels of first and second-generation migrants in the population is more than 50%. Neighbourhoods which meet these criteria are classified as ‘ghettos’. These neighbourhoods are then subject to special measures, including higher punishments for crimes.60 It is clearly discriminatory, as well as entirely unfair, for people living in certain areas to be punished more severely than others in different areas for the same crimes. Further examples of criminal justice AI which have been identified as producing discriminatory outcomes include the previously mentioned OASys, NDAS and the Gangs Matrix in the UK, and the Netherland’s ProKid 12. These examples illustrate the need for regulations to ensure that AI systems are designed to be non discriminatory, and to exclude categorisations and classifications that deepen and legitimise social biases and stereotypes. However, policy makers should not assume that making AI systems blind to all protected characteristics will always help to produce non-discriminatory outcomes. In certain scenarios, the removal of protected characteristics from the data could worsen discrimination. For example, it has been suggested on the basis of research into COMPAS in the United States, that excluding gender as a variable for risk assessments would fail to reflect a well-established statistical fact that in most countries, women are less likely to reoffend than men.61 Making COMPAS gender blind would unfairly and inaccurately assume women to be as equally likely to reoffend as men, and discriminate against them by overestimating their risk scores. Removing visible biases from AI systems cannot be the sole or primary solution to their discriminatory impact, because AI systems can be biased even if they have not been deliberately designed in that way. Bias is often unintentional, and even if the AI system appears on the surface to be neutral, their algorithms can lead to discriminatory assessments and outcomes. COMPAS, for example, does not include race or ethnicity as a variable, yet research has found that it consistently gives black defendants higher risk scores than their white counterparts, making them less likely to be released from detention.62 Hidden biases can arise in AI systems in numerous ways. Although a comprehensive analysis of how they can cause unintentional biases are beyond the scope of this paper,63 the way in which AI systems are themselves created and built illustrate the difficulty, complexity, and sometimes impossibility, in preventing discriminatory outputs and effects of AI systems. There are fundamental issues with the way AI systems are designed and created which can lead to bias. Where the AI system is based on machine-learning, biases can result from faults in the data that is used to train its algorithms. Machine learning systems ‘learn’ how to make assessments or decisions on the basis of their analysis of data to which they have previously been exposed. However, the data used to train a machine learning system might be incomplete, inaccurate, or selected for improper reasons, and this could lead to AI systems producing unwanted outcomes. What amounts to appropriate, good quality data for the purpose of training algorithms depends on what the machine learning system is being designed to do,64 so it might not always be obvious which dataset is needed to train algorithms to be non-discriminatory. AI designed or created for use in the criminal justice system will almost inevitably use data which is heavily reliant on, or entirely from within, the criminal justice system itself, such as policing or crime records. This data does not represent an accurate record of criminality, but is merely a record of policing – the crimes, locations and groups that are policed within that society, rather than the actual occurrence of crime. The data might not be categorised or deliberately manipulated to yield discriminatory results, but it may reflect the structural biases and inequalities in the society which the data represents. Where there are discriminatory policing patterns targeting certain demographics, or the systematic under-reporting and systematic over-reporting of certain types of crime and in certain locations,65 the use of such data merely results in a reinforcing and re-entrenching of those inequalities and discriminationin criminal justice outcomes. For example, according to UK crime data, black people are over 9 times more likely to be stopped and searched than white people,66 and black men are more than 3 times more likely to be arrested than white men.67 Despite these statistics, NDAS (mentioned above) in the United Kingdom explicitly relies on stop and search data to determine an individual’s propensity to commit a criminal offence. The fact that stop and search is disproportionately used against black people means that there will inevitably be an overrepresentation of black people in NDAS and that their risk levels will be inflated in comparison to white people. Comparable statistics on stop and search are not available in most EU Member States, where the official collection of racially disaggregated criminal justice data is either forbidden by law, or not standard practice. However, recent studies show that racially biased policing practices are prevalent throughout the EU. Data collected from a survey by the Fundamental Rights Agency, for example, has shown that during a 5-year period, 66% of individuals of Sub-Saharan African origin in Austria, and over half of respondents of South Asian origin in Greece were stopped and searched.68 AI built on data embedded with such biases and used to assist, inform, or make decisions in the criminal justice system, can expand and entrench the biases represented in the data.69 When AI systems result in criminal justice outcomes which repeat the discrimination inherent in the historic data, such as targeting individuals from a particular demographic, that decision will itself be preserved in the data. This leads to self-perpetuating ‘feedback loops’ which reinforce patterns of inequality.70 Another way in which AI systems can produce unintentional biases is by way of proxies. Data used by AI systems might be classified in seemingly legitimate ways, but those classifications can sometimes act as proxies for protected characteristics. A common example used to illustrate this point is how home addresses or postcodes can be proxies for race or ethnicity.71 Certain AI systems, such as HART, were initially trained to find correlations between home addresses and the risk of reoffending – in other words, to identify which postcode areas have ‘higher-risk’ residents than others.72 This approach overlooks the fact that there is very pronounced ethnic residential segregation in many countries,73 making it highly probable in practice, for AI systems to inadvertently establish a link between ethnic origin and risk. Roma are especially vulnerable to this form of proxy discrimination, given that in many EU Member States, Roma are reported to live primarily in segregated areas inhabited mostly or exclusively by Roma.74 There are several ways in which AI systems can be designed to mitigate the risks of discrimination, including by identifying and excluding data classifications that act as proxies for protected characteristics.75 However, it can be difficult in practice to identify which variables are proxies for protected characteristics (and how they do so), and removing too many ‘offending’ variables might result in the AI system losing much of its functional utility.76 There is no one-size-fits-all method of ensuring that AI systems do not produce discriminatory outcomes. Different approaches to de-biasing AI systems can conflict with one another, and the suitability of a particular de-biasing method might depend on the AI tool itself, and the legal and policy context in which it is designed to operate.77 Biases in AI systems are often not easy to detect and, in many cases, it might also be difficult to pinpoint flaws either in the system itself, or in the training data that has been caused the bias. The structural bias within the data that AI systems are built and operated on, a bias which is particularly deep-rooted in criminal justice data, is a fundamental issue, and one which is likely to result in AI systems being fundamentally inoperable – both because the bias makes them morally and ethically inoperable, if not yet legally, and because any attempts to remove the bias will make the data to operate these systems unusable. Fair Trials’ view is that the only effective way in which AI systems can be regarded as non discriminatory is if they have been subject to rigorous independent testing for biases. These tests must be mandated by law, must be independently run, have clearly stated aims or objectives, and be carried out pre-deployment to reduce the likelihood of individuals being affected by discriminatory profiling and decisions. AI can be tested in advance of deployment by using test data – datasets which are either synthetic datasets,78 or by using historic data with permissions – running it through an AI system, and analysing the outputs.79 For example, a trial of retrospective facial recognition video analysis is being run by a police oversight Ethics Committee in the UK. The trial is using historic data – CCTV footage – as the basis for simulated investigations in a controlled environment, monitored by researchers. The trial has clearly stated aims and signifiers of success, and all outcomes will be examined. There are significant human rights, data protection and ethical concerns involved with this particular technology, including the right to privacy, and the testing is not being conducted independently as it should be but, as above, there are positive aspects of the testing methodology.80 An alternative could be to ‘test’ a system in a strictly academic sense by running it alongside actual criminal justice processes, but with the system not having any effect on decision-making, and analysing the system’s proposed decisions or outcomes for bias. AI should never be used or even ‘tested’ in real-world situations where they have actual effects on individuals or criminal justice outcomes, before they have been tested. These types of tests also need to be carried out in the broader context of an AI governance framework that not only analyses the potential impact of the AI system pre-deployment, but also continues to monitor its impact afterwards. If these tests are not carried out, and/or if an AI system cannot be proven to be non-discriminatory, it should be legally precluded from deployment. However, as explained in the final section of this paper, it is questionable whether such tests are feasible in many Member States, where local laws prohibit the collection of racially-disaggregated data. AI systems should be developed to generate non-discriminatory outcomes, ensuring that suspects and accused persons are not disadvantaged, either directly or indirectly, on account of their protected characteristics, including race or ethnicity. AI systems should be subject to mandatory testing before and after deployment so that any discriminatory impact can be identified and addressed. If an AI system cannot be proven not to generate discriminatory outcomes, it should not be used. AI Systems need to be transparent and explainable AI systems can have a significant influence over criminal justice decisions, and they should be open to public scrutiny in the same way that all decision-making processes by public entities should be. However, a common criticism of many AI systems is that they lack transparency, which often makes it difficult, if not outright impossible, to subject them to meaningful impartial analysis and criticism. This lack of transparency is both as a result of deliberate efforts to conceal the inner workings of AI systems for legal or profit-driven reasons, and of the nature of the technology used to build AI systems that is uninterpretable for most, if not all humans. There are several reasons why it is necessary for AI systems to be transparent. Firstly, transparency is essential for strengthening confidence of both primary users of the system, as well as the general public, in AI systems. Democratic values demand that the public needs to be aware of how powerful public institutions, such as the police and the judiciary, operate so that they can be held accountable for their actions. It is also crucial for primary users of AI systems to understand how they work, so that they can make informed decisions about how much influence they should have on criminal justice decisions. Secondly, decisions made by AI systems need to be contestable at an individual level. Standards on the right to a fair trial and the right to liberty demand that defendants should have access to materials that inform decisions regarding them, so that they can challenge the accuracy and lawfulness of those decisions. Transparency also acts as a safeguard against bias and inaccuracies. It is difficult to imagine how issues that undermine the fairness and accuracies of AI systems (such as racial biases) can be detected, and ultimately fixed, if they cannot be properly accessed and analysed. As explained above, certain AI systems, such as CAS, have been found to have serious, but very obvious, flaws. In CAS’s case, however, the fault in the software could be detected easily, which meant that the discriminatory impact of the tool could be mitigated. The indicator for ‘non-Western allochtones’ in CAS was removed in 2017,81 ostensibly because it served no useful purpose, but presumably also because of the very obvious bias. This mitigation was possible because CAS is a transparent software, that was developed in-house by the Dutch police. The types of indicators used to predict crime were made openly available, and information about the method by which the software made predictions could easily be accessed and understood.82 This, however, is not the case for all AI systems, because AI systems are often developed by for-profit companies with little to no meaningful input from the public. As such, details of how they are designed, and how they make decisions and assessments are, in many cases, closely guarded as trade secrets that are protected by law.83 Often, AI systems are ‘black boxes’ because they are deliberately kept that way. While it is accepted that strong, enforceable intellectual property laws are needed to promote advancements in what is a very dynamic field of scientific research and innovation, it is not acceptable that these concerns trump the rights of individuals suspected or accused of crimes. In light of this, it is concerning that the Commission’s White Paper focuses on, and strongly promotes, the concept of a ‘partnership between the private and the public sector’ in relation to AI.84 Fair Trials appreciates that effective public-private collaboration could help to fill in gaps in public sector expertise and capacity for the development of AI systems, but given the transparency challenges, it is essential thatsuch partnerships are accompanied by robust regulations and rules that ensure effective and open scrutiny. However, even if AI systems are completely exposed to public scrutiny, and their source code85 and input data, for example, are openly disclosed, there is still no guarantee that they will be sufficiently transparent to enable adequate independent scrutiny. AI systems can be black boxes by nature of the technology that makes their decision-making processes complicated beyond comprehension for most (in some cases, too complicated even for computer scientists to understand).86 This is especially the case where AI systems are based on machine-learning algorithms. One possible reason for the unintelligibility of AI systems is that they sometimes use machine-learning algorithms that are simply too complex to be understood to a reasonable degree of precision.87 This is especially the case where AI systems incorporate ‘Deep Neural Networks’ – a machine-learning algorithmic architecture inspired by the structure and mechanics of human brains. Rather than relying on a set of man-made instructions, these types of AI systems make decisions based on experience and learning. Decision-making processes of this kind have been described to be ‘intuitive’, because they do not follow a defined logical method, making it impossible to analyse the exact process by which a particular decision is reached.88 It has also been suggested that some AI systems are uninterpretable to humans because the machine-learning algorithms that support them are able to identify and rely on geometric relationships that humans cannot visualise. Certain machine-learning algorithms are able to make decisions by analysing many variables at once, and by finding correlations and geometric patterns between them in ways that are beyond the capabilities of human brains.89 Given these challenges, there is widespread recognition that states should require AI systems to not only be ‘transparent’, but also explainable and intelligible.90 GDPR already recognises that individuals should have the right to an explanation of how a decision was reached, if they have been subject to an automated decision.91 In principle, this is an essential and very useful requirement, but it is also one that seems difficult to implement in practice, given that both ‘explainability’ and intelligibility are highly subjective concepts. Arguably, AI systems’ computing processes are inherently difficult to explain and understand for most people, including for most criminal justice decision-makers, but this surely should not be the sole basis for oversimplifying the technology, or for banning the use of AI outright. Computer scientists have been theorising different ways of ensuring that decisions made through complex algorithms can be explained and understood. An example is the ‘explainable AI’ movement (‘xAI’) that aims to build AI systems that can show more discernible links between inputted data and decisions. xAI systems measure how each input influences the final decision, so it is possible figure out how much weight is given to each input.92 This seems to be an innovative response to the ‘black box’ challenge, establishing clearer, more helpful relationships between inputs and final decisions. However, it appears to fall short of explaining what happens between data being inputted into the system and the final decision, and it does not enable users to impute any logic to the decision-making process.93 As explained above, there are various reasons why AI systems need to be transparent and intelligible, but the effective of exercise of the rights of the defence must be recognised as a crucial test for determining whether an AI system is sufficiently explainable and intelligible. AI systems have to be designed in a way that allows criminal defendants to understand and contest the decision made against them. Partnership for AI has suggested that a central factor that determines the contestability of AI systems is the possibility of carrying out an audit trail of the AI decision.94 In particular, it has to be possible for an auditor to follow and reproduce the process and come to the same conclusion reached by the AI system at the end. Furthermore, as explained in further detail below, criminal justice procedures should require the full disclosure of all aspects of AI systems that are necessary for suspects and accused persons to contest their findings, and this disclosure should be in a form which is understandable to a layperson, without the need for technical or expert assistance. AI systems need to be transparent and explainable, so they can be understood and scrutinised by their primary users, suspects and accused persons, as well as the general public. Commercial or proprietary interests, or technical concerns, should never be a barrier to transparency. AI systems must be designed in a way that allows criminal defendants to understand and contest the decision made against them. It should be possible to carry out an independent audit, and processes should be reproducible. Part 2: Safeguards for the use of AI Systems in Criminal Proceedings AI systems have to be built in accordance with human rights principles, and to give effect to human rights in practice, but it is unlikely that their design alone will guarantee that they are used in ways that comply with human rights. Regulatory frameworks for the design and deployment of AI systems have to be accompanied by appropriate legal safeguards that ensure they are used responsibly and lawfully. There are two primary questions that need to be addressed: 1) how procedural rules ensure that decision-makers do not over-rely on AI systems; and 2) how decisions and assessments made by AI systems can be analysed independently and challenged. Combatting ‘Automation Bias’ and Reinforcing Meaningful Human Input One of the main challenges of automated, or semi-automated decision-making systems is that of ‘automation bias’ – the tendency to over-rely on automation in ways that can cause errors in decision making. Automation bias occurs primarily due to the perception that automated decision-making processes are generally trustworthy and reliable. Automated cues have been found to be particularly salient to decision-makers, and research has shown that users of automated decision-making systems have a tendency to place greater weight on automated assessments over other sources of advice.95 The disproportionate influence of automated systems can undermine the quality of decision-making, by discouraging its users from consulting a wider range of factors that could inform more accurate decisions. Most AI systems currently being used to assist criminal justice decision-making do not completely replace human decision-making. They are instead designed and deployed to be used as decision aids, whose outputs are factored into consideration for the purposes of human decision-making. The phenomenon of automation bias however, raises questions about whether AI systems are being used in reality in accordance with their intended purpose as decision aids, and not as de facto replacements for human decision-making processes. There is strong evidentiary basis for automation bias amongst pilots who, like judges and other decision-makers in criminal justice proceedings, have typically been through a high level of training to make appropriate decisions in highly complex settings.96 However, limited research into automation bias amongst judges suggests that AI systems might have a more complex impact on judges’ behaviour. For example, a study conducted in 2019 in Kentucky seems to suggest that the degree to which judges rely on predictive tools for pre-trial detention decision-making could be influenced by the ethnicity of the defendant.97 The research indicates that judges had a greater tendency to rely on algorithmic risk assessments where the defendant was white, whereas in cases where the defendant was black, judges were more likely to overrule the risk-assessment in favour of detaining them. This study appears to show that AI systems can influence judges’ behaviour in unpredictable ways, especially where there are interactions or conflicts between automation and human biases, and that AI systems might be an ineffective tool for challenging human prejudices. It is crucial that rules governing the use of AI systems in criminal proceedings actively try to counter automation bias, and to encourage decision-makers to make independent determinations. A simple requirement to have a human decision-maker ‘in the loop’ or to have a human decision-maker review or check the automated decision is insufficient, because this risks overestimating the capacity or willingness of human decision-makers to question and overrule automated decisions. A mere requirement to have an automated decision reviewed by a human, on its own, could reduce the human review into a rubber-stamping exercise which, in practice, is no oversight at all. In recognition of this challenge, the European Data Protection Board has recommended that in order for decisions to be regarded as not ‘based solely’ on automated processing for the purposes of Article 22 GDPR, there has to be ‘meaningful’ human oversight, rather than just a token gesture.98 What qualifies as ‘meaningful’ intervention is open to interpretation, and it is likely to differ depending on the circumstances and the type of decision being made. In the context of criminal justice procedures, where decisions often have particularly severe and far-reaching implications for individuals’ rights, safeguards for ensuring meaningful human intervention have to be especially robust. Procedural safeguards that ensure ‘meaningful’ human oversight Rules governing the use of AI systems in criminal justice proceedings have to counter automation bias by encouraging human decision-makers to treat their processes with scepticism, and to force them to challenge and scrutinise the outcomes of algorithmic assessments. Procedural safeguards that can be put in place to tackle automation bias include: a) making it a legal requirement for decision-makers to be adequately alerted and informed about the risks associated with AI systems; b) making AI systems’ assessments intelligible to decision-makers; c) requiring decision-makers to provide full, individualised reasoning for all decisions influenced by an AI system; and d) making it easier for decision-makers to overrule AI assessments that produce unfavourable outcomes for defendants. One way of ensuring that automated assessments and decisions do not have undue influence on judicial decisions might be to ensure that decision-makers are sufficiently informed and alerted about the risks of relying on AI systems. This seems to be the approach taken by the Wisconsin Supreme Court in the United States in the case of Loomis,99 in which the Court considered whether or not the use of the COMPAS risk assessment tool for sentencing purposes violated due process rights. The judgment in Loomis recognises the importance of procedural safeguards as a way of safeguarding fairness of decisions, by requiring the use of ‘written advisements’ to alert decision-makers about the potential risks of AI risk assessments. Specifically, the court mandated that these advisements had to include warnings that: a) the process by which the COMPAS produces risk scores were not disclosed due to its ‘proprietary nature’; b) the accuracy of risk scores are undermined by the fact that COMPAS relied on group data; c) the risk-assessment tool had never been tested locally for accuracy; d) ‘questions’ have been raised about the discriminatory effect of COMPAS risk-assessments; and e) COMPAS was developed to inform post-sentencing decisions, but not sentencing decisions themselves. These warnings are clearly very specific to COMPAS and the context in which it is used in Wisconsin. If similar safeguards were adopted in different contexts and with regard to different AI systems, advisements will no doubt need to be adapted. The warnings used in Loomis have, however, been criticised because they do not give enough information to decision-makers to enable them to appreciate the degree to which these risk-assessments should be discounted.100 In particular, the advisements are silent on the strength of the criticisms against COMPAS, and they say nothing about the basis on which questions about their discriminatory effect have been raised.101 These warnings also give no indication about likely margin of error of the assessment, so although judges are informed that some assessments might be inaccurate, they are not in a position to appreciate how serious or frequent these errors might be. ‘Advisements’, or warnings that encourage decision-makers to be sceptical of AI systems cannot be considered as effective safeguards, unless they contain sufficiently helpful information for decision makers. However, even if judges are given stronger warnings than those in the Loomis advisements, it is still doubtful whether they alone will adequately mitigate automation bias. One reason for this is that many criminal justice decisions (such as pre-trial detention decisions) are, in practice, made very routinely by judges. Although written advisements might initially help judges think more critically about automated risk assessments, over time, these advisements could become repetitive and routine, and lose much of the intended meaning and effect.102 An effective safeguard that could work in conjunction with mandatory warnings could be for decision makers to be given a better insight into how AI systems produce a particular assessment or calculation. As mentioned above, the lack of information about how assessments are made by AI systems makes it harder for criminal defendants to scrutinise and challenge them. Surely, this has to be true also for decision-makers. It is much harder, if not impossible, to analyse and criticise decisions if there is no reasoning behind them. While AI systems do not rely on ‘reasoning’ per se, information given to decisions about how a specific assessment was made, including what factors were relevant, and how much weight was given to each factor could give decision-makers more confidence to decide whether to agree or disagree with an AI-generated decision. Decisions or assessments made by AI systems cannot be the sole basis of criminal justice decisions – they should be no more than a factor that can influence human-decision making. As such, decision makers should be required to show that decisions were influenced by a broader range of factors other than the AI system, by way of fully reasoned, case-specific, written decisions. Research has shown that the lack of case-specific reasoning in pre-trial detention decisions is already a serious challenge in many EU Member States,103 and AI systems risk worsening the standardisation of such decision making processes. Where AI systems are used to inform pre-trial detention decisions, or any other criminal justice decision that has a significant impact on the rights of the defendant, reasoned decisions must be specific to the defendant’s case, and in particular, they must reveal what which factors influenced the decision, and to what degree. In particular, decisions have to make it clear how much weight was given to assessments by AI systems. It is also crucial that decision-makers are able to override decisions made by AI systems, and that they are confident about doing so where the tool produces assessments or recommendations that are unfavourable to the defendant (e.g. where the AI system advises against releasing the defendant). It has been reported that members of the police force in Avon and Somerset Police in the United Kingdom are expected to record incidences where they have disagreed with assessments made by a predictive policing tool, and to explain their reasons for the disagreement.104 This is likely to act as a strong disincentive for overriding decisions made by the AI system, and as such, it actively facilitates automation bias. Furthermore, it seems to interfere with the presumption of innocence by making it difficult for decision-makers to override AI systems to make decisions that favour the defendant. If an AI system recommends the arrest or the detention of an individual, decision-makers should feel that they have a genuine choice of overruling the AI system, and not be pressured into compliance. Criminal justice decision-making processes should, as a general rule, be skewed in favour of the defence to give effect to the presumption of innocence, and rules governing the use of AI systems should favour favourable outcomes for defendants. On the other hand, in cases where a decision-maker acts against the advice of an AI system that recommends a favourable outcome for the defendant, there should be a requirement for reasons to be given for their decision. This is to prevent unfavourable outcomes for defendants that are motivated by improper reasons, and to mitigate the risk of unconscious bias. Challenging AI in criminal proceedings AI systems need to be contestable by criminal defendants. This is so that they can not only challenge the outcomes of the AI systems’ calculations and analyses, but also scrutinise the legality of their use. In other words, being able to challenge AI systems in criminal proceedings is not only a procedural fairness requirement for defendants, it is also a means by which legal standards governing AI systems and their use can be enforced. One of the major issues preventing the sufficient contestability of AI systems in criminal proceedings is the lack of notification. If an individual is not notified that they have been subject to an automated decision by an AI system, they will not have the ability to challenge that decision, or the information that the decision was based on. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Data Protection Act 2018 sets out the applicability of the GDPR and sets out the UK’s interpretations of the GDPR’s requirements and safeguards. However, section 14 of the Data Protection Act significantly dilutes the requirements of Article 22 of the GDPR, permitting purely automated decisions which have legal or similar significant effects on a data subject, without their consent, as long as the data subject is subsequently notified that a purely automated decision has been taken about them, after the decision has been made. It is only then that the data subject has the opportunity to request a new decision. However, it has been reported that individuals subject to decisions by the HART system in the UK are not notified at all that they have been subject to such an automated decision, even after it has been made.105 This is likely because under the Data Protection Act 2018, automated decisions which have legal or similar significant effects on a subject are not necessarily classified as ‘purely automated’ if a human has administrative input. In order to meet this requirement, the human input can be as minimal as checking a box to accept the automated-decision, even if it has a significant impact on an individual, such as holding them in custody. This minimal requirement for human requirement means that, in practice, decisions made with negligible to no meaningful human input can be classified as not “purely automated” and there is no legal requirement to notify and ability to request a new decision. In this way, systems such as HART continue to be used, with people subject to their decisions completely uninformed. While the GDPR already requires the notification of individuals affected by automated decisions, the UK’s experience with HART highlights the need for stricter rules to not only ensure meaningful human input (as mentioned above), but to also strengthen the individual’s right to be notified. There must be a requirement for individuals to be notified, not just for “purely automated” decisions, but whenever there has been an automated decision-making system involved, assistive or otherwise, that has or may have impacted a criminal justice decision. This notification should include clear and comprehensible information about the decision that has been taken, how that decision was reached, including details of the information or data involved in reaching that decision, what the result or outcomes of the decision are, and what effects, legal or otherwise they have, and information on how to challenge that decision. As discussed in the previous section, a further major barrier to the contestability of AI systems is a technical one. The ‘black box’ nature of certain AI systems can be largely attributed to their design, so it is important that there are rules governing the interpretability of these systems so that when they are in use, their processes can be understood at all. However, there are also legal barriers to the full disclosure of AI systems, which are often put in place to protect commercial interests. Procedural safeguards play a particularly important and effective role in addressing these types of opacity challenges. Transparency is a fundamental aspect of an adversarial process that underpins the right to a fair trial, and human rights standards require that as a general rule defendants should be given unrestricted access to their case-file,106 and to be given the opportunity to comment on the evidence used against them.107 These standards are further reinforced by Directive 2012/13/EU,108 which requires Member States to grant access to all material evidence in possession of the competent authorities to the defence to safeguard the fairness of the proceedings and to enable defendants to prepare their defence.109 The procedural requirement of an adversarial process is not one that is limited to substantive criminal proceedings – it also applies in the context of pre-trial decision-making processes, especially for decisions on the deprivation of liberty.110 While EU law and international human rights law also recognise that there might be certain justifications for non-disclosure of materials used against the defendant in criminal proceedings, these are narrow restrictions, and commercial interests are not regarded as a valid justification for non-disclosure.111 Furthermore, EU law does not explicitly recognise any derogations from the right of access to materials that are essential to challenging the lawfulness of an arrest or detention.112 In order for Member States to comply with these standards, any exceptions to the disclosure of information regarding AI systems have to be applied very narrowly. Barriers to scrutiny and accountability of AI systems are not only legal, but also technical. As explained in previous sections, many AI systems suffer from interpretability issues because of their design and by the nature of the machine-learning technology upon which they rely. In the absence of specific expertise on AI, it is difficult to imagine how, in practice, defendants and their lawyers will be able to challenge AI systems. One possible solution to this challenge, as explained below, is training for defence lawyers – but it is unreasonable to expect lawyers to develop expertise that would enable them to analyse and scrutinise AI systems at a technical level. A further solution could be that defence lawyers have access to the relevant expertise from suitably qualified professionals. However, in reality, not all criminal suspects and accused persons are able to access the legal and other technical assistance needed to understand and challenge technically complex AI systems, for financial or other practical reasons. It would also be unreasonable and unrealistic to require all suspects and accused persons to engage technical expertise just to be able to understand how an AI system makes a decision, especially where AI systems are used routinely or mandatorily to make or assist criminal justice decisions. It might seem unreasonable to expect all highly technical evidence to be challengeable by lay defendants without the help of a suitable expert. However, AI systems are not necessarily used in criminal proceedings as ‘evidence’, and in practice they could be an integral part of a decision-making process, or even a replacement for it. As such, it is essential that the ‘reasoning’ of AI systems are made known to suspects and accused persons, similarly to how judicial decisions must contain “sufficient reasoning and address specific features of a given case”, especially where they concern the deprivation of liberty.113 Decision-making processes of AI systems and the way in which it has produced an outcome in a particular case should thus be disclosed to suspects and accused persons, in a form that is intelligible to a layperson. Individuals should not need to rely on experts to simply understand how a decision affecting them was made. While there will inevitably be scenarios where defendants would need expertise to challenge an AI-assisted decision, but these cases should be the exception, rather than the norm, for whenever an AI system is used. Criminal justice procedures should require the notification to suspects and accused persons where an AI system has been used which has or may have impacted a decision made about that individual. Procedures should enable the full disclosure of all aspects of AI systems that are necessary for suspects and accused persons to contest their findings. Disclosure should be in a form which is comprehensible to a layperson, without the need for technical or expert assistance, and suspects and accused persons should also be given effective access to technical experts who can help to analyse and challenge otherwise incomprehensible aspects of AI systems. Training AI systems use technology not well understood by many people. Without proper training, outputs of AI systems might not be easy to interpret, and it might be difficult to appreciate which factors undermine the reliability of AI systems, so that appropriate weight can be attached to their findings. As mentioned above, decision-makers can be warned about the weaknesses of AI systems as part of their decision-making process, but the effectiveness of this safeguard can be questioned, because it is unlikely to provide decision-makers with all the information they need, and there is no guarantee that the warnings will be taken seriously in all cases. Training is not just needed for the primary users of AI systems, such as judges and police officers who use them to inform their own decisions. The training must also be available criminal defence lawyers, so that they are in a better position to challenge AI systems, where necessary. If AI systems are used routinely to aid criminal justice decisions or even made mandatory (as is the case in certain states in the United States), there would be strong justification for governing bodies to make training on AI mandatory for criminal justice practitioners. Part 3: Governance and Monitoring Criminal justice processes are an important enforcement mechanism for ensuring that AI systems are designed and used lawfully, but they cannot be the sole, or even the primary means of implementing legal and ethical standards. Of equal, if not greater importance is a framework that ensures that policy decisions on the design and deployment of AI systems are made in systematised way, and that unlawful or harmful AI systems never enter into public service. Member States that deploy AI systems for criminal justice purposes should have regulatory mechanisms that are fit for purpose. At a minimum, these should include frameworks for: a) pre-deployment impact assessments; b) post deployment monitoring and evaluations; and c) collection of data needed for effective comparative analysis. Pre-Deployment Both the GDPR and LED recognise the need for AI systems to be analysed before they are deployed, so that they comply with existing regulatory and human rights standards. Under Article 35 GDPR, Member States are required to carry out a ‘Data Protection Impact Assessment’ (‘DPIA’) for data processing systems that carry out ‘a systematic and extensive evaluation of personal aspects relating to natural persons which is based on automated processing, including profiling and on which decision are based that produce legal effects concerning the natural person or similarly significantly affect the natural person’. The corresponding provision in the LED is Article 27, which similarly calls for DPIAs to be carried out where processing of data is likely to result in a ‘high risk to the rights and freedoms of natural persons’. DPIAs under both laws have to carry out inter alia an assessment of the possible impact of the data processing system on the rights or individuals, and they need to mention what measures will be in place to ensure that their rights are properly protected. DPIAs help to address a serious accountability challenge, but EU laws do not provide sufficiently helpful standards on how they should be conducted. Article 27 LED does not lay down minimum requirements for how DPIAs should be carried out. On the other hand, there are aspects of Article 35 GDPR which, if used to guide how DPIAs should be conducted for AI systems used in criminal justice, would raise concerns. The foremost challenge is the level of transparency mandated by the GDPR. DPIAs are envisaged largely as internal processes led by the data controller, who may seek the opinions of data subjects (such as members of the public or their representatives), where it is ‘appropriate’ to do so. The GDPR also explicitly recognises that the requirement to seek the views of data subject is ‘without prejudice to the protection of commercial interests’.114 As outlined above, transparency is a key aspect of a fair criminal justice system and, as a general rule, all criminal justice decision-making processes need to be open to public scrutiny. There is no reason why AI systems should be exempt from this requirement and, given that administration of criminal justice is a matter of strong public interest, the public should have the right to voice their opinions and raise objections whenever AI systems impact criminal justice processes. Also, given the highly technical nature of AI systems, and their (as yet) poorly understood impact on society, impact assessments must have multi-disciplinary expert engagement. 115 In particular, DPIAs should always involve independent experts (computer scientists, in particular) who can audit, analyse, and if possible, ‘explain’ AI systems, so that they can help legal, policy and social science experts to determine the likely implications for the individuals’ rights. For public and expert consultations to be meaningful and effective, sufficient information should be made available to interested parties so that the AI system can be thoroughly understood and researched. Partnership on AI has recommended that for criminal justice risk-assessment tools, training datasets,116 architectures and algorithms of AI systems should be made available to ensure meaningful scrutiny.117 Commercial interests should not be regarded as a legitimate ground for limiting the disclosure of this information. Secondly, Article 35 GDPR allows data controllers to carry out a single DPIA ‘for a set of similar processing operations that present similar high risks’. There is a danger that this provision could be interpreted too broadly if Member States are given free rein to determine what two systems can be regarded as sufficiently ‘similar’. There are risks in assuming that an AI system well-suited for use in a particular context or within a particular geographic area will be equally useful in another. AI systems built using data from one jurisdiction might not be able to reflect differences in, for example, law enforcement culture and patterns of behaviour, laws and policies, and socio-demographic characteristics of another jurisdiction.118 Sometimes, these differences can be seen in the same country or even within the same region. For example, a study of ‘PRECOBS’ a predictive policing tool used in Baden-Wurttemberg in Germany, found significant differences in predictive utility between rural and urban areas.119 Finally, DPIAs seem to require data controllers to theorise the possible impact of AI systems, but there is no strict requirement for AI systems to be subject to testing or auditing before, or immediately after deployment. This overlooks the fact that flaws in AI systems, including unintentional biases, are not always easily detectable, and that they might only surface once the system is put into operation. As discussed earlier, the causes of biases in AI systems can be difficult to identify, and it is difficult to appreciate how, short of thorough testing, the true impact of AI decisions can be known. In New York, the AI Now Institute has proposed an alternative model for impact assessments, known as ‘Algorithmic Impact Assessments’ (‘AIAs’).120 The AIA framework sets out in detail how public authorities should conduct impact assessments of AI systems, and it can be contrasted with the provisions of the GDPR in that AIAs place much greater emphasis on the need for community engagement and consultations with external experts. This framework could serve as a useful guide for Member States seeking to establish pre-deployment procedures for approving AI systems. AI systems should not be deployed unless they have undergone an independent public impact assessment with the involvement of appropriate experts, that is specific both to the purpose for which the AI system is deployed, and the locality where it is deployed. AI systems must be tested for impact pre-deployment, and systems should be precluded from deployment until they have undergone this testing and achieved minimum standards, such as non-discrimination. Post-Deployment Impact assessments of AI systems should not be regarded as ‘one-off’ processes. They have to be followed up with ongoing post-deployment monitoring and evaluation, so that the longer-term impact of AI systems can be understood, and shortcomings and biases that affect the rights of individuals can be identified and fixed. The ability of AI systems to deliver fair and just outcomes, and to meet policy objectives can be difficult to predict from the outset. Although AI systems can be validated and tested prior to deployment to check if they are likely to produce desired outcomes, their impact in the real world might be different. Furthermore, even if the likely outputs of AI systems can be predicted, it is much harder to estimate the likely impact they will have on human decision-making.121 Further reviews of AI systems are also necessary because criminal justice systems and the societies in which they operate change over time. A study in the United States, for example, theorises that many pre-trial risk assessment tools might be making predictions based on historic data that is no longer fit for purpose. It has been suggested that because data used to train risk assessment algorithms pre date bail reforms in many US jurisdictions, the impact of recent measures introduced to reduce the risk of failure-to-appear, such as transportation assistance and text message alerts are not taken into consideration – potentially leading to over-incarceration.122 Socio-demographic changes might also require AI systems to be altered so that they continue to be fit for purpose. If, for example, an area experiences high levels of net migration which results in rapid changes to policing patterns and judicial behaviour, AI systems might need to be reviewed to make sure they are not unintentionally worsening racial discrimination. Data Collection It is difficult to imagine how the impact of AI systems can be assessed, if there is inadequate data to support effective monitoring. The deficiency of criminal justice data across the EU has been subject to criticism. In particular, Fair Trials has found that most EU Member States do not systemically collect statistics on the duration of pre-trial detention, outcomes of criminal cases of pre-trial detainees, and the likelihood of a suspect or accused person being released by the court.123 The data needed for effective monitoring and evaluation depends on the function of the AI system and its intended objectives, but the lack of criminal justice data more generally questions whether Member States currently have adequate legal and policy foundations for introducing AI systems responsibly into criminal justice processes. Data needed for monitoring and evaluation purposes will, of course, need to have been collected from well before the introduction of the AI system, so that a proper pre- and post- analysis comparison can be made. Of particular concern is that in most EU Member States, race or ethnic data on criminal justice is not available, either because there is no systemised process for collecting it, or because local laws ban this practice altogether.124 This is a serious challenge because the most predominant criticism against the use of AI systems in the United States and elsewhere is that it worsens racial and ethnic bias in criminal justice decisions. Even without official statistics, there is strong evidence in many EU Member States that certain ethnic minorities, and in particular, Roma and people of colour are unfairly overrepresented in criminal justice systems.125 It is worrying that AI systems might worsen this discrimination, but that there will be no way of detecting this trend, because of the lack of data. Furthermore, the absence of racial and ethnic data could also prevent pre-emptive measures to combat racial bias. It is doubtful that developers will be able to design systems free from racial bias, if they have no data against which to measure their performance. On data collection, Fair Trials believe that EU and its Member States will need to make a strict choice. Either they should ensure that racially disaggregated criminal justice data is collected, or AI systems should be banned where they make individualised assessments for criminal justice purposes. Effective monitoring of AI systems is not possible unless there is sufficient data that makes it possible to discern their real impact. In particular, Member States need to collect data that allow them to identify discriminatory impacts of AI systems, including discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity.

In developing a response, draw solely from information given in the prompt or provided context.

A lender applied a lien on a customer's house due to non-payment under their credit terms for a 100k loan (the lien was for the outstanding balance, around 80k). The property was inherited, so the customer paid nothing for the property (now worth more than a million AUD). Is this unfair, or predatory lending?

2.2.2 Harsh and unfair consumer credit contract terms 130. Consumer credit contracts (loans) may include all kinds of harsh and unfair terms. These may include-  allowance for the lender to repossess property without sufficient warning or time to remedy a default;  large early termination fees if a loan is repaid early or the borrower is late in paying the loan instalments; or  placing security over property with greater value than the borrower‘s liability under the consumer credit contract. 131. Laws in some countries allow a borrower to apply to a court or tribunal to ask them to strike out the harsh and unfair contract terms. 132. The Malaysian Financial Services Act and the Islamic Financial Services Act prohibit lenders (ie Financial Service Providers) from engaging in conduct that is deemed to be inherently unfair to financial consumers. The types of prohibited business conduct are set out in Schedule 7 of the two Acts. The types of conduct that are prohibited include-  providing borrowers with misleading or deceptive information;  intimidating or exploiting borrowers;  restricting the freedom of borrowers to choose between financial services or products available to them;  engaging in collusive business practices Schedule 7 Malaysian Financial Services Act and Islamic Financial Services Act Prohibited business conduct includes: 1. Engaging in conduct that is misleading or deceptive, or is likely to mislead or deceive in relation to the nature, features, terms or price of any financial service or product. 2. Inducing or attempting to induce a financial consumer to do an act or omit to do an act in relation to any financial service or product by—  making a statement, illustration, promise, forecast or comparison which is misleading, false or deceptive;  dishonestly concealing, omitting or providing material facts in a manner which is ambiguous; or  recklessly making any statement, illustration, promise, forecast or comparison which is misleading, false or deceptive. 49 133. In Australia, a court can reopen a contract that is ‗unjust‘. ‗Unjust‘ conduct means conduct that is ‗unconscionable, harsh or oppressive‘. This includes circumstances in which the terms of the document are unjust, or the lender‘s conduct is unjust. 134. In determining whether the contract was unjust, the court may take into account:  whether the lender or any other person used unfair pressure;  whether, at the time the contract was entered into, the lender knew or should have known that the borrower would be unable to pay; or  the annual percentage interest rates charged in comparable cases. 135. If the court decides that the contract is unjust, then it can make order a number of remedies, including:  reopening an account already taken between the parties;  relieving the borrower and any guarantor from payment of any amount that the court considers to be excessive;  setting aside either wholly or in part or revise or alter an agreement made or mortgage given in connection with the transaction; or  ordering that the mortgagee takes such steps as are necessary to discharge the mortgage.

<System> In developing a response, draw solely from information given in the prompt or provided context. <Request> A lender applied a lien on a customer's house due to non-payment under their credit terms for a 100k loan (the lien was for the outstanding balance, around 80k). The property was inherited, so the customer paid nothing for the property (now worth more than a million AUD). Is this unfair, or predatory lending? <Context> 2.2.2 Harsh and unfair consumer credit contract terms 130. Consumer credit contracts (loans) may include all kinds of harsh and unfair terms. These may include-  allowance for the lender to repossess property without sufficient warning or time to remedy a default;  large early termination fees if a loan is repaid early or the borrower is late in paying the loan instalments; or  placing security over property with greater value than the borrower‘s liability under the consumer credit contract. 131. Laws in some countries allow a borrower to apply to a court or tribunal to ask them to strike out the harsh and unfair contract terms. 132. The Malaysian Financial Services Act and the Islamic Financial Services Act prohibit lenders (ie Financial Service Providers) from engaging in conduct that is deemed to be inherently unfair to financial consumers. The types of prohibited business conduct are set out in Schedule 7 of the two Acts. The types of conduct that are prohibited include-  providing borrowers with misleading or deceptive information;  intimidating or exploiting borrowers;  restricting the freedom of borrowers to choose between financial services or products available to them;  engaging in collusive business practices Schedule 7 Malaysian Financial Services Act and Islamic Financial Services Act Prohibited business conduct includes: 1. Engaging in conduct that is misleading or deceptive, or is likely to mislead or deceive in relation to the nature, features, terms or price of any financial service or product. 2. Inducing or attempting to induce a financial consumer to do an act or omit to do an act in relation to any financial service or product by—  making a statement, illustration, promise, forecast or comparison which is misleading, false or deceptive;  dishonestly concealing, omitting or providing material facts in a manner which is ambiguous; or  recklessly making any statement, illustration, promise, forecast or comparison which is misleading, false or deceptive. 49 133. In Australia, a court can reopen a contract that is ‗unjust‘. ‗Unjust‘ conduct means conduct that is ‗unconscionable, harsh or oppressive‘. This includes circumstances in which the terms of the document are unjust, or the lender‘s conduct is unjust. 134. In determining whether the contract was unjust, the court may take into account:  whether the lender or any other person used unfair pressure;  whether, at the time the contract was entered into, the lender knew or should have known that the borrower would be unable to pay; or  the annual percentage interest rates charged in comparable cases. 135. If the court decides that the contract is unjust, then it can make order a number of remedies, including:  reopening an account already taken between the parties;  relieving the borrower and any guarantor from payment of any amount that the court considers to be excessive;  setting aside either wholly or in part or revise or alter an agreement made or mortgage given in connection with the transaction; or  ordering that the mortgagee takes such steps as are necessary to discharge the mortgage.

You will answer all questions using only information from the resource provided in the prompt.

Use the text provided to explain the difference between Adam Smith's economic philosophy and that of Friedrich List.

Class 1: The Purpose of the Corporation (Dodge v. Ford Motor Company) Dodge v. Ford Motor Company is a great case. It is important because its ruling touches on a question at the very core of corporate law: what is the purpose of the corporation? Is it exclusively to make the most money for shareholders? (And if so – making the most money long-term or short- term?) Or perhaps it is also permissible – or even required – that the corporation would act in the interests of other stakeholders – employees, creditors, customers, the local community, or the nation in which it is incorporated? But there is another reason why Dodge v. Ford Motor Company is a great case: the parties are pretending to act for reasons different than those that really motivate them. As we will see in class, the plaintiff and defendant present their interests in ways that don’t make sense once you think things through. And read narrowly, the court’s decision seems almost arbitrary and in contrast to established law. But once you understand the entire context, the court ruling can be seen as a clever way to maintain both the letter and the spirit of established law. But no case is perfect. The main weakness of Dodge is that it is not well-written; indeed, it is quite boring to read. Another weakness is that the actual legal question it discusses is a narrow one that requires knowing some corporate law to understand. Therefore, though I am including the text of the case for you to read ahead of class, it is not the main assignment and you should not feel frustrated if it’s not clear to you. I will explain the case in class. Rather, the main reading assignment ahead of class is an excerpt from an old magazine article, about an economist you may never have heard about – Friedrich List. I think this is a more enjoyable reading, and it will give you background for a discussion on the big policy question Dodge tackles: whose interests should the corporation serve? No doubt you have heard of Adam Smith and later classical economists who espoused free-market economics, based on the idea that self-interested behavior by market participants enriches society as a whole. The line of corporate law doctrine that fits with this worldview is the norm that a corporation should operate solely for the purpose of its shareholders, and that this would ultimately benefit all other stakeholders (employees, customers, society as a whole, etc.). Friedrich List is a leading intellectual force behind an opposing view, which is why I ask that you read the article to understand the main differences between his world view and that of his free- market opponents (which he called the “cosmopolitans”). While List is not widely known today, his work is credited with influencing the thinking of several policy makers and leaders, including China’s Deng Xiaoping. In some ways, List appears more relevant to political debate today – with the rise of populist politicians in several countries including the U.S. – than it was when the article was written. But in other ways, this article is very much a product of its time. To a contemporary reader it may appear odd how much Japan and Germany are mentioned in the article compared to other countries (for example, China). But this was very typical of American policy analysis (and popular culture) in the 1980s. At that time, the American economy was relatively stagnant, while the economies of Japan and Germany were booming. The US had a large trade deficit with these countries, with cheaper German and Japanese imports crowding out a shrinking American industry, and German and Japanese firms used the dollars they acquired from the deficit to acquire iconic American assets. The result was fear of those two countries on one hand, and a desire to mimic them on the other hand. The article is in the tail end of that trend; by the 1990s Japan entered a prolonged recession, the German economy slowed under the costs of the reunification of West and East Germany, and the American economy prospered again. You may be more familiar with a reincarnation of this trend, in the 2000s and early 2010s, this time focused on China.

System Instruction: You will answer all questions using only information from the resource provided in the prompt. Question: Use the text provided to explain the difference between Adam Smith's economic philosophy and that of Friedrich List. Context Block: Class 1: The Purpose of the Corporation (Dodge v. Ford Motor Company) Dodge v. Ford Motor Company is a great case. It is important because its ruling touches on a question at the very core of corporate law: what is the purpose of the corporation? Is it exclusively to make the most money for shareholders? (And if so – making the most money long-term or short- term?) Or perhaps it is also permissible – or even required – that the corporation would act in the interests of other stakeholders – employees, creditors, customers, the local community, or the nation in which it is incorporated? But there is another reason why Dodge v. Ford Motor Company is a great case: the parties are pretending to act for reasons different than those that really motivate them. As we will see in class, the plaintiff and defendant present their interests in ways that don’t make sense once you think things through. And read narrowly, the court’s decision seems almost arbitrary and in contrast to established law. But once you understand the entire context, the court ruling can be seen as a clever way to maintain both the letter and the spirit of established law. But no case is perfect. The main weakness of Dodge is that it is not well-written; indeed, it is quite boring to read. Another weakness is that the actual legal question it discusses is a narrow one that requires knowing some corporate law to understand. Therefore, though I am including the text of the case for you to read ahead of class, it is not the main assignment and you should not feel frustrated if it’s not clear to you. I will explain the case in class. Rather, the main reading assignment ahead of class is an excerpt from an old magazine article, about an economist you may never have heard about – Friedrich List. I think this is a more enjoyable reading, and it will give you background for a discussion on the big policy question Dodge tackles: whose interests should the corporation serve? No doubt you have heard of Adam Smith and later classical economists who espoused free-market economics, based on the idea that self-interested behavior by market participants enriches society as a whole. The line of corporate law doctrine that fits with this worldview is the norm that a corporation should operate solely for the purpose of its shareholders, and that this would ultimately benefit all other stakeholders (employees, customers, society as a whole, etc.). Friedrich List is a leading intellectual force behind an opposing view, which is why I ask that you read the article to understand the main differences between his world view and that of his free- market opponents (which he called the “cosmopolitans”). While List is not widely known today, his work is credited with influencing the thinking of several policy makers and leaders, including China’s Deng Xiaoping. In some ways, List appears more relevant to political debate today – with the rise of populist politicians in several countries including the U.S. – than it was when the article was written. But in other ways, this article is very much a product of its time. To a contemporary reader it may appear odd how much Japan and Germany are mentioned in the article compared to other countries (for example, China). But this was very typical of American policy analysis (and popular culture) in the 1980s. At that time, the American economy was relatively stagnant, while the economies of Japan and Germany were booming. The US had a large trade deficit with these countries, with cheaper German and Japanese imports crowding out a shrinking American industry, and German and Japanese firms used the dollars they acquired from the deficit to acquire iconic American assets. The result was fear of those two countries on one hand, and a desire to mimic them on the other hand. The article is in the tail end of that trend; by the 1990s Japan entered a prolonged recession, the German economy slowed under the costs of the reunification of West and East Germany, and the American economy prospered again. You may be more familiar with a reincarnation of this trend, in the 2000s and early 2010s, this time focused on China.

Only use information provided in the document to answer, don't use external knowledge.

Why does satisfaction with customer service interactions decline around the holidays?

**The Holiday Dip** According to the National Retail Federation, it is not uncommon for retailers to bring in 20-40% of their annual sales during the weeks leading up to Christmas. Key shopping days such as Cyber Monday and Black Friday are so important that even those outside the industry watch to see what happens and plan their shopping around these days. A unique challenge for retail customer service organizations is dealing with this sudden and temporary increase in volume of sales transactions while maintaining customer satisfaction levels, all while dealing with the reality of budget constraints. To add to the challenge of pure volume faced during the holiday season, teams must deal with customers that can be more difficult than usual. They are often more unpleasant because of stress, make purchase decisions less thoughtfully, and have less experience with retail processes such as coupons and returns. THE ”HOLIDAY DIP“ Ellen, the manager of a small customer service team at a company selling personal hygiene products, emphasized that the holiday rush is about much more than pure volume for her team. “Yes, we’re busy in Q4. But what is worse is the customers are different. They are more stressed and we have to up the positive energy to calm them down. But we can’t take more time with customers since they are all just as busy as we are. People are buying less thoughtfully so there are more purchase regrets and returns that we have to deal with.” Adam echoed this sentiment. “During the holidays we find we get a large number of customers that just aren’t shoppers. They don’t know things that we expect most people know like finding the return label in the box or using the coupon before they pay.” The Zendesk Benchmark has tracked the impact of the holiday rush on customer satisfaction. There is a clear trend: satisfaction with customer service interactions measurably and consistently drop during the holiday season. “Q4 is our busiest time of year, and every parameter that impacts a successful customer experience is strained.” “During the holidays, customers don’t understand how things work as well as our typical customer. We have to spend more time on education and misunderstandings at a time when we’re busy anyway.” Customer Service in the Retail Revolution 05 2011 81% 81% 81% 73% 79% 76% 2012 2013 Q3 Q4 The Zendesk analysis further drilled down into the data to examine the cause of this “dip” in satisfaction during the holiday season. They found a clear correlation between the drop in satisfaction and the number of tickets per agent. As tickets per agent increased, satisfaction decreased. The retail customer service managers we spoke with agreed that the Q4 satisfaction dip is a significant issue. They frequently described planning for the holiday rush as one of the most strategic activities they do each year. Pelle, the director of customer service for a company selling fashion accessories, had just finished his annual performance review when we spoke. “If I look back at last year, my biggest strategic mistake was my Q4 forecast. I got it wrong and my team wasn’t ready. We’re already making changes to do better this year.” Pelle’s approach for the coming holiday season included an investment in a customer service platform that will enable more self-service capabilities and streamline workflow so each agent can handle more tickets. This option was a good choice since he had time to implement and test the systems and train his agents well before the Q4 rush started. Lucia took a different approach to dealing with the holiday customer service rush. She brought on an outsourcing partner for the holiday season. This was a good option for her company, which sells non-perishable food items, as agents do not require additional product expertise. Their company has used this approach for several years, and each time they optimize the way they work together to create a more seamless experience. “We have a great outsourcing Customer Service in the Retail Revolution 06 partner, and having them deal with basic issues like shipping, let us focus on the things that are unique to our business. However, when we first started working together we operated too independently. Tickets that were escalated from the outsourcer to us created a real speed-bump for the customers as they were passed up the chain. We invested in a service platform that allowed us to buy temporary licenses for the outsourcer so we are all on the same system all the time. That eliminated that problem, plus gave us greater insight into what was going on with the outsourcer. For example, we were able to identify a quality problem with one outsourcing agent that was just not the kind of person we wanted representing our company.” Clay, director of call center operations at a furniture and appliance chain based in Australia, chose to hire additional permanent staff for the holiday season. While this was the most expensive option available, his company’s large ticket items made a focus on personal contact very important and made this the best option. Claire, who works for a Scandinavian electronics retailer, deals with the Q4 rush by temporarily assigning responsibilities of staff outside of the regular customer service team. “During the holiday season, nothing is as important as ensuring sales are made. From our CEO to the teenager who cleans the kitchen, we were all working the service queue last December. I know this wouldn’t work everywhere. We have a small company with people who are willing to pitch in and do whatever it takes. We are very careful to have procedures and training in place so we don’t end up creating more work cleaning up mistakes made by employees who usually aren’t customer facing.” Clearly, there is no single “right way” for retailers preparing for the holiday rush. What is never an option is to simply hope that existing resources can manage when activity increases dramatically. However, there are two important strategies that work well for all customer service managers: Be ready early: Experienced managers who have been through many holiday seasons consistently recommend having all additional resources in place one month before the rush starts. This gives the opportunity to have everyone trained, all processes in place, and all hiccups ironed out before the real rush begins and it becomes complicated to make changes. Use data to influence management: Customer service teams who have been through a bad year usually have an easier time convincing their management to invest in resources for the next year. Using data from prior years, such as ticket volumes and customer satisfaction trends, combined with resources like the Zendesk Benchmark can be very influential in having management approve customer service investments for Q4.

[INSTRUCTIONS] ================== Only use information provided in the document to answer, don't use external knowledge. ---------------- [QUERY] ================== Why does satisfaction with customer service interactions decline around the holidays? ---------------- [TEXT PASSAGE] ================== **The Holiday Dip** According to the National Retail Federation, it is not uncommon for retailers to bring in 20-40% of their annual sales during the weeks leading up to Christmas. Key shopping days such as Cyber Monday and Black Friday are so important that even those outside the industry watch to see what happens and plan their shopping around these days. A unique challenge for retail customer service organizations is dealing with this sudden and temporary increase in volume of sales transactions while maintaining customer satisfaction levels, all while dealing with the reality of budget constraints. To add to the challenge of pure volume faced during the holiday season, teams must deal with customers that can be more difficult than usual. They are often more unpleasant because of stress, make purchase decisions less thoughtfully, and have less experience with retail processes such as coupons and returns. THE ”HOLIDAY DIP“ Ellen, the manager of a small customer service team at a company selling personal hygiene products, emphasized that the holiday rush is about much more than pure volume for her team. “Yes, we’re busy in Q4. But what is worse is the customers are different. They are more stressed and we have to up the positive energy to calm them down. But we can’t take more time with customers since they are all just as busy as we are. People are buying less thoughtfully so there are more purchase regrets and returns that we have to deal with.” Adam echoed this sentiment. “During the holidays we find we get a large number of customers that just aren’t shoppers. They don’t know things that we expect most people know like finding the return label in the box or using the coupon before they pay.” The Zendesk Benchmark has tracked the impact of the holiday rush on customer satisfaction. There is a clear trend: satisfaction with customer service interactions measurably and consistently drop during the holiday season. “Q4 is our busiest time of year, and every parameter that impacts a successful customer experience is strained.” “During the holidays, customers don’t understand how things work as well as our typical customer. We have to spend more time on education and misunderstandings at a time when we’re busy anyway.” Customer Service in the Retail Revolution 05 2011 81% 81% 81% 73% 79% 76% 2012 2013 Q3 Q4 The Zendesk analysis further drilled down into the data to examine the cause of this “dip” in satisfaction during the holiday season. They found a clear correlation between the drop in satisfaction and the number of tickets per agent. As tickets per agent increased, satisfaction decreased. The retail customer service managers we spoke with agreed that the Q4 satisfaction dip is a significant issue. They frequently described planning for the holiday rush as one of the most strategic activities they do each year. Pelle, the director of customer service for a company selling fashion accessories, had just finished his annual performance review when we spoke. “If I look back at last year, my biggest strategic mistake was my Q4 forecast. I got it wrong and my team wasn’t ready. We’re already making changes to do better this year.” Pelle’s approach for the coming holiday season included an investment in a customer service platform that will enable more self-service capabilities and streamline workflow so each agent can handle more tickets. This option was a good choice since he had time to implement and test the systems and train his agents well before the Q4 rush started. Lucia took a different approach to dealing with the holiday customer service rush. She brought on an outsourcing partner for the holiday season. This was a good option for her company, which sells non-perishable food items, as agents do not require additional product expertise. Their company has used this approach for several years, and each time they optimize the way they work together to create a more seamless experience. “We have a great outsourcing Customer Service in the Retail Revolution 06 partner, and having them deal with basic issues like shipping, let us focus on the things that are unique to our business. However, when we first started working together we operated too independently. Tickets that were escalated from the outsourcer to us created a real speed-bump for the customers as they were passed up the chain. We invested in a service platform that allowed us to buy temporary licenses for the outsourcer so we are all on the same system all the time. That eliminated that problem, plus gave us greater insight into what was going on with the outsourcer. For example, we were able to identify a quality problem with one outsourcing agent that was just not the kind of person we wanted representing our company.” Clay, director of call center operations at a furniture and appliance chain based in Australia, chose to hire additional permanent staff for the holiday season. While this was the most expensive option available, his company’s large ticket items made a focus on personal contact very important and made this the best option. Claire, who works for a Scandinavian electronics retailer, deals with the Q4 rush by temporarily assigning responsibilities of staff outside of the regular customer service team. “During the holiday season, nothing is as important as ensuring sales are made. From our CEO to the teenager who cleans the kitchen, we were all working the service queue last December. I know this wouldn’t work everywhere. We have a small company with people who are willing to pitch in and do whatever it takes. We are very careful to have procedures and training in place so we don’t end up creating more work cleaning up mistakes made by employees who usually aren’t customer facing.” Clearly, there is no single “right way” for retailers preparing for the holiday rush. What is never an option is to simply hope that existing resources can manage when activity increases dramatically. However, there are two important strategies that work well for all customer service managers: Be ready early: Experienced managers who have been through many holiday seasons consistently recommend having all additional resources in place one month before the rush starts. This gives the opportunity to have everyone trained, all processes in place, and all hiccups ironed out before the real rush begins and it becomes complicated to make changes. Use data to influence management: Customer service teams who have been through a bad year usually have an easier time convincing their management to invest in resources for the next year. Using data from prior years, such as ticket volumes and customer satisfaction trends, combined with resources like the Zendesk Benchmark can be very influential in having management approve customer service investments for Q4.

Only answer the prompt using the information in the context block.

My cartridge weighs 9g. Should I use the supplied counterweight?

Set-up The deck is supplied partially disassembled and carefully packaged for safe transport. Carefully remove all parts from the transport packaging. Make sure the surface you wish to use the turntable on is level (use a spirit level) before placing the turntable on it. Fit the drive belt (22) around the platter (3) and the smaller diameter part of the motor pulley (2) for playback of 33 r.p.m. records. To reach 45 r.p.m. put the belt over the larger diameter part of the motor pulley. Avoid getting sweat or grease on the belt as these will deteriorate the performance and reduce the belt's lifespan. Use absorbent kitchen paper to remove any oil or grease from the outer edge of the platter and the belt. Fit the felt mat over the spindle of the platter (3). Remove the transport lock (66) from the tonearm tube. Store the transport lock in the original packaging so they are available for any future transportation. Cartridge downforce adjustment The counterweight (6) supplied is suitable for cartridges weighing between 3,5 - 5,5g (weight no. 00). An alternative counterweight for cartridges weighing between 6 - 9g (weight no. 01) is available as an accessory part. Pushing carefully, turn the counterweight (4) onto the rear end of the tonearm tube (7), so that the downforce scale (4a) shows towards the front of the player. Lower the armlift and position the cartridge in the space between arm rest and platter. Carefully rotate the counterweight (4) until the armtube balances out. The arm should return to the balanced position if it is moved up or down. This adjustment must be done carefully. Do not forget to remove the cartridge protection cap if fitted. Once the arm is correctly balanced return it to the rest (6). Hold the counterweight (4) without moving it, and gently revolve the downforce scale ring (4a) until the zero is in line with the anti-skating stub (8). Check whether the arm still balances out. Rotate the counterweight counter clockwise (seen from the front) to adjust the downforce according to the cartridge manufacturer's recommendations. One mark on the scale represents 1 mN (= 0,1g / 0,1 Pond) of downforce. Please note: Adjust the downforce prior to installing the anti-skating weight. The recommended downforce for the factory fitted cartridge Ortofon OM10 is 15mN. © Pro-Ject Audio Systems · Pro-Ject Essential III · Revision 2017.01.03 5 Anti-skating force adjustment Hang the loop of the thread of the anti-skating weight in the groove of the anti-skating stub (8) corresponding to the downforce applied to your cartridge and feed the thread through the loop of the wire support (9). The anti-skating force must be adjusted corresponding to the downforce as follows: Downforce Groove in the stub (8) 10 - 14mN 1st from bearing rings 15 - 19mN 2nd " " " 20mN and bigger 3rd " " " 8 Connection to the amplifier The record player has a captive tonearm signal lead (12) for connection to the amplifier. Use the Phono input (sometimes labelled gram, disc or RIAA) on your amplifier. Make sure that the phono input offers correct matching and amplification for the type of cartridge used. Line inputs (such as CD, Tuner, Tape or Video) are not suitable. Take care to connect the left and right channels correctly. The right channel is usually marked red, the left channel black or white. Check the manual supplied with your amplifier for relevant information. The earthing wire of the tonearm lead should be connected to the earth terminal on your amplifier (if provided). If your amplifier does not have an input suitable for phono cartridges you will require a separate phono amplifier stage for MM or MC cartridges which is then connected between the record player and a free line level input of the amplifier. For detailed product information regarding Pro-Ject Audio phono amplifiers please refer to the Pro-Ject web site www.project-audio.com. The recommended load impedance for the factory fitted cartridge is: 47kohms/MM-input Mains power connection The turntable is supplied with a power supply suitable for your country's mains supply. Check the label before connecting to ensure compliance with the mains rating in your house. Connect the low voltage plug from the power supply to the socket (20) on the rear of the record player before connecting the power supply to the mains. Fitting the lid Fit the lid (dust cover) carefully over the hinge prongs and adjust the screws (14) until the lid stays open where you want it to without being too stiff to open or close.

Only answer the prompt using the information in the context block. Set-up The deck is supplied partially disassembled and carefully packaged for safe transport. Carefully remove all parts from the transport packaging. Make sure the surface you wish to use the turntable on is level (use a spirit level) before placing the turntable on it. Fit the drive belt (22) around the platter (3) and the smaller diameter part of the motor pulley (2) for playback of 33 r.p.m. records. To reach 45 r.p.m. put the belt over the larger diameter part of the motor pulley. Avoid getting sweat or grease on the belt as these will deteriorate the performance and reduce the belt's lifespan. Use absorbent kitchen paper to remove any oil or grease from the outer edge of the platter and the belt. Fit the felt mat over the spindle of the platter (3). Remove the transport lock (66) from the tonearm tube. Store the transport lock in the original packaging so they are available for any future transportation. Cartridge downforce adjustment The counterweight (6) supplied is suitable for cartridges weighing between 3,5 - 5,5g (weight no. 00). An alternative counterweight for cartridges weighing between 6 - 9g (weight no. 01) is available as an accessory part. Pushing carefully, turn the counterweight (4) onto the rear end of the tonearm tube (7), so that the downforce scale (4a) shows towards the front of the player. Lower the armlift and position the cartridge in the space between arm rest and platter. Carefully rotate the counterweight (4) until the armtube balances out. The arm should return to the balanced position if it is moved up or down. This adjustment must be done carefully. Do not forget to remove the cartridge protection cap if fitted. Once the arm is correctly balanced return it to the rest (6). Hold the counterweight (4) without moving it, and gently revolve the downforce scale ring (4a) until the zero is in line with the anti-skating stub (8). Check whether the arm still balances out. Rotate the counterweight counter clockwise (seen from the front) to adjust the downforce according to the cartridge manufacturer's recommendations. One mark on the scale represents 1 mN (= 0,1g / 0,1 Pond) of downforce. Please note: Adjust the downforce prior to installing the anti-skating weight. The recommended downforce for the factory fitted cartridge Ortofon OM10 is 15mN. © Pro-Ject Audio Systems · Pro-Ject Essential III · Revision 2017.01.03 5 Anti-skating force adjustment Hang the loop of the thread of the anti-skating weight in the groove of the anti-skating stub (8) corresponding to the downforce applied to your cartridge and feed the thread through the loop of the wire support (9). The anti-skating force must be adjusted corresponding to the downforce as follows: Downforce Groove in the stub (8) 10 - 14mN 1st from bearing rings 15 - 19mN 2nd " " " 20mN and bigger 3rd " " " 8 Connection to the amplifier The record player has a captive tonearm signal lead (12) for connection to the amplifier. Use the Phono input (sometimes labelled gram, disc or RIAA) on your amplifier. Make sure that the phono input offers correct matching and amplification for the type of cartridge used. Line inputs (such as CD, Tuner, Tape or Video) are not suitable. Take care to connect the left and right channels correctly. The right channel is usually marked red, the left channel black or white. Check the manual supplied with your amplifier for relevant information. The earthing wire of the tonearm lead should be connected to the earth terminal on your amplifier (if provided). If your amplifier does not have an input suitable for phono cartridges you will require a separate phono amplifier stage for MM or MC cartridges which is then connected between the record player and a free line level input of the amplifier. For detailed product information regarding Pro-Ject Audio phono amplifiers please refer to the Pro-Ject web site www.project-audio.com. The recommended load impedance for the factory fitted cartridge is: 47kohms/MM-input Mains power connection The turntable is supplied with a power supply suitable for your country's mains supply. Check the label before connecting to ensure compliance with the mains rating in your house. Connect the low voltage plug from the power supply to the socket (20) on the rear of the record player before connecting the power supply to the mains. Fitting the lid Fit the lid (dust cover) carefully over the hinge prongs and adjust the screws (14) until the lid stays open where you want it to without being too stiff to open or close. My cartridge weighs 9g. Should I use the supplied counterweight?

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== [user request] {passage 0} ========== [context document]

The 5G IoT has three layers: the Edge, Network, and Application layer; in which way does the architecture of the 5G IoT help to support complex applications such as the smart home, virtual reality, and industrial IoT? Secondly, explain how this architecture benefits from blockchain for security and data exchange. The next question is addressing the following issues: what are the critical parameters that should be met in order to guarantee the effective work and security of the IoT systems based on 5G technology?

An Insight into IoT IoT or the Internet of Things is a networked digital system of various electronic devices like sensors, activators, receivers, nodes that compute data, etc. By eliminating human involvement, IoT devices have transformed the data collecting and processing system. From top to bottom, IoT devices enhance the development of concepts like smart home, smart vehicle, smart agriculture (Pranto et al. 2021), smart health care, communication, cybersecurity and many more systems (Haque et al. 2021a). They have been used to conduct, monitor, and produce reactions based on the information gathered. People have been thinking of connecting devices to the Internet for a long time. The Internet of Things, on the other hand, enhances and extends network technology based on existing internet technology, allowing computing and smart objects to connect and communicate with one another. The IoT can be broadly defined as any object that communicates, produces, and interchanges data with other objects via the Internet to perform orientation tracing, tracking, intelligent recognition, and management. This process is conducted by various sensors or peripherals such as GPS, thermal sensors, RFID, etc. (Yang et al. 2011). Characteristics of IoT There are many functional and non-functional IoT needs for creating the infrastructure. We will discuss some of the most valuable characteristics of IoT here. Availability To provide customers with facilities wherever and whenever they need them, IoT availability must be implemented at the hardware and software levels. The capacity of IoT systems to give functionality to anybody in any location is referred to as software availability (Mistry et al. 2020a). The nature of computers that are always compatible with IoT features and protocols is referred to as hardware availability. To allow IoT capabilities, protocols like IPv6, 6LoWPAN, RPL, CoAP, and others need to be implemented inside the restricted devices of the single board resource. One technique for achieving high IoT service availability is to ensure the availability of critical hardware and facilities (Bahalul Haque 2019). Mobility Although most utilities are designed to be delivered via Smartphone devices, IoT implementation is hampered by accessibility. A key IoT premise is to keep customers connected to their preferred resources when moving. When mobile devices are relocated from one gateway to another, service interruptions may occur. Caching and tunneling for service continuity allow apps to access IoT data even if the internet is down for a short time. The vast number of smart devices available in IoT systems is usually included in any solid framework for mobility control. Scalability Scalability in the Internet of Things refers to the ability to accept new client equipment, software, and capabilities without compromising the efficiency of existing systems. It is not straightforward to add new processes and manage extra devices, especially when there are several hardware platforms and communication protocols to contend with. IoT applications must be built from the ground up to enable extendable services and operations. Security and Privacy On diverse networks, such as the Internet of Things, ensuring user security and privacy is strict. The fundamental functioning of the Internet of Things is built on data transmission between billions, if not trillions, of Internet-connected items. One great problem in IoT security left out of the standards is the key distribution between devices. The growing number of intelligent objects around us with sensitive data necessitates transparent and simple access control management, such as enabling one vendor to view the data. In contrast, another controls the device Performance The performance of IoT services is difficult to evaluate since it is based on the performance of many components and the underlying technology. The Internet of Things, like other programs, must constantly develop and expand its offerings in order to meet user expectations. IoT also needs to manage the larger amount of information or data created in the ecosystem, ensuring the interoperability and quality of service. Layered Architecture of IoT Various designs have been suggested for IoT worlds. In general, such structures are divided into three categories. There are three types of architecture: three-layer architecture, four-layer architecture, and five-layer architecture. In this chapter, we will look at the three-layered architecture. It is organized keeping mid some specific tasks to accomplish by the system like executing service functions, transmitting data, and connection among service devices. It results in three layers, Application layer, Network/Transmission layer, and Perception/Edge layer. Application Layer In different implementations, this layer may include various services. Smart grids, healthcare, and autonomous automobiles are examples of IoT deployment in smart cities and homes. Because the application layer might serve as a service support middleware, a networking standard, or a cloud computing platform, security considerations vary depending on the application's environment and industry. Network Layer Acting as a bridge, the network layer controls data transfer to subsequent layers. This layer connects to the visual layer. Different smart devices are connected to the network layer following control function protocol (IEEE 802.x) and authentication standards (GPS, and Near-Field Connectivity (NFC)). The transmission of data is highly prone to cyber-attacks. Intelligent intrusion detection key encryption with secured management-based IoT security framework is the most popular along with the latest adoption of blockchain technology. Edge Layer Edge layer manages the IoT devices or sensors like RFID, different actuators, cameras, intensity detectors, moisture and pressure sensors, etc., using gateways in a coordinating function to connect with Researchers have proposed security solutions for this layer based on machine learning, multi-stepped authorization, secure channeling through anti-malware, etc. Requirements for 5G Integrated IoT Architecture 5G-enabled IoT needs special attention for its heterogeneity, advancement, and application. However, there are some requirements that all the architecture should follow (Li et al. 2018b): 5G IoT must ensure a low latency of 1 ms considering the sensitive internet system and medical perspective. The architecture must ensure low energy consumption for low-battery life IoT devices but enough for 5G to transfer data. An advanced application like Virtual Reality or Augmented Reality needs a high speed of 25 Mbps, so the architecture must follow with the future needs. Security must be top-notch, considering massive data transmission at a very high speed. The devices with mobility factors will get priority for the 5G IoT infrastructure. The fundamental 5G IoT architecture consists of five steps in general: sensors, IoT Gateway, 5G-based station, cloud storage, and application (Arsh et al. 2021). These steps can be comprised in IoT layers to bring up a general 5G IoT architecture. Edge Layer of 5G IoT The sensors and gateway of IoT can be comprised of 5G in this layer. For example, sensors for wearable ECG, temperature, smart manufacturing etc. will use this layer to transmit and process information using 5G technology (Shdefat et al. 2021). Network Layer of 5G IoT The network layer will hold the 5G base station and cloud storage to process data using IoT devices. Application Layer of 5G IoT The application layer will provide all the support for the end system like smart home, smart supply chain, etc. (Haque et al. 2021b). Following the above-mentioned general architecture, 5G IoT can support millimeter-wave (Rahimi et al. 2018), D2D communication, nano-chip, wireless software (Huang et al. 2020), mobile edge computing, data analytics cloud computing (Mudigonda et al. 2020), and many more technologies and application. In Fig. 11.1, we have shown a generalized architecture for the 5G integrated IoT ecosystem. Blockchain-Based 5G IoT Blockchain (Haque and Bhushan 2021b) can bring trust and improved security to 5G IoT. It can accelerate data exchange at a lower cost by implementing a cryptographic encryption system to the architecture. The immutability and accountability that blockchain can ensure for the system are marvelous (Hewa et al. 2020). Blockchain integrated 5G IoT can bring revolution to industrial IoT, UnThese layers work together using cloud storage and a 5G network to provide services like education, fire station, transportation, factories, etc.

{instruction} ========== In your answer, refer only to the context document. Do not employ any outside knowledge {question} ========== The 5G IoT has three layers: the Edge, Network, and Application layer; in which way does the architecture of the 5G IoT help to support complex applications such as the smart home, virtual reality, and industrial IoT? Secondly, explain how this architecture benefits from blockchain for security and data exchange. The next question is addressing the following issues: what are the critical parameters that should be met in order to guarantee the effective work and security of the IoT systems based on 5G technology? {passage 0} ========== An Insight into IoT IoT or the Internet of Things is a networked digital system of various electronic devices like sensors, activators, receivers, nodes that compute data, etc. By eliminating human involvement, IoT devices have transformed the data collecting and processing system. From top to bottom, IoT devices enhance the development of concepts like smart home, smart vehicle, smart agriculture (Pranto et al. 2021), smart health care, communication, cybersecurity and many more systems (Haque et al. 2021a). They have been used to conduct, monitor, and produce reactions based on the information gathered. People have been thinking of connecting devices to the Internet for a long time. The Internet of Things, on the other hand, enhances and extends network technology based on existing internet technology, allowing computing and smart objects to connect and communicate with one another. The IoT can be broadly defined as any object that communicates, produces, and interchanges data with other objects via the Internet to perform orientation tracing, tracking, intelligent recognition, and management. This process is conducted by various sensors or peripherals such as GPS, thermal sensors, RFID, etc. (Yang et al. 2011). Characteristics of IoT There are many functional and non-functional IoT needs for creating the infrastructure. We will discuss some of the most valuable characteristics of IoT here. Availability To provide customers with facilities wherever and whenever they need them, IoT availability must be implemented at the hardware and software levels. The capacity of IoT systems to give functionality to anybody in any location is referred to as software availability (Mistry et al. 2020a). The nature of computers that are always compatible with IoT features and protocols is referred to as hardware availability. To allow IoT capabilities, protocols like IPv6, 6LoWPAN, RPL, CoAP, and others need to be implemented inside the restricted devices of the single board resource. One technique for achieving high IoT service availability is to ensure the availability of critical hardware and facilities (Bahalul Haque 2019). Mobility Although most utilities are designed to be delivered via Smartphone devices, IoT implementation is hampered by accessibility. A key IoT premise is to keep customers connected to their preferred resources when moving. When mobile devices are relocated from one gateway to another, service interruptions may occur. Caching and tunneling for service continuity allow apps to access IoT data even if the internet is down for a short time. The vast number of smart devices available in IoT systems is usually included in any solid framework for mobility control. Scalability Scalability in the Internet of Things refers to the ability to accept new client equipment, software, and capabilities without compromising the efficiency of existing systems. It is not straightforward to add new processes and manage extra devices, especially when there are several hardware platforms and communication protocols to contend with. IoT applications must be built from the ground up to enable extendable services and operations. Security and Privacy On diverse networks, such as the Internet of Things, ensuring user security and privacy is strict. The fundamental functioning of the Internet of Things is built on data transmission between billions, if not trillions, of Internet-connected items. One great problem in IoT security left out of the standards is the key distribution between devices. The growing number of intelligent objects around us with sensitive data necessitates transparent and simple access control management, such as enabling one vendor to view the data. In contrast, another controls the device Performance The performance of IoT services is difficult to evaluate since it is based on the performance of many components and the underlying technology. The Internet of Things, like other programs, must constantly develop and expand its offerings in order to meet user expectations. IoT also needs to manage the larger amount of information or data created in the ecosystem, ensuring the interoperability and quality of service. Layered Architecture of IoT Various designs have been suggested for IoT worlds. In general, such structures are divided into three categories. There are three types of architecture: three-layer architecture, four-layer architecture, and five-layer architecture. In this chapter, we will look at the three-layered architecture. It is organized keeping mid some specific tasks to accomplish by the system like executing service functions, transmitting data, and connection among service devices. It results in three layers, Application layer, Network/Transmission layer, and Perception/Edge layer. Application Layer In different implementations, this layer may include various services. Smart grids, healthcare, and autonomous automobiles are examples of IoT deployment in smart cities and homes. Because the application layer might serve as a service support middleware, a networking standard, or a cloud computing platform, security considerations vary depending on the application's environment and industry. Network Layer Acting as a bridge, the network layer controls data transfer to subsequent layers. This layer connects to the visual layer. Different smart devices are connected to the network layer following control function protocol (IEEE 802.x) and authentication standards (GPS, and Near-Field Connectivity (NFC)). The transmission of data is highly prone to cyber-attacks. Intelligent intrusion detection key encryption with secured management-based IoT security framework is the most popular along with the latest adoption of blockchain technology. Edge Layer Edge layer manages the IoT devices or sensors like RFID, different actuators, cameras, intensity detectors, moisture and pressure sensors, etc., using gateways in a coordinating function to connect with Researchers have proposed security solutions for this layer based on machine learning, multi-stepped authorization, secure channeling through anti-malware, etc. Requirements for 5G Integrated IoT Architecture 5G-enabled IoT needs special attention for its heterogeneity, advancement, and application. However, there are some requirements that all the architecture should follow (Li et al. 2018b): 5G IoT must ensure a low latency of 1 ms considering the sensitive internet system and medical perspective. The architecture must ensure low energy consumption for low-battery life IoT devices but enough for 5G to transfer data. An advanced application like Virtual Reality or Augmented Reality needs a high speed of 25 Mbps, so the architecture must follow with the future needs. Security must be top-notch, considering massive data transmission at a very high speed. The devices with mobility factors will get priority for the 5G IoT infrastructure. The fundamental 5G IoT architecture consists of five steps in general: sensors, IoT Gateway, 5G-based station, cloud storage, and application (Arsh et al. 2021). These steps can be comprised in IoT layers to bring up a general 5G IoT architecture. Edge Layer of 5G IoT The sensors and gateway of IoT can be comprised of 5G in this layer. For example, sensors for wearable ECG, temperature, smart manufacturing etc. will use this layer to transmit and process information using 5G technology (Shdefat et al. 2021). Network Layer of 5G IoT The network layer will hold the 5G base station and cloud storage to process data using IoT devices. Application Layer of 5G IoT The application layer will provide all the support for the end system like smart home, smart supply chain, etc. (Haque et al. 2021b). Following the above-mentioned general architecture, 5G IoT can support millimeter-wave (Rahimi et al. 2018), D2D communication, nano-chip, wireless software (Huang et al. 2020), mobile edge computing, data analytics cloud computing (Mudigonda et al. 2020), and many more technologies and application. In Fig. 11.1, we have shown a generalized architecture for the 5G integrated IoT ecosystem. Blockchain-Based 5G IoT Blockchain (Haque and Bhushan 2021b) can bring trust and improved security to 5G IoT. It can accelerate data exchange at a lower cost by implementing a cryptographic encryption system to the architecture. The immutability and accountability that blockchain can ensure for the system are marvelous (Hewa et al. 2020). Blockchain integrated 5G IoT can bring revolution to industrial IoT, UnThese layers work together using cloud storage and a 5G network to provide services like education, fire station, transportation, factories, etc. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-99-3668-7_11

This task requires you to answer questions based solely on the information provided in the prompt. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge, The response should bold every name present in the response. The response should be formatted into a bullet point list. The response should be no more than twenty words long.

List every cloud gaming subscription service mentioned in this text.

On January 18, 2022, Microsoft Corp. announced plans to acquire Activision Blizzard Inc., a video game company, for $68.7 billion.1 The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is reviewing the acquisition,2 as provided under the Hart-Scott-Rodino Act (HSR),3 to determine whether its effect might be “substantially to lessen competition”—a violation of Section 7 of the Clayton Act. 4 Competition authorities in other countries are reviewing Microsoft’s proposed acquisition as well.5 The companies have said they expect to complete the acquisition before June 30, 2023.6 In recent decades, enforcement of antitrust laws has typically focused on how a proposed merger or acquisition might affect consumers, such as by reducing price competition in relevant product markets. Some of the FTC’s actions and statements over the last two years suggest that in its review of Microsoft’s proposed acquisition, the FTC may be considering other factors that are discussed in this report.7 This report discusses Microsoft’s proposed acquisition of Activision Blizzard, including some of the potential effects on existing product markets, labor markets, and on product markets that do not currently exist but may develop in the future. The report also provides some considerations for Congress, discussing some bills that may affect Microsoft’s proposed acquisition or Microsoft’s future behavior if the acquisition is completed. The video game industry can be separated into three components: developers or gaming studios that create and design video games; publishers who market and monetize the video games; and distributors who provide the video games to consumers.8 Video games are most commonly played on game consoles, personal computers (PCs), and mobile devices (Figure 1). Although some retailers sell physical copies of video games for consoles and PCs, the majority of video games are sold in digital format;9 games for mobile devices are sold only in digital format The extent of competition among distributors depends on the format and device used to play the game. The digital format of video games played on a console generally can only be downloaded from a digital store operated by the producer of the console. Games for PCs can be purchased from a selection of digital stores that are operated by various firms,10 including publishers and developers.11 Some of these firms also provide their games as apps on certain mobile devices;12 these are distributed through app stores, such as Google Play and Apple’s App Store. Consoles are typically sold at a loss; the manufacturers then profit from sales of games and subscription services.13 This can incentivize console producers to acquire developers and publishers and offer exclusive content.14 Technological developments have allowed some PCs and other devices, depending on their hardware capabilities, to compete with game consoles.15 For example, early in 2022, Valve Corp. released a handheld PC—Steam Deck—that resembles the Nintendo Switch console but provides features that are typically available on PCs, such as a web browser, and allows users to download third-party software, including other operating systems.16 Some firms have started offering video game subscription services that provide access to multiple games for a monthly fee, meaning users do not need to purchase each individual game.17 Some firms offer cloud gaming, which allows users to play video games using remote servers in data centers, reducing the hardware requirements needed to play the games and expanding the variety of devices that can be used.18 Cloud gaming, however, requires a high-speed internet connection and is not feasible for potential users who do not have access to sufficiently high broadband speeds.19 Subscription services reportedly provide 4% of total revenue in the North American and European video game markets.20 Some firms backed by venture capitalists and large firms that are primarily known for providing other online services have shown interest in entering the video game industry.21 For example, Netflix started offering games on mobile devices on November 2, 2021, and has acquired video game developers.22 These firms may be able to further expand the selection of distributors available for certain devices and potentially increase competition in the industry.23 Microsoft and Activision Blizzard in the Video Game Industry Microsoft distributes video games using Microsoft Store, its subscription service Game Pass,24 and its cloud gaming service Xbox Cloud Gaming (Beta);25 publishes games, including the franchises Halo and Minecraft; 26 and owns 23 gaming studios.27 In 2021, Microsoft had the second-highest share in the U.S. market for game consoles at 34.8%, according to a report from MarketLine, an industry research firm; estimates for Sony and Nintendo were 40.7% and 24.5%, respectively.28 In January 2022, Microsoft stated that it had more than 25 million Game Pass subscribers.29 In April 2022, Microsoft reported that more than 10 million people have streamed games over Xbox Cloud Gaming,30 although it is unclear how long or how many times users accessed the service. Estimates from Ampere Analysis reportedly indicate that Game Pass makes up about 60% of the video game subscription market.31 Among video game publishers in the United States, Microsoft had the highest market share at 23.9%, according to IBISWorld.32 Activision Blizzard is a video game publisher and developer primarily known for its franchise games, which include World of Warcraft, Call of Duty, Diablo, and Candy Crush. 33 The company can be separated into three segments—Activision, Blizzard, and King—that each contain their own gaming studios. Among video game publishers in the United States, Activision Blizzard had the second highest market share at 10%, according to IBISWorld.34 Activision also distributes video games for PCs through its digital store—Battle.net.35 Among video game publishers in the United States, Microsoft and Activision Blizzard are estimated to have the largest market shares.47 IBISWorld reports, however, that competition among publishers and developers is high, even though the success of new entrants, particularly among developers, is fairly low.48 Publishers and developers can face high levels of uncertainty and risk.49 Furthermore, measuring the market share of Microsoft and Activision Blizzard within the United States may not accurately reflect competition in these markets, given that these companies compete at a global level. Some industry analysts list Tencent, which is headquartered in China, as the largest video game publisher worldwide based on revenue;50 Microsoft and Activision Blizzard are listed among the top 10, along with Sony, Nintendo, EA, and Take-Two Interactive.51 Microsoft stated that after its acquisition of Activision Blizzard, it would “become the world’s third-largest gaming company by revenue, behind Tencent and Sony.” 52

List every cloud gaming subscription service mentioned in this text. This task requires you to answer questions based solely on the information provided in the prompt. You are not allowed to use any external resources or prior knowledge, The response should bold every name of a cloud gaming subscription present in the response. The response should be formatted into a bullet point list. The response should be no more than twenty words long. On January 18, 2022, Microsoft Corp. announced plans to acquire Activision Blizzard Inc., a video game company, for $68.7 billion.1 The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is reviewing the acquisition,2 as provided under the Hart-Scott-Rodino Act (HSR),3 to determine whether its effect might be “substantially to lessen competition”—a violation of Section 7 of the Clayton Act. 4 Competition authorities in other countries are reviewing Microsoft’s proposed acquisition as well.5 The companies have said they expect to complete the acquisition before June 30, 2023.6 In recent decades, enforcement of antitrust laws has typically focused on how a proposed merger or acquisition might affect consumers, such as by reducing price competition in relevant product markets. Some of the FTC’s actions and statements over the last two years suggest that in its review of Microsoft’s proposed acquisition, the FTC may be considering other factors that are discussed in this report.7 This report discusses Microsoft’s proposed acquisition of Activision Blizzard, including some of the potential effects on existing product markets, labor markets, and on product markets that do not currently exist but may develop in the future. The report also provides some considerations for Congress, discussing some bills that may affect Microsoft’s proposed acquisition or Microsoft’s future behavior if the acquisition is completed. The video game industry can be separated into three components: developers or gaming studios that create and design video games; publishers who market and monetize the video games; and distributors who provide the video games to consumers.8 Video games are most commonly played on game consoles, personal computers (PCs), and mobile devices (Figure 1). Although some retailers sell physical copies of video games for consoles and PCs, the majority of video games are sold in digital format;9 games for mobile devices are sold only in digital format The extent of competition among distributors depends on the format and device used to play the game. The digital format of video games played on a console generally can only be downloaded from a digital store operated by the producer of the console. Games for PCs can be purchased from a selection of digital stores that are operated by various firms,10 including publishers and developers.11 Some of these firms also provide their games as apps on certain mobile devices;12 these are distributed through app stores, such as Google Play and Apple’s App Store. Consoles are typically sold at a loss; the manufacturers then profit from sales of games and subscription services.13 This can incentivize console producers to acquire developers and publishers and offer exclusive content.14 Technological developments have allowed some PCs and other devices, depending on their hardware capabilities, to compete with game consoles.15 For example, early in 2022, Valve Corp. released a handheld PC—Steam Deck—that resembles the Nintendo Switch console but provides features that are typically available on PCs, such as a web browser, and allows users to download third-party software, including other operating systems.16 Some firms have started offering video game subscription services that provide access to multiple games for a monthly fee, meaning users do not need to purchase each individual game.17 Some firms offer cloud gaming, which allows users to play video games using remote servers in data centers, reducing the hardware requirements needed to play the games and expanding the variety of devices that can be used.18 Cloud gaming, however, requires a high-speed internet connection and is not feasible for potential users who do not have access to sufficiently high broadband speeds.19 Subscription services reportedly provide 4% of total revenue in the North American and European video game markets.20 Some firms backed by venture capitalists and large firms that are primarily known for providing other online services have shown interest in entering the video game industry.21 For example, Netflix started offering games on mobile devices on November 2, 2021, and has acquired video game developers.22 These firms may be able to further expand the selection of distributors available for certain devices and potentially increase competition in the industry.23 Microsoft and Activision Blizzard in the Video Game Industry Microsoft distributes video games using Microsoft Store, its subscription service Game Pass,24 and its cloud gaming service Xbox Cloud Gaming (Beta);25 publishes games, including the franchises Halo and Minecraft; 26 and owns 23 gaming studios.27 In 2021, Microsoft had the second-highest share in the U.S. market for game consoles at 34.8%, according to a report from MarketLine, an industry research firm; estimates for Sony and Nintendo were 40.7% and 24.5%, respectively.28 In January 2022, Microsoft stated that it had more than 25 million Game Pass subscribers.29 In April 2022, Microsoft reported that more than 10 million people have streamed games over Xbox Cloud Gaming,30 although it is unclear how long or how many times users accessed the service. Estimates from Ampere Analysis reportedly indicate that Game Pass makes up about 60% of the video game subscription market.31 Among video game publishers in the United States, Microsoft had the highest market share at 23.9%, according to IBISWorld.32 Activision Blizzard is a video game publisher and developer primarily known for its franchise games, which include World of Warcraft, Call of Duty, Diablo, and Candy Crush. 33 The company can be separated into three segments—Activision, Blizzard, and King—that each contain their own gaming studios. Among video game publishers in the United States, Activision Blizzard had the second highest market share at 10%, according to IBISWorld.34 Activision also distributes video games for PCs through its digital store—Battle.net.35 Among video game publishers in the United States, Microsoft and Activision Blizzard are estimated to have the largest market shares.47 IBISWorld reports, however, that competition among publishers and developers is high, even though the success of new entrants, particularly among developers, is fairly low.48 Publishers and developers can face high levels of uncertainty and risk.49 Furthermore, measuring the market share of Microsoft and Activision Blizzard within the United States may not accurately reflect competition in these markets, given that these companies compete at a global level. Some industry analysts list Tencent, which is headquartered in China, as the largest video game publisher worldwide based on revenue;50 Microsoft and Activision Blizzard are listed among the top 10, along with Sony, Nintendo, EA, and Take-Two Interactive.51 Microsoft stated that after its acquisition of Activision Blizzard, it would “become the world’s third-largest gaming company by revenue, behind Tencent and Sony.” 52

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> [user request] <TEXT> [context document]

I'm scratching my head at the idea of megapixels lately, I don't sense any improvements in my upgraded phone's images, even though it has higher megapixels. Please explain this to me in less than 200 words.

Do Camera Megapixels Matter in 2024? (For Photography) Having more megapixels on your digital camera or smartphone can be useful. However, do megapixels matter when it comes to overall image quality? Photographers love to discuss the merits of more camera megapixels in digital photography. In this guide, I’ll explain why having more megapixels isn’t always necessary… nor a good thing. You’ll also discover which digital cameras and smartphones have the highest pixel count in 2024. What Do MegaPixels Mean on a Camera? The megapixels on a camera refer to the pixel count present in the sensor. For example, if you have a 24 MP camera, it means that the final image will have 24 million pixels. The total pixel count is what’s known as the camera resolution. You can calculate the resolution by multiplying the number of pixels on the horizontal side of the sensor by the ones on the vertical side. If the camera sensor has a 2:3 aspect ratio – this means that the 24 megapixels are distributed as 6000 on one side and 4000 in the other. How many megapixels can the human eye see? Well, the human eye doesn’t actually have pixels. So, comparing the human eye to a camera’s sensor is not like comparing the resolution of two cameras. What we know is an estimate calculated by photographer and scientist Dr. Roger N. Clark. Using very complex math, he determined that the human eye ‘resolution’ is 576 megapixels. You can learn more about how he reached this result on his website – Clarkvision. However, according to an article published by Lasik – 576 MP is the resolution reached when moving. Instead, on a single glance, the human eye has a 5 to 15 MP ‘resolution’. Are There Any Drawbacks to Having Too Many Megapixels? The first drawback of having more megapixels is that you’ll have bigger files. This means that you’ll fill the memory card faster and you’ll need more storage space either on your hard drive or a cloud service to back them up. This is a fair compromise when you actually need high-resolution images. However, if you have large files because they have more megapixels than you need, then it’s not worth it. Another potential drawback is the slower processing time. This may affect you when shooting, transferring, and editing the files. Large files in-camera take longer to be saved in the memory card. If you shoot in burst mode – for example, it could diminish the fps. It could also mean slowing the processing to transfer, cull, and edit your photos – this also depends on how powerful is your computer. Also, when the camera sensors aren’t big enough for the amount of pixels, you’ll have a bigger image resolution but not higher image quality. You’ll probably have issues like noise and reduced dynamic range. When Are More Megapixels An Advantage? A printer with a woman's face on it. Large format printing process with Mimaki machine. Credit: Helene.3160, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons More megapixels are better when you’re talking about print size. The more megapixels you have, the bigger you can print your image. Another situation in which more megapixels are beneficial is when you need to crop your image. This is because even if you lose megapixels by cutting out part of your photo – the file still has enough resolution to print or zoom on your screen. How to Choose Photo Resolution & Size for Printing Or Online Use How Many Megapixels Do Photographers Actually Need? If you’re wondering how many megapixels you need to print high-resolution images, you need to multiply the print size by 300 – which is the standard dpi for photographic printing. So, if you need to print an 8″ x 10″ photo, it needs to have 2,400 x 3,000 pixels. To print a 16″ x 24″ you need a file with 4,800 x 7,200 pixels and so on. How many megapixels do professional photographers use? Unfortunately, there isn’t a straight answer to this. The megapixels required by a professional photographer depend on the type of photos they do and how the images are going to be used. To give an approximate number, most professional DSLR and mirrorless cameras have a resolution between 24 and 36 MP. However, some professionals use medium-format digital cameras that range from 50 to 100 MP. How many megapixels do you need for wedding photography? Most professional wedding photographers can make do with a resolution ranging from 20 to 24 MP. However, depending on the prints and wedding albums you plan to deliver (and also how much you usually crop your photos), having higher-resolution cameras can be an advantage. Does the megapixel count change if you shoot in RAW or JPG? The number of megapixels on the RAW and JPG files may be different depending on the camera settings. Most cameras allow you to choose the size of the RAW and JPG files they save. For example, I can set a Canon 90D to shoot in C-RAW and save a raw file of 32MP (6960 x 4640) and a small file JPG file of 3.8MP (2400 x 1600). Each camera will have different sizes available for each file type – you’ll need to check yours on the user’s manual or by doing a quick Google search. What About Megapixels and Smartphone Photography? You’ve probably seen smartphones that advertise enough megapixels to beat any DSLR or mirrorless cameras on the market. This may lead you to wonder why isn’t professional photographers don’t use smartphones to take photos for their jobs. Well, camera lenses, the ability to sync with flashes, and many other features make this impossible. However, it’s not just that, it’s also because of how smartphones get to that pixel count and what that means in resolution and quality. Due to their size, it’s impossible for them to actually fit such a larger sensor inside the device. So, smartphone manufacturers incorporate advanced technologies like pixel binning or computational photography to improve image quality without increasing the number of individual pixels.

<TASK DESCRIPTION> Only use the provided text to answer the question, no outside sources. <QUESTION> I'm scratching my head at the idea of megapixels lately, I don't sense any improvements in my upgraded phone's images, even though it has higher megapixels. Please explain this to me in less than 200 words. <TEXT> Do Camera Megapixels Matter in 2024? (For Photography) Having more megapixels on your digital camera or smartphone can be useful. However, do megapixels matter when it comes to overall image quality? Photographers love to discuss the merits of more camera megapixels in digital photography. In this guide, I’ll explain why having more megapixels isn’t always necessary… nor a good thing. You’ll also discover which digital cameras and smartphones have the highest pixel count in 2024. What Do MegaPixels Mean on a Camera? The megapixels on a camera refer to the pixel count present in the sensor. For example, if you have a 24 MP camera, it means that the final image will have 24 million pixels. The total pixel count is what’s known as the camera resolution. You can calculate the resolution by multiplying the number of pixels on the horizontal side of the sensor by the ones on the vertical side. If the camera sensor has a 2:3 aspect ratio – this means that the 24 megapixels are distributed as 6000 on one side and 4000 in the other. How many megapixels can the human eye see? Well, the human eye doesn’t actually have pixels. So, comparing the human eye to a camera’s sensor is not like comparing the resolution of two cameras. What we know is an estimate calculated by photographer and scientist Dr. Roger N. Clark. Using very complex math, he determined that the human eye ‘resolution’ is 576 megapixels. You can learn more about how he reached this result on his website – Clarkvision. However, according to an article published by Lasik – 576 MP is the resolution reached when moving. Instead, on a single glance, the human eye has a 5 to 15 MP ‘resolution’. Are There Any Drawbacks to Having Too Many Megapixels? The first drawback of having more megapixels is that you’ll have bigger files. This means that you’ll fill the memory card faster and you’ll need more storage space either on your hard drive or a cloud service to back them up. This is a fair compromise when you actually need high-resolution images. However, if you have large files because they have more megapixels than you need, then it’s not worth it. Another potential drawback is the slower processing time. This may affect you when shooting, transferring, and editing the files. Large files in-camera take longer to be saved in the memory card. If you shoot in burst mode – for example, it could diminish the fps. It could also mean slowing the processing to transfer, cull, and edit your photos – this also depends on how powerful is your computer. Also, when the camera sensors aren’t big enough for the amount of pixels, you’ll have a bigger image resolution but not higher image quality. You’ll probably have issues like noise and reduced dynamic range. When Are More Megapixels An Advantage? A printer with a woman's face on it. Large format printing process with Mimaki machine. Credit: Helene.3160, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons More megapixels are better when you’re talking about print size. The more megapixels you have, the bigger you can print your image. Another situation in which more megapixels are beneficial is when you need to crop your image. This is because even if you lose megapixels by cutting out part of your photo – the file still has enough resolution to print or zoom on your screen. How to Choose Photo Resolution & Size for Printing Or Online Use How Many Megapixels Do Photographers Actually Need? If you’re wondering how many megapixels you need to print high-resolution images, you need to multiply the print size by 300 – which is the standard dpi for photographic printing. So, if you need to print an 8″ x 10″ photo, it needs to have 2,400 x 3,000 pixels. To print a 16″ x 24″ you need a file with 4,800 x 7,200 pixels and so on. How many megapixels do professional photographers use? Unfortunately, there isn’t a straight answer to this. The megapixels required by a professional photographer depend on the type of photos they do and how the images are going to be used. To give an approximate number, most professional DSLR and mirrorless cameras have a resolution between 24 and 36 MP. However, some professionals use medium-format digital cameras that range from 50 to 100 MP. How many megapixels do you need for wedding photography? Most professional wedding photographers can make do with a resolution ranging from 20 to 24 MP. However, depending on the prints and wedding albums you plan to deliver (and also how much you usually crop your photos), having higher-resolution cameras can be an advantage. Does the megapixel count change if you shoot in RAW or JPG? The number of megapixels on the RAW and JPG files may be different depending on the camera settings. Most cameras allow you to choose the size of the RAW and JPG files they save. For example, I can set a Canon 90D to shoot in C-RAW and save a raw file of 32MP (6960 x 4640) and a small file JPG file of 3.8MP (2400 x 1600). Each camera will have different sizes available for each file type – you’ll need to check yours on the user’s manual or by doing a quick Google search. What About Megapixels and Smartphone Photography? You’ve probably seen smartphones that advertise enough megapixels to beat any DSLR or mirrorless cameras on the market. This may lead you to wonder why isn’t professional photographers don’t use smartphones to take photos for their jobs. Well, camera lenses, the ability to sync with flashes, and many other features make this impossible. However, it’s not just that, it’s also because of how smartphones get to that pixel count and what that means in resolution and quality. Due to their size, it’s impossible for them to actually fit such a larger sensor inside the device. So, smartphone manufacturers incorporate advanced technologies like pixel binning or computational photography to improve image quality without increasing the number of individual pixels. https://shotkit.com/megapixels-photography/

Answer the question using only the information given in the context block. Give your answer as a bulleted list.

What are the pros and cons of using a CPAP machine?

If you have sleep apnea, not enough air can flow into your lungs through your mouth and nose during sleep, even though breathing efforts continue. When this happens, the amount of oxygen in your blood decreases. Your brain responds by awakening you enough to tighten the upper airway muscles and open your windpipe. Normal breaths then start again, often with a loud snort or choking sound. Although people who have sleep apnea typically snore loudly and frequently, not everyone who snores has sleep apnea. Because people who have sleep apnea frequently go from deeper sleep to lighter sleep during the night, they rarely spend enough time in deep, restorative stages of sleep. They are therefore often excessively sleepy during the day. Such sleepiness is thought to lead to mood and behavior problems, including depression, and it more than triples the risk of being in a traffic or work-related accident. The many brief drops in blood-oxygen levels that occur during the night can result in morning headaches and trouble concentrating, thinking clearly, learning, and remembering. Additionally, the intermittent oxygen drops and reduced sleep quality together trigger the release of stress hormones. These hormones raise your blood pressure and heart rate and boost the risk of heart attack, stroke, irregular heartbeats, and congestive heart failure. In addition, untreated sleep apnea can lead to changes in energy metabolism (the way your body changes food and oxygen into energy) that increase the risk for developing obesity and diabetes. Anyone can have sleep apnea. It is estimated that at least 12–18 million American adults have sleep apnea, making it as common as asthma. More than one-half of the people who have sleep apnea are overweight. Sleep apnea is more common in men. More than 1 in 25 middle-aged men and 1 in 50 middle-aged women have sleep apnea along with extreme daytime sleepiness. About 3 percent of children and 10 percent or more of people over age 65 have sleep apnea. This condition occurs more frequently in African Americans, Asians, Native Americans, and Hispanics than in Caucasians. More than one-half of all people who have sleep apnea are not diagnosed. People who have sleep apnea generally are not aware that their breathing stops in the night. They just notice that they don’t feel well rested when they wake up and are sleepy throughout the day. Their bed partners are likely to notice, however, that they snore loudly and frequently and that they often stop breathing briefly while sleeping. Doctors suspect sleep apnea if these symptoms are present, but the diagnosis must be confirmed with overnight sleep monitoring. This monitoring will reveal pauses in breathing, frequent sleep arousals (changes from sleep to wakefulness), and intermittent drops in levels of oxygen in the blood. Like adults who have sleep apnea, children who have this disorder usually snore loudly, snort or gasp, and have brief pauses in breath ing while sleeping. Small children often have enlarged tonsils and adenoids that increase their risk for sleep apnea. But doctors may not suspect sleep apnea in children because, instead of showing the typical signs of sleepiness during the day, these children often become agitated and may be considered hyperactive. The effects of sleep apnea in children may include poor school performance and difficult, aggressive behavior. A number of factors can make a person susceptible to sleep apnea. These factors include: Throat muscles and tongue that relax more than normal while asleep Enlarged tonsils and adenoids Being overweight—the excess fat tissue around your neck makes it harder to keep the throat area open Head and neck shape that creates a somewhat smaller airway size in the mouth and throat area Congestion, due to allergies, that also can narrow the airway Family history of sleep apnea If your doctor suspects that you have sleep apnea, you may be referred to a sleep specialist. Some of the ways to help diagnose sleep apnea include: A medical history that includes asking you and your family questions about how you sleep and how you function during the day. Checking your mouth, nose, and throat for extra or large tissues—for example, checking the tonsils, uvula (the tissue that hangs from the middle of the back of the mouth), and soft palate (the roof of your mouth in the back of your throat). An overnight recording of what happens with your breathing during sleep (polysomnogram, or PSG). A multiple sleep latency test (MSLT), usually done in a sleep center, to see how quickly you fall asleep at times when you would normally be awake. (Falling asleep in only a few minutes usually means that you are very sleepy during the day. Being very sleepy during the day can be a sign of sleep apnea. Once all the tests are completed, the sleep specialist will review the results and work with you and your family to develop a treatment plan. Changes in daily activities or habits may help reduce your symptoms: Sleep on your side instead of on your back. Sleeping on your side will help reduce the amount of upper airway collapse during sleep. Avoid alcohol, smoking, sleeping pills, herbal supplements, and any other medications that make you sleepy. They make it harder for your airways to stay open while you sleep, and sedatives can make the breathing pauses longer and more severe. Tobacco smoke irritates the airways and can help trigger the intermittent collapse of the upper airway. Lose weight if you are overweight. Even a little weight loss can sometimes improve symptoms. These changes may be all that are needed to treat mild sleep apnea. However, if you have moderate or severe sleep apnea, you will need additional, more direct treatment approaches. Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the most effective treatment for sleep apnea in adults. A CPAP machine uses mild air pressure to keep your airways open while you sleep. The machine delivers air to your airways through a specially designed nasal mask. The mask does not breathe for you; the flow of air creates increased pressure to keep the airways in your nose and mouth more open while you sleep. The air pressure is adjusted so that it is just enough to stop your airways from briefly becoming too small during sleep. The pressure is constant and continuous. Sleep apnea will return if CPAP is stopped or if it is used incorrectly. People who have severe sleep apnea symptoms generally feel much better once they begin treatment with CPAP. CPAP treatment can cause side effects in some people. Possible side effects include dry or stuffy nose, irritation of the skin on the face, bloating of the stom ach, sore eyes, or headaches. If you have trouble with CPAP side effects, work with your sleep specialist and support staff. Together, you can do things to reduce or eliminate these problems. Currently, no medications cure sleep apnea. However, some prescription medications may help relieve the excessive sleepiness that sometimes persists even with CPAP treatment of sleep apnea. Another treatment approach that may help some people is the use of a mouthpiece (oral or dental appliance). If you have mild sleep apnea or do not have sleep apnea but snore very loudly, your doctor or dentist also may recommend this. A custom-fitted plastic mouth piece will be made by a dentist or an orthodontist (a specialist in correcting teeth or jaw problems). The mouthpiece will adjust your lower jaw and tongue to help keep the airway in your throat more open while you are sleeping. Air can then flow more easily into your lungs because there is less resistance to breathing. Following up with the dentist or orthodontist is important to correct any side effects and to be sure that your mouthpiece continues to fit properly. It is also important to have a followup sleep study to see whether your sleep apnea has improved. Some people who have sleep apnea may benefit from surgery; this depends on the findings of the evaluation by the sleep specialist. Removing tonsils and adenoids that are blocking the airway is done frequently, especially in children. Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) is a surgery for adults that removes the tonsils, uvula, and part of the soft palate. Tracheostomy is a surgery used rarely and only in severe sleep apnea when no other treatments have been successful. A small hole is made in the windpipe, and a tube is inserted. Air will flow through the tube and into the lungs, bypass ing the obstruction in the upper airway.

Answer the question using only the information given in the context block. Give your answer as a bulleted list. What are the pros and cons of using a CPAP machine? If you have sleep apnea, not enough air can flow into your lungs through your mouth and nose during sleep, even though breathing efforts continue. When this happens, the amount of oxygen in your blood decreases. Your brain responds by awakening you enough to tighten the upper airway muscles and open your windpipe. Normal breaths then start again, often with a loud snort or choking sound. Although people who have sleep apnea typically snore loudly and frequently, not everyone who snores has sleep apnea. Because people who have sleep apnea frequently go from deeper sleep to lighter sleep during the night, they rarely spend enough time in deep, restorative stages of sleep. They are therefore often excessively sleepy during the day. Such sleepiness is thought to lead to mood and behavior problems, including depression, and it more than triples the risk of being in a traffic or work-related accident. The many brief drops in blood-oxygen levels that occur during the night can result in morning headaches and trouble concentrating, thinking clearly, learning, and remembering. Additionally, the intermittent oxygen drops and reduced sleep quality together trigger the release of stress hormones. These hormones raise your blood pressure and heart rate and boost the risk of heart attack, stroke, irregular heartbeats, and congestive heart failure. In addition, untreated sleep apnea can lead to changes in energy metabolism (the way your body changes food and oxygen into energy) that increase the risk for developing obesity and diabetes. Anyone can have sleep apnea. It is estimated that at least 12–18 million American adults have sleep apnea, making it as common as asthma. More than one-half of the people who have sleep apnea are overweight. Sleep apnea is more common in men. More than 1 in 25 middle-aged men and 1 in 50 middle-aged women have sleep apnea along with extreme daytime sleepiness. About 3 percent of children and 10 percent or more of people over age 65 have sleep apnea. This condition occurs more frequently in African Americans, Asians, Native Americans, and Hispanics than in Caucasians. More than one-half of all people who have sleep apnea are not diagnosed. People who have sleep apnea generally are not aware that their breathing stops in the night. They just notice that they don’t feel well rested when they wake up and are sleepy throughout the day. Their bed partners are likely to notice, however, that they snore loudly and frequently and that they often stop breathing briefly while sleeping. Doctors suspect sleep apnea if these symptoms are present, but the diagnosis must be confirmed with overnight sleep monitoring. This monitoring will reveal pauses in breathing, frequent sleep arousals (changes from sleep to wakefulness), and intermittent drops in levels of oxygen in the blood. Like adults who have sleep apnea, children who have this disorder usually snore loudly, snort or gasp, and have brief pauses in breath ing while sleeping. Small children often have enlarged tonsils and adenoids that increase their risk for sleep apnea. But doctors may not suspect sleep apnea in children because, instead of showing the typical signs of sleepiness during the day, these children often become agitated and may be considered hyperactive. The effects of sleep apnea in children may include poor school performance and difficult, aggressive behavior. A number of factors can make a person susceptible to sleep apnea. These factors include: Throat muscles and tongue that relax more than normal while asleep Enlarged tonsils and adenoids Being overweight—the excess fat tissue around your neck makes it harder to keep the throat area open Head and neck shape that creates a somewhat smaller airway size in the mouth and throat area Congestion, due to allergies, that also can narrow the airway Family history of sleep apnea If your doctor suspects that you have sleep apnea, you may be referred to a sleep specialist. Some of the ways to help diagnose sleep apnea include: A medical history that includes asking you and your family questions about how you sleep and how you function during the day. Checking your mouth, nose, and throat for extra or large tissues—for example, checking the tonsils, uvula (the tissue that hangs from the middle of the back of the mouth), and soft palate (the roof of your mouth in the back of your throat). An overnight recording of what happens with your breathing during sleep (polysomnogram, or PSG). A multiple sleep latency test (MSLT), usually done in a sleep center, to see how quickly you fall asleep at times when you would normally be awake. (Falling asleep in only a few minutes usually means that you are very sleepy during the day. Being very sleepy during the day can be a sign of sleep apnea. Once all the tests are completed, the sleep specialist will review the results and work with you and your family to develop a treatment plan. Changes in daily activities or habits may help reduce your symptoms: Sleep on your side instead of on your back. Sleeping on your side will help reduce the amount of upper airway collapse during sleep. Avoid alcohol, smoking, sleeping pills, herbal supplements, and any other medications that make you sleepy. They make it harder for your airways to stay open while you sleep, and sedatives can make the breathing pauses longer and more severe. Tobacco smoke irritates the airways and can help trigger the intermittent collapse of the upper airway. Lose weight if you are overweight. Even a little weight loss can sometimes improve symptoms. These changes may be all that are needed to treat mild sleep apnea. However, if you have moderate or severe sleep apnea, you will need additional, more direct treatment approaches. Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the most effective treatment for sleep apnea in adults. A CPAP machine uses mild air pressure to keep your airways open while you sleep. The machine delivers air to your airways through a specially designed nasal mask. The mask does not breathe for you; the flow of air creates increased pressure to keep the airways in your nose and mouth more open while you sleep. The air pressure is adjusted so that it is just enough to stop your airways from briefly becoming too small during sleep. The pressure is constant and continuous. Sleep apnea will return if CPAP is stopped or if it is used incorrectly. People who have severe sleep apnea symptoms generally feel much better once they begin treatment with CPAP. CPAP treatment can cause side effects in some people. Possible side effects include dry or stuffy nose, irritation of the skin on the face, bloating of the stom ach, sore eyes, or headaches. If you have trouble with CPAP side effects, work with your sleep specialist and support staff. Together, you can do things to reduce or eliminate these problems. Currently, no medications cure sleep apnea. However, some prescription medications may help relieve the excessive sleepiness that sometimes persists even with CPAP treatment of sleep apnea. Another treatment approach that may help some people is the use of a mouthpiece (oral or dental appliance). If you have mild sleep apnea or do not have sleep apnea but snore very loudly, your doctor or dentist also may recommend this. A custom-fitted plastic mouth piece will be made by a dentist or an orthodontist (a specialist in correcting teeth or jaw problems). The mouthpiece will adjust your lower jaw and tongue to help keep the airway in your throat more open while you are sleeping. Air can then flow more easily into your lungs because there is less resistance to breathing. Following up with the dentist or orthodontist is important to correct any side effects and to be sure that your mouthpiece continues to fit properly. It is also important to have a followup sleep study to see whether your sleep apnea has improved. Some people who have sleep apnea may benefit from surgery; this depends on the findings of the evaluation by the sleep specialist. Removing tonsils and adenoids that are blocking the airway is done frequently, especially in children. Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) is a surgery for adults that removes the tonsils, uvula, and part of the soft palate. Tracheostomy is a surgery used rarely and only in severe sleep apnea when no other treatments have been successful. A small hole is made in the windpipe, and a tube is inserted. Air will flow through the tube and into the lungs, bypass ing the obstruction in the upper airway.

Do not include any information outside of the article provided. Write you answer as a single, complete sentence.

What percentage of individuals globally report being aware of their chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection?

**Innovations in Hepatitis C Screening and Treatment** Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major public health threat worldwide, with approximately 71 million people living with chronic infection.( 1 , 2 ) The approval of direct‐acting antivirals (DAAs) starting in 2014 revolutionized treatment and allows nearly all patients to be cured.( 3 ) The number of individuals initiating HCV treatment has increased from approximately 500,000 in 2014 to over 2 million in 2017.( 4 ) In 2016, the World Health Organization called for HCV to be eliminated as a global public health threat by 2030, setting a goal of reducing new infections by 90%, treating 80% of chronic infections, and reducing mortality by 65%.( 5 ) However, few countries are on track to reaching these HCV elimination targets. Globally, only 19% of chronically infected individuals report being aware of their infection, and 15.3% had been treated with DAAs by the end of 2017.( 1 ) In the United States, HCV remains the most common bloodborne infection, affecting 2 million people,( 2 ) and in 2016, more than half of individuals reported being unaware of their infection.( 6 ) HCV‐related mortality continues to rise, surpassing the combined total of 60 other nationally notifiable infectious conditions, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).( 2 , 7 , 8 , 9 ) The United States Preventive Services Task Force, the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD), the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recently updated their guidelines to recommend universal HCV testing among adults.( 10 , 11 ) The 2020 standard of HCV care has evolved toward universal screening and treatment.( 12 ) However, there is currently a considerable drop‐off between each step of the HCV “cascade to cure,” from screening, diagnosis, evaluation, treatment, cure, prevention of reinfection, and care for cirrhosis (Fig. 1).( 13 ) Low rates of diagnosis result in even lower rates of treatment and ultimately cure. Innovation can help address major barriers in these steps to move us toward HCV elimination (Fig. 2). In this review, we focus on a combination of barriers at the system, provider, and patient level, with an emphasis on how system‐level and provider‐level enhancements are critical in overcoming what have traditionally been deemed patient‐level barriers. Since the interferon era, there has been focus on persons living with HCV in silos, some with blame and consequently stigma for their behaviors, when it is system‐level and provider‐level policies and practices that have presented as barriers that need to be addressed. Implementing interventions tailored toward “hardly reached” populations, the micro‐elimination approach, is a key strategy for achieving HCV elimination.( 14 , 15 ) They complement population‐level macro‐elimination programs. Herein, we highlight interventions that address the HCV cascade to cure in hardly reached populations, including (1) persons who inject drugs (PWIDs) and persons who are marginally housed; (2) correctional populations; and (3) women who are pregnant (Table 1). We hope readers can conceptualize members of these groups as being underserved by traditional engagement efforts, rather than as people with inherent qualities that make them challenging to engage and treat. We also discuss broader efforts to use innovation to eliminate HCV across health systems and countries. The interventions in this review specifically improve screening, case finding, linkage to care (broadly defined as strategies that lead to access to HCV care), treatment delivery and/or adherence, and cure.

{query} ======= What percentage of individuals globally report being aware of their chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection? ================ {text} ======= **Innovations in Hepatitis C Screening and Treatment** Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major public health threat worldwide, with approximately 71 million people living with chronic infection.( 1 , 2 ) The approval of direct‐acting antivirals (DAAs) starting in 2014 revolutionized treatment and allows nearly all patients to be cured.( 3 ) The number of individuals initiating HCV treatment has increased from approximately 500,000 in 2014 to over 2 million in 2017.( 4 ) In 2016, the World Health Organization called for HCV to be eliminated as a global public health threat by 2030, setting a goal of reducing new infections by 90%, treating 80% of chronic infections, and reducing mortality by 65%.( 5 ) However, few countries are on track to reaching these HCV elimination targets. Globally, only 19% of chronically infected individuals report being aware of their infection, and 15.3% had been treated with DAAs by the end of 2017.( 1 ) In the United States, HCV remains the most common bloodborne infection, affecting 2 million people,( 2 ) and in 2016, more than half of individuals reported being unaware of their infection.( 6 ) HCV‐related mortality continues to rise, surpassing the combined total of 60 other nationally notifiable infectious conditions, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).( 2 , 7 , 8 , 9 ) The United States Preventive Services Task Force, the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD), the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recently updated their guidelines to recommend universal HCV testing among adults.( 10 , 11 ) The 2020 standard of HCV care has evolved toward universal screening and treatment.( 12 ) However, there is currently a considerable drop‐off between each step of the HCV “cascade to cure,” from screening, diagnosis, evaluation, treatment, cure, prevention of reinfection, and care for cirrhosis (Fig. 1).( 13 ) Low rates of diagnosis result in even lower rates of treatment and ultimately cure. Innovation can help address major barriers in these steps to move us toward HCV elimination (Fig. 2). In this review, we focus on a combination of barriers at the system, provider, and patient level, with an emphasis on how system‐level and provider‐level enhancements are critical in overcoming what have traditionally been deemed patient‐level barriers. Since the interferon era, there has been focus on persons living with HCV in silos, some with blame and consequently stigma for their behaviors, when it is system‐level and provider‐level policies and practices that have presented as barriers that need to be addressed. Implementing interventions tailored toward “hardly reached” populations, the micro‐elimination approach, is a key strategy for achieving HCV elimination.( 14 , 15 ) They complement population‐level macro‐elimination programs. Herein, we highlight interventions that address the HCV cascade to cure in hardly reached populations, including (1) persons who inject drugs (PWIDs) and persons who are marginally housed; (2) correctional populations; and (3) women who are pregnant (Table 1). We hope readers can conceptualize members of these groups as being underserved by traditional engagement efforts, rather than as people with inherent qualities that make them challenging to engage and treat. We also discuss broader efforts to use innovation to eliminate HCV across health systems and countries. The interventions in this review specifically improve screening, case finding, linkage to care (broadly defined as strategies that lead to access to HCV care), treatment delivery and/or adherence, and cure. ================ {task} ======= Do not include any information outside of the article provided. Write you answer as a single, complete sentence.